Course

Electrical Circuits Theory I

1. GENERAL CONCEPTS
1.1 System of Units
The system of units employed is the international system whi h is normally referred to as the S! standard system. This system" whi h is omposed of the #asi units meter $m% kilogram $kg% second $s% mole $mol% ampere $A% degree kelvin $K% candela $cd%" is defined in all modern physi s te&t#oo's and therefore will not #e defined here. (owe)er" we will dis uss the units as we en ounter them. The standard prefi&es that are employed in S! are shown in the ne&t fi*ure. Note the de imal relationship #etween these prefi&es. These standard prefi&es are employed throu*hout our study of ele tri ir uits.

1+

,1-

1+

,1.

1+

,1/

1+

,0

1+

,1

1+

,2

1+

1+

1+

1+

1/

1+

1.

1+

1-

a atto

f femto

p pico

n nano

micro

m mili

k kilo

M mega

G giga

T tera

P peta

E exa

1.2 Basic Quantities

3efore the #e*innin* of ir uit analysis" the terms in)ol)ed must #e defined. An electric circuit is an inter onne tion of ele tri al omponents" ea h of these #ein* des ri#ed throu*h a mathemati al model. The elementary 4uantity in analysis of ele tri ir uits is the ele tri har*e. Sin e har*e in motion results in an ener*y transfer" we are parti ularly interested of those situations in whi h the motion is onfined to a pre ise losed path. An ele tri ir uit is li'e a pipeline that fa ilitates the transfer of har*e from one point to another. The time rate of han*e in har*e means an electric current" e&pressed as

i=

dq 5A6 " dt

and measured in amperes" shortly amps" where

1A =

1C . 1s

Course

Electrical Circuits Theory I

So" urrent flow in a metalli ondu tor results from ele tron motion" and the on)entional urrent flow represents the mo)ement of positi)e har*es $no matter what really happens%. 7or e&ample" in the fi*ure shown #elow !8,2 A indi ates that at any point in the wire 2C of har*e pass from left to ri*ht ea h se ond. Therefore" not only the ma*nitude of the urrent it is important" #ut also its dire tion. 9ost often en ountered types of urrent are alternating current $ac% and direct current $dc%" li'e in household onsumers runnin*" respe ti)ely in #atteries. !n addition to these ommon types" there are a lot of other types" some of these #ein* e&amined later. Let:s re)iew; har*e in motion means urrent" #ut also the motion of har*es yields an ener*y transfer. Therefore" further is defined the voltage #etween two points in a ir uit $usually alled potential% as the differen e in ener*y le)el of a unit of har*e lo ated at ea h of the two points. <olta*e is )ery similar to a *ra)itational for e; if a #awlin* #all $the har*e unit% is dropped from the top into a tan' of water $the ir uit%" the for e of *ra)ity $the )olta*e% pulls it throu*h the water toward the #ottom. The potential ener*y of the #all de reases as it approa hes the #ottom. This happens due to the resistan e shown in the same time #y the water $water shall mean the ir uit elements en ountered on the way%. !n the same way" the motion of the har*e in an ele tri ir uit will #e impeded or resisted as well #y the elements whi h onsume the ener*y of the har*e. <olta*e shall #e noted with letter <" it is measured in )olts" denoted throu*h the same letter" and has a referen e dire tion. <olta*e #etween two points is the ener*y re4uired to mo)e a unit har*e #etween the two points.

v=

dw 5<6 dq

where

1< =

1 = 1N m = 1C 1C

The )alue and dire tion of the )olta*e will show us whi h point is at the hi*her ener*y le)el with respe t to the other. 7or e&ample" in ne&t fi*ure the differen e in potential of points A and 3 is positi)e from A to 3" whi h means that point A is at a hi*her potential to the point 3. !f a unit positi)e har*e is mo)ed from point A to point 3 throu*h the ir uit $no matter the path>>>%" that har*e will *i)e up ener*y to the ir uit and ha)e 2= less ener*y when it rea hes point 3. 3ut" if a unit positi)e har*e is mo)ed from point 3 to point A" 2= ener*y must #e added from the ir uit to that har*e" and hen e the har*e will end up with 2= more ener*y at point A than it started with at point 3.

3V

circuit 3A

circuit 3A

3V

Anyway" a ne*ati)e num#er for a *i)en )aria#le *i)es e&a tly the same information as a positi)e num#er #ut in opposite dire tion. (en e" either urrent or )olta*e" it is a#solutely ne essary to #e spe ified #oth ma*nitude $)alue% and dire tion.

Course

Electrical Circuits Theory I

Energy is another important 4uantity in ir uits. Let:s ta'e the flashli*ht ir uit. The #asi elements of a flashli*ht are a #attery" a swit h" a #ul# and onne tin* wires. !f the swit h is losed" a urrent will flow in the ir uit" whi h means that har*es flow out of the positi)e terminal of the #attery throu*h the swit h and li*ht #ul# and #a ' into the ne*ati)e terminal. Char*es passin* throu*h the #ul# lose ener*y #e ause the #ul# needs ener*y so as to li*ht. The same har*es a 4uire ener*y as they pass throu*h the #attery. An ener*y on)ersion pro ess is o urrin* in the flashli*ht; the hemi al ener*y in the #attery is on)erted to ele tri al ener*y" whi h is then on)erted to thermal ener*y in the #ul#.

battery
+

switch

bulb

Sin e it is 'nown that the #ul# uses ener*y" the har*es omin* out of the #ul# ha)e less ener*y than those enterin* in the #ul#. !n other words" if the har*es e&pend ener*y as they mo)e throu*h the #ul#" the #ul# enterin* point has a hi*her potential than the output one" therefore" the )olta*e a ross the #ul# has a positi)e )alue in this dire tion" from the enterin* point to e&it point. The har*es *ain ener*y as they pass throu*h the #attery" this meanin* that the har*es enterin* point is at a lower potential to the har*es e&it point. Thus" the positi)e )olta*e a ross the #attery has the sense from the e&it point to enterin* one. Now we may point out the followin*; #ul# ? a#sor#s ener*y ? urrent and )olta*e ha)e the same dire tion

#attery ? supply ener*y ? urrent and )olta*e ha)e opposite dire tions This leads us to the on lusion that a onsumer has positi)e )alues for urrent and )olta*e si*nals in the same sense" and an ener*y supplier has positi)e )alues for urrent and )olta*e si*nals in opposite dire tions. The 4uantity that des ri#es the ener*y e& han*e in ir uit is the power. Power is defined as the time rate of han*e of ener*y and is measured in @oules per se ond or watts. Also" power it is o#tained from the produ t #etween urrent and )olta*e.

p(t ) = v(t ) i(t ) =

dw dq dw = 5A6 d q dt dt

where

1A =

1= = 1 < 1 A 1s

At this point an #e summariBed the sign convention for power; #e a ir uit element with urrent si*nals and )olta*e in the same sense" no matter the si*nsC if the si*n of the resultin* power is positi)e" power is #ein* a#sor#ed #y the element" and if the si*n is ne*ati)e" power is #ein* supplied #y the element.

Course

Electrical Circuits Theory I

!t is also important to note that the ele tri al ir uits studied here satisfy the principle of conservation of energy. 7or our purposes this means that in a *i)en ir uit the power supplied is e&a tly the same with the power a#sor#edD onsumed.

1.3 Circuit Elements

!n *eneral" the elements defined here are terminal de)i es that are ompletely hara teriBed #y the relation #etween the urrent throu*h the element and the )olta*e a ross it. These elements will #e employed in onstru tin* ele tri ir uits. The elements are #roadly lassified as #ein* either a ti)e or passi)e. The distin tion depends on one thin*" whether they supply or a#sor# ener*y; an active element is apa#le of *eneratin* ener*y and a passive element annot *enerate ener*y. Ae will see later that some passi)e elements are apa#le of storin* ener*y. Typi al a ti)e elements are batteries and generators" usually denoted as sources. The three ommon passi)e elements are resistors" capacitors and inductors. 7urther" our on ern is to esta#lish mathemati al models of these elements.

1.3.1

Active Elements

As mentioned a#o)e" a ti)e elements are sour es. Generally spea'in* sour es pro)ide ele tri al ener*y" #ut they do that in different manners. Sour es pro)ide a 'ind of si*nal $ urrent or )olta*e% either independently or dependin* on other si*nal. So" we will study here two types of sour es; independent sources and dependent sources.

a) Independent sources
An independent sour e is a two,terminal element that pro)ides a spe ified si*nal" urrent or )olta*e. An independent voltage source maintains a spe ified )olta*e #etween its terminals re*ardless of the urrent throu*h it. !n the ontrast" the independent current source is a two,terminal element that maintains a spe ified urrent re*ardless of the )olta*e a ross its terminals. Their models are represented #elow. element: voltage source
i(t) e(t)

current source
i(t)

symbol:

v(t)

ig(t)

v(t)

operating equation:

v(t ) = e(t ) " $% i(t)

i(t ) = i g (t ) " $% )(t)

Course

Electrical Circuits Theory I

Those ones are ideal sour es #e ause pro)ide no ener*y in spe ial onditions $when )olta*e sour e is loaded #y an open ir uit" and when urrent sour e is loaded #y a short ir uit% and also approa h infinite ener*y in opposite onditions $shorted )olta*e sour e and opened urrent sour e%. Of ourse" these thin*s are physi ally impossi#le. !n their normal mode of operation" independent sour es supply power to the other ir uit elements. (owe)er" they may also #e onne ted into a ir uit in su h a way that they a#sor# power.

) !ependent sources !n ontrast to the independent sour es" whi h produ e a parti ular )olta*e or urrent ompletely unaffe ted #y what is happenin* in the reminder of the ir uit" dependent sour es *enerate a )olta*e or urrent that is determined #y a )olta*e or urrent at a spe ified lo ation in the ir uit. The #eha)ior of more other ele troni ir uit elements is des ri#ed throu*h the models of dependent sour es. The fi*ure #elow illustrates the four types of dependent sour es. 7or ea h sym#ol" the input terminals on the left represent the si*nal $)olta*e or urrent% that ontrols the sour e" and the output terminals on the ri*ht represent the si*nal pro)ided #y the sour e.

element:

voltage controlled voltage source

current controlled voltage source

symbol:

vk

e(t)

v(t)

ik

e(t)

v(t)

operating equation:

v(t ) = e( v k (t )) = k v k (t )

v(t ) = e(i k (t )) = R k i k (t )

element:

voltage controlled current source

current controlled current source

i(t)

i(t) ik ig(t)

symbol:

vk

ig(t)

operating equation:

i(t ) = i g ( v k (t )) = G k v k (t )

i(t ) = i g (i k (t )) = k i k (t )

Course

Electrical Circuits Theory I

1.3.2

"assive Elements

A passi)e omponent may #e either a omponent that onsumes ener*y $#ut does not produ e%" or a omponent that is in apa#le of power *ain $they annot amplify si*nals%. Cir uit desi*ners will sometimes refer to this lass of omponents as dissipati)e. At this point" we will onsider a passi)e element as one that onsumes ener*y" #ut does not produ e ener*y permanently $>>%. Ender this definition" passi)e omponents studied further on are; the resistor" the capacitor" the inductor.

a) #esistor
A resistor is a physi al de)i e whose sym#ol and operatin* law are depi ted in ne&t fi*ure. The resistor parameter is alled resistan e and is measured in ohms 5F6.

element: parameter:

resistor resistan e R 5F6

i(t)

symbol:

v(t)

operating equation:

v(t ) = R i(t )

or

i(t) = G v(t )

The power supplied to the terminals of a resistor is always dissipated" in other words is always positi)e;

p(t ) = v(t ) i(t ) = R i 2 (t ) = G v 2 (t ) 0 .

Resistors are normally ar#on omposition or wirewound" and also an #e fa#ri ated usin* thi ' o&ide or thin metal films" or they an #e diffused in semi ondu tor inte*ratin* ir uits. 7urther" we assume that resistor has a onstant parameter" and therefore its )olta*e, urrent e4uation is linear. An interestin* definition for ele tri al resistance of an element states that this is the opposition to the passa*e of an ele tri urrent throu*h that elementC the in)erse 4uantity is ele tri al conductance $G%" whi h means the ease at whi h an ele tri urrent passes throu*h the element.

A short circuit is a kind of resistor with next properties:

v(t ) = 0 R = 0 . G i(t ) = 0 R . G = 0

In contrast, an open circuit is the oposite type, with next properties:

Course

Electrical Circuits Theory I

) Capacitor A apa itor is a ir uit element that onsists of two ondu tin* surfa es separated #y a non, ondu tin* or diele tri material. The apa itor parameter is alled apa itan e and is measured in farads 576. !ts sym#ol and operatin* law are depi ted #elow. element: parameter: capacitor apa ity C 576
i(t)

symbol:

+q

C
-q

v(t)

operating equation:

i(t) = C

dv(t ) dt

or

v(t ) =

1 t i(t )dt C

Capa itors are apa#le of storin* ener*y when a )olta*e is present a ross the element. This ener*y is stored in an ele tri field. The power deli)ered to the apa itor is

p(t ) = v(t ) i(t ) = C v(t )

dv(t ) " dt

and hen e the ener*y stored in its ele tri field is

W (t ) =

t t 2 p(t )dt = C v(t ) dt dt = 2 Cv (t ) .

dv(t )

c) Inductor
An indu tor is a ir uit element that onsists of a ondu tin* wire in the form of a oil. The indu tor parameter is alled indu tan e and is measured in henry 5(6. !ts sym#ol and operatin* law are; element: parameter: inductor indu tan e
i(t)

5(6

symbol:

v(t)

operating equation:

v(t ) = L

di(t ) dt

or

i(t ) =

1 t v(t )dt L

!ndu tors are apa#le of storin* ener*y when a urrent is passin* throu*h the element" ausin* a ma*neti field to form. The power deli)ered to indu tor and the ener*y stored in its ma*neti field are;

p(t ) = v(t ) i(t ) = L i(t )

di (t ) " dt

W (t ) = p(t )dt = L i(t )

di (t ) 1 dt = Li 2 (t ) . dt 2

Course

Electrical Circuits Theory I

1.$ %erms in Circuits %opolo&y

An ele tri ir uit is a onne tion of )arious ir uit elements" onne tin* wires in a ir uit #ein* assumed to ha)e Bero resistan e unless otherwise stated. Sin e the elements of an ele tri ir uit an #e inter onne ted in se)eral ways" we need to understand some #asi on epts of networ' topolo*y. To des ri#e how it is omposed a ir uit" we use the terms of node" !ranch" and loop. "ode; is the point of connection between at least three circuit elements. Ese of the word GpointG in definition an #e misleadin*. A node is usually indi ated #y a dot in a ir uit. !f a short ir uit $a onne tin* wire% onne ts two nodes" the two nodes ma'e a sin*le node.

node

not a node

a sin*le node

#ranch; is the path between two nodes; must contain at least one element, but no other node. !t follows that #y a #ran h passes a sin*le urrent. 7or a networ' #ran h" the ele tri al si*nals $the urrent throu*h the #ran h and the )olta*e a ross it% are always asso iated in the same dire tion.

#ran h oop;

not a #ran h

two #ran hes

is any closed path in a circuit. A loop is a losed path formed #y startin* at a node" passin* throu*h a set of nodes" and returnin* to the startin* node without passin* throu*h any node more than on e. A loop is said to #e independent if it ontains a #ran h whi h is not in any other loop. !ndependent loops result in independent sets of e4uations.

loop A networ' with # #ran hes" " nodes" and networ' topolo*y;

not a loop independent loops will satisfy the fundamental theorem of

8#H"I1