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Introduction to Data Interpretation

Data and Data Interpretation
Data is the collection of several informations. These data are represented in number of organised format (like tabular format, graphical format etc.), so that we can conclude any particular information from them very easily. The process of deriving conclusion or inferences from the information given in an organised format of data is called Data Interpretation.
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Basically data interpretation is an extension of mathematical skills and accuracy. The problems in data interpretation is based on three basic arithmetic techniques i.e., (i)Percentage (ii) Ratio (iii) Average

Following the above three techniques questions are asked regarding (i) Maximum and minimum values (ii) Average value (iii) Percentage (iv) Maximum and minimum ratios of any two parameters (v) Maximum and minimum rates of increase or decrease (vi) Items showing irregularities

Percentage Equivalent of Important Fractions

1 1 =6 % 16 4 1 1 =8 % 12 3 1 1 =9 % 11 11 1 = 10% 10 1 1 = 11 % 9 9 1 = 20% 5 1 = 25% 4 1 1 = 33 % 3 3 1 1 = 12 % 8 2 2 = 40% 5 3 = 60% 5 2 2 = 66 % 3 3 5 1 = 62 % 8 2 3 = 75% 4 4 = 80% 5

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1 1 = 12 % 8 2 1 2 = 14 % 7 7 1 2 = 16 % 6 3

9 = 45% 20 1 = 50% 2 11 = 55% 20

7 1 = 87 % 8 2 9 = 90% 10 1 = 100%

Before starting any shortcuts or calculation techniques candidates are suggested that level of difficulty of questions of data interpretation mainly depends on the range of its options. i.e., If values given in different options are close/s to each other, then it requires more time and more accuracy in solving the problems. On the other hand if there are wide gap /gaps among the values provided as different options of a problem, then it is easier to solve such type of the problems and in such type of the problems, we generally use approximation rather to find the exact answer. Again, range of approximation also depends on the range of options provided in a given problem.

Illustration 1 The data pertaining to the production of motorbikes in India is represented in the
following table.
Year 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 Pulsar 420198 340692 584605 705642 843456 CBZ 347925 128724 396254 570264 625704 Yamaha 226495 273205 446576 501254 562398 Total 994618 742621 1427435 1777160 2031558

Find the contribution of CBZ in terms of percentage of the total production in 2004-05 year. Example of very close options to each other (a) 17.35 (b) 17.34 Example of close options to each other (a) 17.20 (b) 17.34 Example of options having gap (a) 16.29 (b) 17.34 Example of options having wide gap (a) 14.27 (b) 17.34 (c) 17.33 (c) 17.69 (c) 15.42 (c) 24.12 (d) 17.32 (d) 17.84 (d) 18.14 (d) 23.69

Solution From the above examples, it is clear that for a single problem we have four levels of difficulty. It depends on the range of the given options. So, candidates are suggested that before solving the problem, take a glance of all options and then decide the level of difficulty, level of accuracy and level of approximation.

Calculation of Percentage (By Shortcut Method)

Illustration 2 Find 79% of 429. Solution 79% = 80% 1%
80% = 4 / 5 i.e., 4 / 5 429 = 4 85.8 = 343.2 1% = 4.29 Required 79% 343.2 4.29 339

Illustration 3 Find 361% of 2345. Solution 361% = (300 + 50 + 10 + 1)%

300% = 3 2345 = 7035 50% = 1/2 2345 = 1172 .5

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10% = 1/10 2345 = 234.5 1% = 1/100 2345 = 23.45 Required 361% 8465

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should have good command in finding the values. But again you are suggested here take a glance of all options vary to find the answer. It is not required to take all the digits. For getting the approve answer take atleast one, two or three digits/digit from highest priority. i.e., If you get a number having four, five or more digits, then take only one, two or three digits/digit from left side. In the above example, we have to find 3245 is what per cent of 7954? When we take only first digit of 7954 i.e., 7, then we can conclude that our value will lie between 40% to 50%, because 7 4 = 28 and 7 5 = 35 and the first two digits of the given number i.e., 32 lies within this range. But, if we have close options and we required to find the more closure values, then we required to take two digits from the left side i.e., 10% of 79 is 7.9, so when we are comparing 32, then we can conclude that it will be approximately equal to 40%.

Illustration 4 How much per cent of 7954 is 3245 ? Solution To solve this types of problems, candidates

Illustration 5 How much per cent of 1795645 is 64598 ? Solution When we take first two digits of each number, then we can conclude that our values will lie between
30% to 40%, because 17 3 = 51, 17 4 = 68 and 64 lies between 51 and 68. Again, if we take first three digits of each number, then we can conclude that our answer will be approximately equal to 35% as 179 180 35 180(30 + 5) 540 + 90 630 which is close to 645.

Interpretation of Data Involving the Percentage

Rule 1 To find by how much per cent x is more or less than y or over y or compared to y.
Required percentage = = value of x value of y 100 value of y value of y value of x 100 value of y [When x > y ] [When x < y ]

The denominator part contains the value with which the comparison is made.

Rule 2 To find the percentage change in any value in year x compared to that value in year y (or over year y).
Required percentage change (c) = value (year x ) value (year y ) value (year y )

If c is +ve, then there is percentage increase in the value in year x over year y (or percentage growth) and if c is ve, then there is percentage decrease (or percentage decline) or negative growth.

Rule 3 To find the original value, if the value after its x % increase or decrease is known.
Original value = value after x % increase or decrease (+ ve x for x % increase and ve x for x % decrease) x 1 100

Illustration 6 Solution

The production of wheat in year 2008 is 7695 million kg which is 35% less than that in year 2007. Find the production of wheat in year 2007.

In year 2008 the production of wheat is 7695 million kg which is 35% less than that in year 2007. 7695 7695 Then, production of wheat in year 2007 = = = 11838.4 million kg 35 0. 65 1 100

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Rule 4 To find which of the fractional values obtained from the data is beyond or within x% limit as specified. Case 1 When percentage limit < 25.
Step 1 Step 2 Multiply each fraction by 100. Divide and only find the integer part.

Step 3 Check the integer for which fraction is more or less than x. [Neglect the fraction which is exactly equal to x and has no decimal part.]

Illustration 7 Find in how many countries the production of car has increased by less than 5% in year
2008 over last year.
Country India USA China Japan Italy Figure in 000 tonne 2007 700 900 1760 1500 1160 2008 760 940 1860 1580 1218

Solution
Step 1
India

Increase in production in year 2008 over last year 2007.

USA 40 100 900

China 100 100 1760

Japan 80 100 1500

Italy 58 100 1160

60 100 700

Step 2

8 4 5 5 5 Hence, only in one country (i.e., USA), the production has increased by less than 5%. Similarly, there are three countries India, China and Japan, whose production in year 2008 has increased by more than 5% over year 2007s production. When percentage limit > 25.

Case 2

Sub Case 1 For increase Step 1 Divide the value (in any year) by the value (in previous year). Step 2 Check if the result of division is more or less than 1 +

x , where x is the specified percentage limit. 100

Illustration 8 Find in how many years the production of rice has increased by more than 30% over the production in previous year.
Year Production in million tonne 2004 424 2005 600 2006 734 2007 846 2008 972

In this case,

30 x 1 + = 1 + = 1.3 100 100

600 424 734 600 846 734 972 846

Solution Step 1

Step 2 1.4 1.2 1.1 1.1 Hence, in year 2005, the production of rice has increased by more than 30%. Sub Case 2 For decrease Step 1 Divide the value (in any year) by the value (in previous year)

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Step 2 Check the result if :

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x It is more than 1 , then there is less than x % decrease. 100

x It is less than 1 , then there is more than x % decrease. 100

Illustration 9 Find in how many years the production of sugar has decreased by more than 30%
over the previous year?
Year Production in million tonne 2004 974 2005 726 2006 524 2007 276 2008 184

x 30 In this case, 1 = 0.70 = 1 100 100 726 524 276 184 Step 1 974 726 524 276 Step 2 0.74 0.72 0.52 0.66 Therefore, in two years (2007 and 2008), the production of sugar has decreased by more than 30% over the production in the previous year.

Solution

Rule 5 Two percentage values cant be compared unless the base values are known. Rule 6 Two percentage values can be compared in terms of percentage values but not in absolute values when
the base values are same although base values are not known.

Ratio
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Ratio is compared by division of the measure of two quantities of the same kind. a (which is clearly a number b without any unit is called the ratio of a and b). It is written as a : b (read as a is to b). The quantities a and b are called terms of the ratio a : b, a is the first term and b is the second term. A ratio can be expressed in several ways, i.e., a : b is equal to ma : mb, since the quotient does not change when we divide (or multiply) the dividend and the divisible by same non-zero number, say m. For example 2 : 3 = 4 : 6 = 20 : 30 = 200 : 300 = 2 m : 3m. In the ratio 2 : 3, the two terms 2 and 3 have no common factors other than 1. The ratio expressed in this form is said to be in the simplest form. Usually a ratio is expressed in the simplest form. If a and b are two quantities of the same kind (a and b 0), then the quotient

Interpretation of Data Involving the Ratio

Rule 1 To evaluate a ratio, say, 7/470 where numerator << denominator, it is always better to reverse it and
divide 470 by 7 (reverse operation) as 470 7 = 67, Remainder = 1 1 So, the given ratio 67 16.35 , where numerator << denominator and also the numerator is a decimal Rule 2 To evaluate a ratio, say, 384 number. It is always better to first approximate it to a closest fraction involving integers only and then apply the reverse operation. 16.35 16 , then divide 384 by 16, results 24. Therefore, 384 384 1 4 4 4 24 96 95 94

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Rule 3 To find the highest and the lowest among the ratios (<1) when numerator << denominator.
Step 1 Apply reverse operation, i.e., straight-aways divide the denominator of the ratio by the numerator to find how many times the denominator is of the numerator. Step 2 Maximum number of times will indicate the lowest ratio and minimum number of times correspond to highest ratio.

Illustration 10 Find the highest and the lowest amongst the following :
14 34 29 41 , , , 340 602 571 741

Solution Step 1

Apply reverse operation. 340 602 571 741 , , , 14 34 29 41 24 17 19 18 [take only integer values] Maximum value Minimum value Lowest ratio Highest ratio

Step 2 Number of times

Rule 4 To find the highest and the lowest among the ratios (<1) when numerator < denominator .
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Approximate the given ratio (if the number of digits in numerator/denominator is more than 2). Multiply the numerator by 10 and get the resultant fraction. Find only integral value of the resultant fraction.

Step 4 If any of the integral value of the resultant fractions are same, then find the next decimal place and so on. Step 5 Compare the value of the resultant fractions. The maximum ratio will have the maximum value.

Illustration 11 Find the highest and the lowest amongst the following.
673 526 850 902 , , , . 727 613 951 998

Solution Step 1
Step 2 Step 3

67 52 85 90 , , , . 72 61 95 99 670 520 850 900 Multiply by 10; . , , , 72 61 95 99 Approximated as

9.3 8.5 8.9 9.0 673 526 Hence, is the highest ratio and is the lowest ratio. 727 613

Rule 5 To find the value which constitutes the maximum part (or portion) or minimum part of the total value.
If a and b are the two values constituting the total value ( = a + b), then is maximum and a is minimum, when ( a b) is minimum. ( a + b) a is maximum, when ( a b) ( a + b)

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Ratio of Equality, Greater Inequality or Lesser Inequality

A ratio is said to be a ratio of equality, greater or lesser inequalities according as first term (also known as antecedent) is equal to or greater than, less than, second term (also known as consequent). In other words, 1. The ratio a : b where a = b is called a ratio of equality. (e.g., 1 : 1 , 2 : 2 etc) 2. The ratio a : b where a > b is called a ratio of greater inequality. ( e.g., 3 : 2, 4 : 3 etc) 3. The ratio a : b where a < b is called a ratio of lesser inequality. (e.g., 3 : 5, 4 : 7 etc) Rule 1 A ratio of equality is unaltered, a ratio of greater inequality is diminished and a ratio of lesser inequality is increased if the same positive quantity is added to both its terms. a Let be the given ratio, x be a positive quantity and x > b. b a+ x a a+ x a a a 1. If = 1, then 2. If > 1, then = =1 < b b b+ x b b+ x b a+ x a a 3. If < 1, then > b+ x b b

Rule 2 A ratio of equality is unaltered, a ratio of greater inequality is increased and a ratio of lesser inequality is
diminished, if same positive quantity is not greater than the smaller term be subtracted from each of its terms. a Let be the given ratio, x be a positive quantity and x < b. b a x a a x a a a 1. If = 1 , then 2. If > 1 , then = =1 > b b b x b b x b a x a a 3. If < 1 , then < b x b b [Here, students are advised that they should try assuming certain values and check the results.]

Average
Average is a very simple but effective way of representing an entire group by a single value. Average of a group is defined as Sum of all items in the group Average = Number of items in the group Sum of all the items in the group means sum of the values of all the items in the group. A batsmans performance can be expressed as the average number of runs scored per innings rather than giving the scores of individual innings. e.g., Let us say M S Dhoni scored the following runs in 9 different innings in a test series 45, 66, 134, 39, 10, 97, 108, 55 and 85. Then, his average score per innings in that particular test series 45 + 66 + 134 + 39 + 10 + 97 + 108 + 55 + 85 = 71 9 Similarly, if there are 50 students in a class, instead of talking of the height of each individual student, we can talk of average height of the class. The average height of the class of students is equal to the sum of the heights of all the students in the class divided by the number of students in the class. Average is also called the mean or mean value of all the values. =

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Method of Calculating Average

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As already discussed, the average of a group of items whose values are given, can be find out by the rules given at the beginning of this section. However, in most of the cases, we do not need to perform such elaborate additions and divisions. The calculation of average can be simplified greatly by taking some arbitrary number (K ) as a starting point, take the deviations (difference) of the given items (Q i ) from this arbitrary number, find the average of all these deviations (Q i K ) and add it to the arbitrary number ( K ) to given the correct average of the given items.
If there are n items and they are denoted by Q1 , Q2, Q3, . . . , Qn, then the average of these n items is given by Average = K + 1 n (Qi K ) n i =1

The extent to which this method will simplify the calculation will depend on the selection of the arbitrary value K. It should be selected in such a way that the positive and negative deviations cancel out each other to the extent possible. Then, the final figure left for division will be relatively small making the division easier. e.g., The score made by M.S. Dhoni in test series (previous example) are following 45, 66, 134, 39, 10, 97, 108, 55 and 85 and now we have to find his average score per innings, we take arbitrary figure say 60 and first find the deviations of each of the scores from this figure. The deviations of the scores from 60 are 15, + 6, + 74, 21, 50, + 37, + 48, 5, + 25 The sum of these deviations = 99 Hence, the average score of M.S. Dhonis scores = 60 + 99 / 9 = 71 Please note that the number (K 60 above) can also be any value. Let us work out the same example taking a different value for K . Let us take K equals to 65. The deviations of the scores from K are 20, + 1, + 69, 26, 55, + 32, + 43, 10, + 20. The sum of these deviations is + 54. Hence, the average of M.S. Dhonis scores = 65 + 54 / 9 = 65 + 6 = 71

Weighted Average
When two groups of items are combined together, then we can talk of the average of the entire group. However, if we know only the average of the two groups individually, we cannot find out the average of the combined group by items. e.g., There are two Sections A and B of a class where the average height of Section A is 150 cm and that of Section B is 160 cm. On the basis of this information we cannot find the average of the entire class (of the two sections together). As discussed earlier, the average height of the entire class is Sum of the total height of the entire class = Total number of students in the entire class
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Since, we do not have any information regarding the number of students in the two sections, we cannot find the average of the entire class. Now, suppose that it is given that there are 60 students in Section A and 40 students in Section B, then we can calculate the average height of the entire class, in this case it is equal to (60 150 + 40 160) /(60 + 40) = 154 cm This average height 154 cm of the entire class is called, weighted average of the class. The above step in calculating the weighted average of the class can be rewritten as below. (60 150 + 40 160) /(60 + 40) = (60 /100) 150 + ( 40 / 100) 160 = (3 / 5) 150 + (2 / 5) 160 It is clear from the above step that we would have been able to calculate the average height of the entire class even, if we had not been given the number of students in the individual sections but only the ratio of the numbers of students in the two sections (in the case 3 : 2). Even if there are more than two groups of items to be combined, then also the weighted average can be calculated by the same method.

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e.g., If three sections in a class have their average marks as 75, 76 and 79 respectively and their respective strengths are 30, 35 and 35, then the average marks of the entire class is given by (30 75 + 35 76 + 35 79) /(30 + 35 + 35) = 76.75 The method of deviations we used for calculating average can be applied to calculate weighted average too. Here that method will involve finding out deviations from the arbitrary chosen number and calculating the weighted average of these deviations. In the above example, if we take 70 as the arbitrary figure, then the deviations of the observed values given from 70 are +5, +6 and +9. The weighted average of these deviations is 675 (30 5 + 35 6 + 35 9) /(30 + 35 + 35) = = 6.75 100 Hence, the weighted average = 70 + 6.75 = 76.75 Hence, arbitrary figure chosen can be any figure and if it is selected, as in the previous case, between the smallest and largest observed figures, some of the deviations will be positive and some negative making the final division relatively simpler. e.g., In the above case, if we take 76 as the arbitrary figure, the deviations are 1, 0 and + 3. Then, the weighted average will be 75 [30 ( 1) + 35 0 + 35 3]/(30 + 35 + 35) = = 0.75 100 Hence, the weighted average = 76 + 0.75 = 76.75

Interpretation of Data involving the Average

Rule 1 If the value of each item is increased by the same value k , then the average of the group of items will also Rule 2 Rule 3 Rule 4 Rule 5 Rule 6
increase by k. If the value of each item is decreased by the same value k, then the average of the group of items will also decrease by k. If the value of each item is multiplied by the same value k , then the average of the group of items will also be multiplied by k . If the value of each item is divided by the same value k (k 0), then the average of the group of items will also be divided by k . The average of a group of items will always lie between smaller value and largest value in the group i.e., the average will be greater than the smallest value and lesser than the largest value in the group. To find the average percentage change involve of a parameter during a given period of time. Percentage change during the given period Average percentage change during the period = Number of years (or months) or number of entries

Illustration 12 Find the average annual percentage increase in number of bikes over the period
2004 to 2008?
Year Number of bikes 2004 400 2005 500 2006 760 2007 940 2008 1100

Solution

Percentage increase (or change) in number of bikes during 2004-08 = (1100 400)/ 400 100 = 175% Average annual percentage increase during 2004-08 = Percentage increase during 2004-08/Number of entries during 2004-08 = 175 / 5% = 35%

Rule 7 To find the value of year (or the entry in a table) which is close to the average value of given period.
Step 1 Find the average value of the given period. Step 2 Find the difference = Any value (or entry) Average value Minimum the difference, closer the value to average.

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Step 3 If the difference is same for any two different values (or entries), then find the percentage Difference deviation over the average i.e., 100 Average Since, difference is same, so more the average, less the percentage deviation, closer the value to the average.

Representation of Data
The raw data collected in any investigation is so voluminous that they are unwieldy and incomprehensible. Having collected and edited the data, the next step is to organize them in a condensed form that will highlight the main characteristics, facilitate comparisons and render them suitable for further processing and interpretation. Top civil servants rarely find time to go through the entire details of any report, be it daily production or the sales forecast. An effective presentation of data enables them to draw upon the information with the least effort and time. Effective presentation of data is broadly classified into the following categories. (i) Numerical data tables It is the easiest way of presenting data but it does not show trends effectively. It is easy to spot trends in the given data, through it is difficult to read the actual

(ii) Line graph or X-Y charts values.

(iii) Bar graphs The data is shown in blocks and direct comparison of actual values is very easy. (iv) Pie-charts Data that is expressed as percentage, is best represented in pie-charts. (v) Caselet form It is the most difficult and raw form for data interpretation, also known as case studies.

Introduction to Numerical Data Tables

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Data collected in a systematic form in a table are called tabular arrangement and this collection of information is called Table. Tables are often used for reports, magazines and newspapers to present a set of numerical facts. They enable the reader to make comparisons and to draw quick conclusions. It is one of the easiest and most accurate way of presenting data. They require much closer reading than graphs or charts and hence are difficult and time consuming to interpret. One of the main purpose of tables is to make complicated information easier to understand. The advantage of presenting data in a table is that one can see the information at a glance. While answering questions based on tables, carefully read the table title and the column headings. The title of the table will give you a general idea of the type and often the purpose of the information presented. The column headings tell you the specific kind of information given in that column. Both the table title and the column headings are usually very straight-forward.

Illustration 13 The data pertaining to the production of motorbikes in India is represented in the
following table.
Production of Motorbikes In India
Year 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 Pulsar 531972 614624 655519 722791 1014784 CBZ 291419 318926 329255 350844 798976 Freedom 338577 334583 395970 359287 510924 Total 1161968 1268133 1380744 1432922 2324684

The above table pertains to the data on the productions of motorbikes, yearwise from 2000-01 to 2004-05. Further the table also divides the production of motorbikes by categories viz. Pulsar, CBZ and Freedom. Thus, it is possible to get a picture of the production of different types of motorbikes in India over a Span of five years.

Solution

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The above table can be subjected to the following interpretations : G Contribution of each type of motorbikes towards the total, in a given year or for that matter successive years. e.g., The contribution of CBZ in terms of the percentage of the total production in 2002-03 Production of CBZ 329255 = 100 23% 100 = Total production of motorbikes in India 1380744
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Rate of growth in each type of motorbikes, at the same time growth rate of the total sector over the successive years. e.g., The growth of Freedom motorbikes in India from 2001-02 to 2002-03 Production of Freedom in 2002 - 03 Production of Freedom in the year 2001 - 02 = 100 Production of Freedom in the year 2001 - 02 395970 334583 61387 = 100 = 100 = 18% 334583 334583 Given the installed capacity, one can deduce the capacity of utilization. e.g., If the installed capacity of the motorbikes was 2000000 in the year 2003-04, then the capacity of utilization 1432922 in the year 2003-04 = 100 71.6% 2000000 The trends of growth over the years for each type of motorbikes and total production of motorbikes. It can be observed from the table that production of Pulsar has shown a continuous increasing trends from 2000-01 to 2004-05. Even the production of CBZ and total motorbikes production show the same trends, whereas production of Freedom has shown decreasing trends in 2001-02, increasing in 2002-03, again decreasing in 2003-04 and again increasing in 2004-05.

Illustration 14 The following table shows the time table of a train.

Railway Time Table : Gitanjali Express
City Mumbai Igatpuri Nasik Bhusaval Akola Nagpur Durga Jamshedpur Kolkata Arrival time (in hours) 11 : 00 14 : 50 17 : 10 22 : 40 00 : 05 01 : 00 04 : 15 06 : 25 Departure time (in hours) 09 : 00 11 : 02 14 : 55 17 : 12 22 : 45 00 : 15 1 : 02 04 : 28 Cumulative distance (in km) 0 80 281 391 730 800 845 995 1100

Solution The given table is also a type of data representation but is in the time table form. However, very interesting information can be interpreted from the above table. One can obtain
The average speed between the stations. The average speed of the train between the stations = Distance covered Time taken (in hours)

e.g., The average speed of the train between Mumbai and Igatpuri 80 0 80 km (approx) = 40 km/h = = 11 : 02 09 : 00 2 h Similarly, the average speed between the other stations, for parts of the journey as well as the complete journey can be calculated. The relative distance between the stations and the relative waiting time. The fraction of waiting time in the total travel time.

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