MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS

1. ABILITY: CAN AND COULD

1. Present and future. * Can is usually used to talk bout the present, or about 'general ability' - the ability to do something any time you want to. Look! I can do it! I can do it! You can certainly cook, even if you can't do anything else. Note that the only possible uncontracted negative o can is cannot (can not is not correct). * To talk about future ability, will be able to is normally used. I'll be able to speak German in another few months. One day people will be able to run a kilometre in two minutes. If I have a good sleep, I'll be able to work out the problem. But can is often possible when people make present decisions about future ability. We're too busy today, but we can repair your car tomorrow. We can talk about that later. Can you come to a party on Saturday? 2. Past.* Could is used for 'general ability', to say that you could do something any time you wanted to. She could sing like an angel when she was a kid. My father could speak ten languages. * Could is not used to talk about particular ability (to do something on one occasion) in the past. Instead, we use was able to, managed to, or succeeded in. How many eggs were you able to get. I managed to get 10% off the price. After six hours' climbing, we succeeded in reaching the top of the mountain. Compare the following two sentences: He was a terrific liar: he could make anybody believe him.(General ability - could is correct.) I talked for a long time, and in the end I managed to make her believe me. (One particular action - could is impossible here). * Note that the negative couldn't is used for both general and particular ability. When I was younger I couldn't decide what I wanted to do. Simon was so drunk that he couldn't find the front door.

2. POSSIBILITY: CAN AND COULD, MAY AND MIGHT

Two different types of possibility must be distinguished: a) It's possible to feed everyone if we share the world's resources. b) It is possible that he will not arrive in time for the auction

a) Theoretical possibility: in the first example, we are saying that something can be done, but we are not talking about the chances that it will happen. In this type of sentences can is normally used: everyone can be fed if we share the world's resources. b) Factual possibility: in the second example there is suggestion that somebody will not perhaps arrive in time: we are talking about the chances of something actually happening, or being true. In this case may, might or could are normally used: he may (might, could) not arrive in time. 1. Theoretical possibility.* Can is used to say that events and situations are possible (without talking about the chances of them actually happening). Anybody who wants to can become a volunteer. How many elephants can fit into a mini? This door can be closed. (= it is possible to close this door) Sentences with can often give information about the characteristic behaviour of people of things. Scotland can be very warm in September. Gold can't be dissolved in hydrochloric acid. To talk about the past could is used. My grandmother could be very unpleasant at times. 2. Factual possibility.a. Future possibility. We don't use can to say that there is a chance that something will happen. Instead, we usually use may or might (without any significant difference in meaning in modern English). We may go climbing this summer. He might fail his driving test. I think he hasn't had enough practice. The door might be closed (=it is possible that the door is closed) Could is used to give the idea that something is just possible, but not particularly likely. We could go climbing this summer, but I doubt if we'll have time. It could rain later on this evening. b. Present possibility. May, might and could are also used to say that something is possibly true at the moment of speaking. You may be right. You could be right, but I don't think you are. This might be your big chance. 3. May and might with the perfect infinitive.Both may and might can be used with perfect infinitives to talk about the possibility that past events happened. 'Polly's very late.' - 'She may have missed her train.' 'What do you think that noise was?' 'It might have been a cat. Might can also be used in this structure to say that a past event was possible, but didn't happen. You were stupid to try climbing up there. You might have killed yourself. 4. Can and could with the perfect infinitive.* Can and could are both used with the perfect infinitive for speculating or guessing about the past. Can is only used in questions and negative sentences. Where can she have gone?

She can't have gone to school - It's Saturday. She could have gone off with some friends. (Not She can have gone...) * Could with the perfect infinitive is also used (as might was) to talk about an unrealized past possibility: something that was possible but didn't happen. You were stupid to go skiing there - you could have broken your leg. It wasn't a good idea to throw the TV out of the window - it could have hit somebody. This structure can be used to criticize people for not doing things. You could have told me you had invited people to dinner. (=Why didn't you tell me ...?) * To say that something was not a possibility, we say it couldn't have happened. My parents wanted me to be a doctor, but I couldn't have put up with all those years of study.

3. PERMISSION: CAN AND COULD, MAY AND MIGHT

1. Asking for permission.* Can, could, may and might are all used in asking for permission. Can is probably the commonest of the four. Can I have a drop more whisky? * Could is rather more hesitant that can, and is used when you are not sure that you will get permission (or when you don't want to sound too sure). Could I ask you something, if you're not too busy?. * May and might are used in a more formal style; they often suggest respect. Might is more hesitant, and is not very common. May I make a suggestion? May I stop work a little earlier tonight. Might I take the liberty of pointing out that you have made a small mistake? Note that, in asking for permission, could and might are not past tenses; all four words refer to the future. 2. Giving permission. When we give permission, we use can and may, but not could or might. 'Could I use your phone?' - 'Yes, of course you can.' 'Might I trouble you for a light?' - 'You may indeed.' 3. Past permission.In the past, could is used to say that one was allowed to do something at any time ('general permission'). When I lived at home, I could watch TV whenever I wanted to. But we don't use could to talk about permission for one particular action in the past. I was allowed to see her yesterday evening. He had permission to go out for an hour.

4. OFFERS, INVITATIONS, REQUESTS AND COMMANDS: CAN AND COULD, WILL AND WOULD, SHALL
*Can and could are often used to offer to do things for people, and to ask other people to do things. Could is more 'hesitant', less definite, than can , and it is used when we want to make an offer or a request seem more polite or respectful. Statements and questions are both common. *Invitations can be expressed by will you? would you? or would you like? * Requests can be expressed by will you? would you?. They can also be used without infinitives, placed after an imperative. Come here, will you? Shut the door, would you? But this is not very polite except when used between people who know each other very well. * Commands can be expressed by will in the affirmative. This is a formal, impersonal type of command. It implies the speaker's confidence that the order will be obeyed and is therefore much used in schools and in military etc. establishments. * Requests for orders or advice, offers, suggestions can be expressed by shall I? shall we? a) Offers I can lend you a pound till Wednesday, if that will help. I could do the shopping for you, if you're tired. Can I carry your bag? Could I give you dinner one of these days. In questions, may is also possible. May I buy you a drink? b) Invitations Will you have a drink? Would you like a drink? Will you come to lunch tomorrow? c) Requests and commands You can start by doing the washing up, and then you can clean the car. Celia can do the shopping, and I'll do the cooking. Harold can do the washing-up. You could phone Alice and see what time she's coming. Can you come here a minute, please? Could you help me with this letter? You might is possible instead of you could. You might see if John's free this evening. Will you type this letter, please? Will you give him this letter? Will anyone who saw the accident please telephone the nearest police station? (radio announcement) Would you show me the way to the station? Would you open the window, please? 'You will stay here till you are relieved,' said the officer. All boys will attend roll-call at 9 o'clock (school notice). How shall I cook it? Where shall I put this?

Which one shall I buy? Shall I wait for you? Shall I help you to pack? Shall we meet at the theatre?

5. OBLIGATION: MUST, HAVE TO AND NEEDN'T

* Must can be used to give strong advice or order, to oneself or other people. I really must stop smoking. You must be here by 8 o'clock at the latest. * Generally, when must is used, the obligation comes from the speaker (as in the two examples above). If we talk about or report an obligation that comes from 'outside' (a regulation or an order from somebody else, for example) must is possible, but have to is more common. You must clean your own boots (these are my orders). You will have to clean your own boots when you join the army (the army will oblige you to do it). That boy has to practice the piano every day (his parents insist). Mr Pitt has to work very hard (circumstances make this necessary).

If the speaker adds his support or approval to the existing external authority he may use must. Children must obey their parents (the speaker approves). Children have to obey their parents (the speaker merely states the fact). Note that have is used here as an ordinary verb, so we must use auxiliary do in the interrogative and negative. Do you have to carry that heavy briefcase every day? You don't have to come tomorrow. Have got is widely used nowadays instead of have to. I've got to finish this report for tomorrow. Have you got to read all these books? * In negative sentences, don't need to, needn't or don't have to are used to say that there is no obligation; mustn't is used to tell people not to do things. Compare: You needn't work tomorrow if you don't want to (absence of obligation). You mustn't move any of the papers on my desk (prohibition). You don't have to bring your textbooks tomorrow (absence of obligation). You mustn't open your textbooks during the exam (prohibition). Peter doesn't need to pay for his lunch. He gets his meals free (absence of obligation). You mustn't leave the restaurant without paying (prohibition). * In the past the distinction between the speaker's authority and external authority disappears. a) We use had to to express obligation. I had to study pretty hard for my final exams. b) We use didn't have to, didn't need to and hadn't got to to express absence of obligation. I put in a claim and didn't have to pay that fine. You didn't need to bring a present for my birthday. c) Prohibition is expressed with wasn't/weren't to, wasn't/weren't allowed to or expressions with similar meaning. You were not to arrive later than ten yesterday evening, so I must punish you.

Many Russians were not allowed to leave the USSR until "perestroika" arrived. * In the future, however, the difference between the speaker's authority and external authority persists. We use must for the first, and will have to for the second. You must hand in your essays before Friday. He will have to return the loan within the next two months.

6. DEDUCTION: MUST, CAN AND CAN'T

* Must can be used to say that we are sure about something (because it is logically necessary). Mary must have some problem: she keeps crying. I'm in love.' - 'That must be nice.' There's the doorbell. It must be Roger. * Must is only used in this way in affirmative sentences. In questions and negatives, we use can and can't instead. That can't be the postman - it's only seven o'clock. What do you think this letter can mean? * Must is used with the perfect infinitive for deductions about the past (can and can't in questions and negatives). 'We went to Majorca.' - 'That must have been nice.' 'The lights have gone out.' - 'A fuse must have blown.'

7. ADVICE AND DUTY: SHOULD, OUGHT TO AND HAD BETTER.

* Should and ought to have very similar meanings. They are used to express obligation and duty, to give advice, and in general to say what we think it is right or good for people to do. You ought to/should go and see 'Jurassic Park' - it's a great film. You should have seen his face! People ought to vote even if they don't agree with any of the candidates. * Should and ought to can also be used to talk about strong probability. I've bought thirty pints of beer - that ought to be enough. That should be Janet coming upstairs now. * A fairly common alternative to the should/ought to constructions in the sense of advice or recommendation is the expression had better followed by the infinitive without to. The meaning is present or future, not past. When we say that somebody had better do something, we don't usually mean that the action recommended would be better than another one - we simply mean that he ought to do it. (In other words, there is not usually an idea of comparison in this expression, despite the use of the word better). Good heavens - it's seven o'clock! I'd better put the meat in the oven. You'd better hurry up if you want to get home before dark. In negative structures, better comes before not (we don't say hadn't better). You'd better not wake me up when you come in. 'Let's take Harry's car.' 'No, we'd better not.' * To talk about things which did not happen, although they were supposed to, we use should and ought to with the perfect infinitive, or the was to construction. The taxi should/ought to have arrived at 8.30... The taxi was to arrive/have arrived at 8.30...