Chapter 4

The Laplace transform and system response

The advantage of the Laplace transform is that it converts linear
differential equations into algebraic relations. With proper
algebraic manipulation of the resulting quantities, the solution of
the differential equation can be recovered in an orderly fashion
by inverting the transformation process to obtain a function of
time.
In addition to providing a systematic solution procedure for
differential equations, the Laplace transform allows us to
develop a graphical representation of the system's dynamics in
terms of block diagrams. With the Laplace transform, the
diagram concept can be etended to include dynamic elements
with the use of transfer function concept.
4.1 The Laplace transform
The Laplace transform L[y(t)] of a function y(t) is defined to be

!
" # "$ # % dt e t y t y L
st
#&.'('"
The integration removes t as a variable, and the transform is thus
a function of only the Laplace variable s, which may be a
comple number.
)n alternative notation is the use of the uppercase symbol to
represent the transform of the corresponding lowercase symbol*
that is,
Y(s) = L[y(t)] #&.'(+"
The variable y(t) is assumed to be ,ero for negative time t<0.
-or eample, the unit(step function u
s
(t) is such a function. If
y(t)= Mu
s
(t), the transform is
s
M
s
e
M dt e M dt e t Mu t y L
t
s
st st
s

!
" # "$ # %
! !
232
The transform of a derivative is of use. applying integration by
parts to the definition of the transform, we obtain

,
_

! !
" ! # "$ # % " #
!
" # y t y sL dt e t y s e t y dt e
dt
dy
dt
dy
L
st st st
#&.'(."
We have /ust seen how a multiplicative constant can be factored
out of the integral. )lso, the integral of a sum equals the sum of
the integrals. These facts point out the linearity property of the
transform* namely, that
L[af
1
(t) + bf
2
(t)] = aL[f
1
(t)] + bL[f
2
(t)] #&.'(&"
Table &.' is a short table of transforms.
Application to differential equations
233
The derivative and linearity properties can be used to solve the
differential equation
bv ry
dt
dy
+
#&.'(0"
If we multiply both sides of #&.'(0" by ep(-st" and then
integrate over time from t1! to t1

, we obtain
L(dy/dt) = L(ry + bv) = rL(y) + bL(v)
2sing #&.'(." and the alternative transform notation, we obtain
sY(s) - y(0) = rY(s) + bV(s) #&.'(3"
where V(s) is the transform of v. This equation is an algebraic
equation for Y(s) in terms of V(s) and y(0). The solution is
" #
" ! #
" # s V
r s
b
r s
y
s Y

#&.'(4"
The inverse Laplace transform L
-1
[Y(s)] is that time function
y(t), whose transform is Y(s). The inverse operation is also
linear, and when applied to #&.'(4", it gives
1
]
1

+
1
]
1

" #
" ! #
" #
' '
s V
r s
b
L
r s
y
L t y
#&.'(5"
-rom table &.', it is seen that
rt
e y
r s
y
L " ! #
" ! #
'

1
]
1

#&.'(6"
which is the free response. The forced response must therefore
be given by
234
1
]
1

" #
'
s V
r s
b
L
#&.'('!"
This cannot be evaluated until 7#s" is specified.
Exa!"e #.1
8ompute the step response of #&.'(0".
9olution:
If v is a step of magnitude M, V(s)=M/s. -or this case, the forced
response is

,
_

s
M
r s
b
L
'
This transform can be converted into a sum of simple transforms
by partial fraction epansion
s
$
r s
$
s r s
bM
+ '
" #
+

This is true only if

$
1
s + $
2
(s-r) = bM
-or arbitrary values of s. This implies that
$
1
+ $
2
=0
-r$
2
=bM
or
$
1
= -$
2
= bM/r
Thus, the forced response is
r
bM
e
r
bM
rt

The addition of the forced and free responses gives the previous
results #..+(3" or #..+(&" for r1 (';

.
235
The second-order case
It is useful to see how the preceding concepts etend to the
second(order model
" #
+
+
t f %x
dt
dx
&
dt
x d
+ +
#&.'(''"
To transform this equation, we need a new property #5" from
Table &.'. In terms of , this gives
" ! # " ! # " # $ %
+
+
+
dt
dx
sx s ' s
dt
x d
L
#&.'('+"
Transforming #&.'(''" gives
" # " # "$ ! # " # % " ! # " ! # " # %
+
s ( s %' x s s' &
dt
dx
sx s ' s + +
or
" # " ! # " ! # " ! # " # " #
+
s ( &x
dt
dx
s x s ' % &s s + + + + +
#&.'('."
The free response is
1
1
1
1
]
1

+ +
+ +

% &s s
&x
dt
dx
s x
L t x
+
'
" ! # " ! # " ! #
" #
#&.'('&"
The forced response is
1
]
1

+ +

% &s s
s (
L t x
+
'
" #
" #
#&.'('0"
In order to evaluate either response, we must epand the
transforms within the square brackets into a series of transforms
that appear in Table &.'. To perform this epansion, we need to
know the values of ) &, and % to determine whether the roots of
s
2
+&s+% are #'" real and distinct, #+" real and repeated, or #."
comple, because the form of the epansion is different for each
case. In addition, we also need to know f(t)) so that we can find
((s).
Exa!"e #.2
236
-ind the free response of #&.'(''" for 1', &10, and %1&. The
initial conditions are x(0) 1' and
0 " ! #
dt
dx
.
9olution:
The characteristic roots are s
1
1(', and s
2
1 (&. -rom #&.'('&"
t t
e e
s s
L
s s
s
L t x
& ' '
+ .
&
+
'
.
" & "# ' #
'!
" #


,
_

+
,
_

1
]
1

+ +
+

Exa!"e #.*
-ind the unit(step response of #&.'(''" for 1+, &15, and %15.
9olution:
The roots are repeated: s1 (+, (+. -rom #&.'('0", with ((s) 1';s,
we have
'+0 . ! '+0 . ! +0 . !
'+0 . !
+
'+0 . !
" + #
+0 . !
" + #
0 . !
" 5 5 + #
'
" #
+ +
' '
+
'
+
'
+
'
+

,
_

+
,
_

+
1
]
1

1
]
1

1
]
1

+ +

t t
e te
s
L
s
L
s
L
s s
L
s s s
L t x
The general case
If the coefficients of the following equation are constants, we
can transform it.
" # ...
'
'
'
'
t f x a
dt
dx
a
dt
x d
a
dt
x d
a
+
,
,
,
,
,
,
+ + + +

#&.'('3"
The result is
" # " # " # " ... #
'
'
'
s ( s - s ' a s a s a s a
+
,
,
,
,
+ + + + +

#&.'('4"
where -(s) is a polynomial in s whose coefficients depend on the
a
.
and the initial conditions
",... ! # ", ! # ", ! #
+
+
dt
x d
dt
dx
x
The free response is
237
1
]
1

" #
" #
" #
'
s /
s -
L t x
#&.'('5"
and the forced response is
1
]
1

" #
" #
" #
'
s /
s (
L t x
#&.'('6"
where the characteristic polynomial is
+
,
,
,
,
a s a s a s a s / + + + +

'
'
'
... " #
#&.'(+!"
Thus, the Laplace transform provides a systematic way of
finding the solution for any constant(coefficient linear
differential equation. <ut for high(order equations, the algebra
required to compute the inverse transforms in #&.'('5" and
#&.'('6" is prohibitive, and in practice, other methods are used
for those cases.
238
4.2 Transfer functions
=quation #&.'(4" contains much information about the system's
behavior, as we have seen. <ecause the free and forced
responses add to produce the total response, it is frequently
convenient to assume that the initial condition y#o" is ,ero. This
allows us to focus our attention on the effects of the inputs.
When the input analysis is completed, any free response due to a
non,ero initial condition can be added to the result. This is a
direct consequence of the superposition property of linear
models.
We will deeply involved in the analysis of systems made up of
several components. =ach component can influence the others
by generating inputs to them. We therefore seek to establish an
>input(output> format for analy,ing the effect of each
component on the overall behavior of the system. If this format
can be developed in terms of algebraic relations, it will be to our
advantage, because the analysis task will be simplified. This
algebraic framework is provided by #&.4('".
)ssume that y#!"1!. Then #&.4('" gives
" #
" #
" #
s 0
r s
b
s V
s Y

#&.+('"
=quation #&.+('" describes the transfer function T#s" of the
system #&.'(0". The transfer function of a linear system is the
ratio of the transform of the output to the transform of the input,
with the initial conditions assumed to be ,ero. In other words,
the transfer function is the ratio of the transforms of the forced
response and the input.
=quation #&.'('." provides similar information about the
response of the second(order model #&.'(''". Its transfer
function is seen to be
% &s s s (
s '
s 0
+ +

+
'
" #
" #
" #
#&.+(+"
The transfer function of the nth(order model #&.'('3" is
239
" #
'
" #
" #
" #
s / s (
s '
s 0
#&.+(."
or
+
,
,
,
,
a s a s a s a
s 0
+ + + +

'
'
'
...
'
" #
#&.+(&"
since L(d
,
x/dt
,
) 1 s
,
'(s) for ,ero initial conditions.
-rom this, we see that the denominator of the transfer function is
the system's characteristic polynomial. Thus, if we are given
only the transfer function, we could still make some assessment
of the system's behavior, because the roots of the characteristic
polynomial give us stability information, time constants,
damping ratios, and oscillation frequencies. In the preceding
eamples, the numerator of the transfer function does not give
any particularly useful information, but we will soon see
eamples where the numerator also contains information about
the system's response.
Transfer functions from the state-variable form
If the system model is in state(variable form, some algebra is
required to obtain the transfer function. The general procedure is
to transform the state equations using ,ero initial conditions.
Then solve for the desired output variable in terms of the input.
To do this, all the other variables must be eliminated
algebraically. The following simple eample illustrates this
procedure.
Exa!"e #.#
The state(variable form of the model for the mass(spring(
damper system is given by
v
dt
dx

#&.+(0"
%x &v f
dt
dv

#&.+(3"
-ind the transfer function between the input f and the output .
240
9olution:
Transform the state equations with ,ero initial conditions to
obtain
" # " # s V s s'
#&.+(4"
" # " # " # " # s %' s &V s ( s sV
#&.+(5"
=liminate V(s) algebraically by substituting V(s) = s'(s) into
#&.+(5".
" # " # " # " #
+
s %' s &s' s ( s ' s
or
" # " # " #
+
s ( s ' % &s s + +
9olve for '(s)/((s) to obtain the same transfer function given by
#&.+(+".
ultiple inputs
<ecause a transfer function defines a relationship between an
input and an output, there can be more one transfer function for
a system if it has more than one input or more than one output.
In fact, there is a transfer function for each input(output pair. To
find a particular transfer function, set all inputs to ,ero ecept
the one of interest, and solve the transformed equations for the
desired output as before.
Exa!"e #.1
The accumulator model is often of the form
" # " #
+ + ' ' .
! ! a ! ! a
dt
d!
a
#&.+(6"
where the output is the accumulator pressure p and the inputs
are the upstream and downstream pressures p' and p+. -ind the
system's transfer function.
9olution:
241
Transform #&.+(6" and collect terms to obtain
" # " # " # " #
+ + ' ' + ' .
s / a s / a s / a a s a + + +
#&.+('!"
To find the transfer function ?#s";?'#s", set ?+#s" 1 ! and solve
#&.+('!" to obtain
+ ' .
'
'
" #
" #
a a s a
a
s /
s /
+ +

#&.+(''"
9imilarly, setting ?'#s" 1!, we obtain the second transfer
function.
+ ' .
+
+
" #
" #
a a s a
a
s /
s /
+ +

#&.+('+"
@ote that the transfer functions in =ample &.0 have the same
denominator. )ll transfer functions of any given system will
always have the same denominator, because it is the system's
characteristic polynomial.
ultiple outputs
) single input can generate more than one transfer function if
we are interested in more than one variable as output. =ach
transfer function is found by algebraically eliminating the other
variables, as shown in =ample &.3.
Exa!"e #.2
-ind the transfer functions for the speed

and the current a

.
of
the A8 motor, described by:

e
a
a
3
dt
d.
L 4 . v + +

& . 3
dt
d
-
a 0

The input is the voltage v.
9olution:
Transforming and collecting terms, we obtain
" # " # " # " # s V s 3 s - 4 Ls
e a
+ +
#&.+('0"
242
! " # " # " # + + s & -s s - 3
a 0 #&.+('3"
These equations can be solved for -(s) and
" #s
by standard
algebraic means. 8ramer's determinant for this system is
0 e
0 e
0
e
3 3 4& s &L 4- L-s
3 3 & -s 4 Ls
& -s 3
3 4 Ls
s /
+ + + +
+ + +
+
+

" #
" "# #
" #
" #
" #
+
#&.+('4"
The solutions for -(s) and
" #s
are
" #
" # " #
" # !
" #
" # s V
s /
& -s
s /
& -s
3 s V
s -
e
+

#&.+('5"
" #
" # " #
!
" # " #
" # s V
s /
3
s /
3
s V 4 Ls
s
0 0

+

#&.+('6"
The two transfer functions are the coefficients of V(s) in
#&.+('5" and #&.+('6". @ote that 8ramer's determinant is the
characteristic polynomial of the system.
!ecovering the differential equation model
There will be applications where we are given a component's
transfer function, but the differential equation model is required
for analysis. The equation is easily recovered from the transfer
function by cross multiplying by the denominators, using the
following identity, which is valid for ,ero initial conditions.
" # " # s ' s
dt
x d
L
,
,
,

#&.+(+!"
243
The general form of a transfer function 0(s) between an input
((s) and output Y(s) is
" #
" #
" #
" #
" #
s 5
s 6
s 0
s (
s Y

#&.+(+'"
where 6(s) and 5(s) are the numerator and denominator of 0(s).
This gives
5(s)Y(s) = 6(s)((s) #&.+(++"
=quation #&.+('" in this form is
(s-r)Y(s) = bV(s)
which implies
bv ry
dt
dy

To recover the differential equation for the current .
a
in =ample
&.3, use #&.+('4" and #&.+('5" to obtain
0 e
a
3 3 4& &Ls 4- L-s
& -s
s V
s -
+ + + +
+

" # " #
" #
+
#&.+(+."
or
[L-s
2
+ (4- +&L)s + 4& + 3
e
3
0
]-
a
(s) = (-s+&)V(s)
This gives
&v
dt
dv
- . 3 3 4&
dt
d.
&L 4-
dt
. d
L-
a 0 e
a a
+ + + + + " # " #
+
+
#&.+(+&"
244
"umerator #ynamics
The transfer function given by #&.+(+." is the first eample thus
far of a transfer function, whose numerator is a polynomial in s.
)ll the numerators previously seen were constants. The
numerator's s term is seen from #&.+(+&" to have the effect of
computing the time derivative of the input v. <ecause
differentiation is a dynamic operation, a transfer function having
s terms in the numerator is said to have numerator dynamics.
@umerator dynamics can drastically alter the response of a
system. When numerator dynamics are present, we cannot rely
on only the characteristic polynomial #the denominator" to
predict system response.
245
4.$ %requency response and transfer functions
8onsider the linear model
bv ry
dt
dy
+
#&..('"
where
t 7 t v sin " #
#&..(+"
with constant amplitude 7 and frequency

. -or the stable case

with b a constant, the steady(state solution, with
; ' r
,
" sin# " # + t 8 t y
#&..(."
where
+ +
'

7 b
8
#&..(&"
" # tan
'


#&..(0"
with
! + ;
for bB! and
+ ;
for bC!.
The frequency transfer function
The solution given by #&(..."(#&..(0" points out a useful
application of the transfer function. )ssume that the system is
stable and write the transfer function 0(s) = b/(s-r) in terms of
r ; '
. This is
'
" #
+

s
b
s 0

#&..(3"
The transform of a sinusoidal steady(state output of frequency

has the denominator

+ +
+ s
. The roots are
. s t
* that is, the
values of s corresponding to sinusoidal oscillation of frequency

are
. s t
. With this as a guide, let us see what the transfer
function reveals when s is replaced with
.
.
246
'
" #
+

.
b
. 0

#&..(4"
This comple number is a function of only

for fied

and b.
It can be epressed in a more convenient form by multiplying
through by the comple con/ugate of the denominator.
+ +
'
" ' #
'
'
'
" #

. b
.
.
.
b
. 0
#&..(5"
" # . 0
can be thought of as a vector in the comple plane where
the vector's components are the real and imaginary parts of
" # . 0
. -igure #&.'" shows the case for bB!. The vector rotates,
and its length changes as

varies from ! to

. The locus of
vector's tip is shown, and it is a semicircle in the fourth quadrant
for positive

.
-igure &.' ?olar plot of a first(order linear system.
The transfer function with s replaced by
.
is called the
frequency transfer function, and its plot in vector form is the
polar plot. The vector's magnitude M and angle

relative to the
positive real ais are easily found from trigonometry to be
247
+ +
'
" #

t
b
M
+

#&..(6"
" # tan " #
'


#&..('!"
where M and

are eplicitly written as functions of

.
8omparing these epressions for D#

" and
" #
with those of
8 and

in #&..(&" and #&..(0" reveals the following useful fact

#see -igure &.+". The magnitude D of the frequency transfer
function 0#
.
" is the ratio of the sinusoidal steady(state output
amplitude to the sinusoidal input amplitude. The phase shift of
the output relative to the input is

, the angle of 0#
.
" %the
argument of 0#
.
"$.
-igure &.+ 9teady(state sinusoidal response of a linear system.
#a" Input(output relation. #b" ?olar representation of the
frequency transfer function 0#
.
".
<oth M and

are functions of the input frequency

. In an
alternative notation, this means that
" # " # . 0 M
#&..(''"
248
" # " # . 0
#&..('+"
" # 7M 8
#&..('."
where
" # . 0
and
" # . 0
denote the magnitude and angle of
the comple number

. <ecause of #&..('.", D is sometimes

called the amplitude ratio.
The Logarithmic plots
The curves of D and

versus

are difficult to sketch

accurately. -or this reason, logarithmic plots are usually
employed. Eere, the amplitude ratio D is specified in decibel
units, denoted db. The relation between a number D and its
decibel equivalent m is
M log +!
db #&..('&"
where the logarithm is to the base '!. -or eample, the number
'! corresponds to +! db, the number ' corresponds to ! db*
numbers less than ' have negative decibel values. It is common
practice to plot #

" in decibels versus log

. Thus, if D is
first converted to decibel units, semilog graph paper may be
used. -or easy reference,
" #
is also plotted versus log

.
Feferring to #&..(6", we have
" ' log# '! " log# +!
'
log +! " #
+ +
+ +

+
+
b
b

#&..('0"
To sketch the curve, we approimate #

" in three frequency

ranges. -or
' <<
,
' '
+ +
+
and
" log# +! ' log '! " log# +! " # b b
#&..('3"
Thus, for
; ' <<
,
" #
is approimately constant. -or
' >>
,
+ + + +
' +
, and
log +! log +! " log# +! log '! " log# +! " #
+ +
b b
#&..('4"
249
This gives a straight line versus log

. Its slope is
(+!db;decade, where a decade is any '!:' frequency range. )t
; '
, #&..('0" gives
!' . . " log# +! + log '! " log# +! " # b b
#&..('5"
Thus, at
; '
,
" #
is ..!' db below the low(frequency
asymptote given by #&..('3". The low(frequency and high(
frequency asymptotes meet at
; '
, which is the breakpoint
frequency. It is also called the corner frequency.
The curve of

versus

is constructed as follows. -or

; ' <<
,
#&..('!" gives
+
! " ! # tan " #
'



-or
; '
,
+
&0 " ' # tan " #
'



and for
; ' >>
,
+
6! " # tan " #
'



2sing these facts, the curve is easily sketched.
The curves for
" ' ;# ' " # + s s 0
are shown in -igure &... This
corresponds to
' b
in #&..(3". If
' b
, the scale for the m
curve shown in the figure should be shifted by
" log# +! b
. The
phase angle curve remains unchanged.
)lso shown in the figure are the curves for
" ' # " # + s s 0
. It is
easy to show that these are the mirror images of the curves for
" ' ;# ' " # + s s 0
.
We note that
. . +

+ '
'
'
'
Thus,

.
.
+
+
' log +!
'
'
log +!
)lso,
' tan " ' # + .
This angle is the negative of that in #&..('!"
250
-igure &.. Logarithmic frequency response plots for two first(
order transfer functions. #a" Dagnitude ratio m in decibels. #b"
?hase angle.
&eneral formulation
The previous results are for first(order models without
numerator dynamics, but they can be easily etended to a stable
251
linear system of any order. The general form of a transfer
function is
"... # " #
"... # " #
" #
+ '
+ '
s 5 s 5
s 6 s 6
3 s 0
#&..('6"
where 3 is a constant real number. In general, if a comple
number T#
.
" consists of products and ratios of comple
factors, such that
"... # " #
"... # " #
" #
+ '
+ '

. 5 . 5
. 6 . 6
3 . 0
#&..(+!"
where G is a real constant, then from the properties of comple
numbers
... " # " #
... " # #
" #
+ '
+ '

. 5 . 5
. 6 . 6
3 . 0
#&..(+'"
In decibel units, this implies that
... " # log +! " # log +!
... " # log +! " # log +! log +! " # log +! " #
+ '
+ '

+ + +


. 5 . 5
. 6 . 6 3 . 0
#&..(++"
That is, when epressed in logarithmic units, multiplicative
factors in the numerator are summed, while those in the
denominator are subtracted. We can use this principle
graphically to add or subtract the contribution of each term in
the transfer function to obtain the plot for the overall system
transfer function.
)lso, for the form #&..(+!", the phase angle is
... " # " #
... " # " # " # " #
+ '
+ '

+ + +


. 5 . 5
. 6 . 6 3 . 0
#&..(+."
252
The phase angles of multiplicative factors in the numerator are
summed, while those in the denominator are subtracted. This
allows us to build the composite phase angle plot from the plots
for each factor.
Common building bloc's
Dost transfer functions occur in the form given by #&..('6". In
addition, the >building blocks>, 6
9
(s) and 5
9
(s), usually take the
forms shown in Table &.+.
Table &.+ -actors commonly found in transfer functions of the
form
"... # " #
"... # " #
" #
+ '
+ '
s 5 s 5
s 6 s 6
3 s 0
-or 0(s) = 3 #&..(+&"
We have
3 log +!
#&..(+0"

'

<
>

! '5!
! !
3
3
3
+
+

#&..(+3"
The plots are shown in -igure &.&
253
-igure &.& -requency response plots for 0(s) =3.
-or
0(s) = s
,
#&..(+4"
we have
log +! log +! log +! , . , .
,

#&..(+5"
+ ,
, . , . 6! " # " #
#&..(+6"
The most common case is ,=', and these plots are given in
-igure &.0.
254
-igure &.0 -requency response plots for 0(s) =s.
Exa!"e #.:
The presence of numerator dynamics in a first(order system can
significantly alter the system's frequency response. 8onsider the
series F8 circuit, where the output voltage is now taken to be
across the resistor #-igure &.3". The two amplifiers serve to
isolate the circuit from the loading effects of ad/acent elements.
The input impedance between the voltage v and the current i is
found from the series law.
-igure &.3 Eigh(pass filter circuit.
255
$s
4
s -
s V '
" #
" #
+
Thus,
4
$s
4
s V
4 s - s Y
'
" #
" # " #
+

Aetermine the circuit's frequency response, and interpret its
effect on the input.
9olution:
The transfer function is
' " #
" #
" #
+

4$s
4$s
s V
s Y
s 0
#&..(.!"
Let
4$
to obtain
'
" #
+

s
s
s 0

This is of the form #&..('6" with

3
, 6
1
(s) = s and
5
1
(s) 1
' + s
. Therefore, from #&..(++",
' log +! log +! log +! " # + + . .
#&..(.'"
-or the low(frequency asymptote,
' <<
and the term due to
' + s
is negligible. Thus, the asymptote is described by
log +! log +! " # +
,

'
<<
#&..(.+"
It can be sketched by noting that it has a slope of +!db;decade
and it passes through the point
; ' , !
. The asymptote is
shown by dotted line in -igure &.4. )t high frequencies #
; ' >>
", the slope of (+! due to the term
' + s
in the denominator
cancels the slope of H+! due to the term s in the numerator.
Therefore, at high frequencies,
" #
has a slope of
approimately ,ero and also +'
+ +
. Thus,
256
! log +! log +! log +! log +!
log +! log +! log +! " #
+
+


for
; ' >>
. )t
; '
, the term
' + s
contributes (.db. The
composite curve
" #
is obtained by >blending> the low(
frequency and high(frequency asymptotes through this point, as
shown in -igure &.4.
-igure &.4 -requency response of the high(pass filter. #a"
Dagnitude plot. #b" ?hase plot.
) similar technique can be used to sketch
" #
. -rom #&..(+.",
" # tan 6! ! " ' # " #
'


+ + +
+ +
.
-or

'
<<
, the low(frequency asymptote is
+ +
6! " ! # tan 6! " #
'



-or
; '
,
+ +
&0 " ' # tan 6! " #
'



-or
; ' >>
, the high(frequency asymptote is
+ + + +
! 6! 6! " # tan 6! " #
'



The result is sketched in -igure &.4b. The log magnitude plot
shows that the circuit passes signals with frequencies above
257
; '
with little attenuation, and thus it is called a high(pass
filter.
)nother eample of numerator dynamics is the transfer function
'
'
" #
+
'
+
+

s
s
3 s 0

#&..(.."
)n eample of this form is the transfer function of the lead
compensator circuit.
Thus,
'
'
" #
+
'
+
+

.
.
3 . 0

#&..(.&"
-rom #&..(++",
' log +! ' log +! log +! " #
+ '
+ + + . . 3
#&..(.0"
Thus, the plot of
" #
can be obtained by subtracting the plot of
'
+
+ s
from that of
'
'
+ s
. The scale is then ad/usted by
3 log +!
.
The term
'
'
+ s
causes the curve to break upward at '
; '
.
The term
'
+
+ s
causes the curve to break downward at +
; '
.
If + '
; ' ; ' >
, the composite curve looks like -igure &.5a, and the
system is a low(pass filter. If + '
; ' ; ' <
, it is a high(pass filter
#-igure &.5b".
-rom #&..(+.", the phase angle is
" # tan " # tan !
" ' # " ' # " #
+
'
'
'
+ '



+
+ + +
+
. . 3
#&..(.3"
Its plot can also be found by combining the plots of
" #
for 3,
'
'
+ s
, and
'
+
+ s
. The sketches shown in -igure &.5 can be
obtained by using the low(frequency, corner frequency, and
high(frequency values of !
o
, &0
o
, and 6!
o
for the term
' + s
,
supplemented by evaluations of #&..(.3" in the region between
the corner frequencies. This sketching technique is more
accurate when the corner frequencies are far apart.
258
259
-igure &.5 approimate sketches of the frequency response plots
for
'
'
" #
+
'
+
+

s
s
3 s 0

. -or the low(pass filter in #a", + '

<
. -or the
high(pass filter in #b", + '
>
.
Dore accurate plots can be obtained by using #&..(.0" and
#&..(.3" with a calculator or computer. 9ome eamples are
shown in -igure &.6 for various values of '

and +

.
-igure &.6 representative plots for
'
'
" #
+
'
+
+

s
s
3 s 0

with 31'. -or

a,
!+ . ! , + . !
+ '

. -or b,
' . ! , + . !
+ '

.
260
(econd-order systems
The denominator of a second(order transfer function with
' <

can be epressed as form &, Table &.+. If
'
, the denominator
can be written as the product of two first(order factors like form
.. ) special case of a second(order system that does not fit into
the previous cases occurs when

. The form is
" ' #
" #
+

s s
3
s 0

#&..(.4"
)n eample is a mass with a damper but no spring #%1!". The
three building blocks are 3, s, and
' + s
. <ecause it is in the
denominator, the s term shifts the composite m curve upward for
' <
and shifts it down for
' >
. The composite m curve follows
that of the s term until
; '
, when the #
' + s
" terms begins to
have an effect. -or
; ' >>
, the composite slope is
(&! db;decade. The s term contributes a constant (6!
o
to the

curve. The result is to shift the first(order lag curve
#-igure &..b" down by 6!
o
. The results are shown in
-igure &.'!.
261
-igure &.'! -requency response plots for
" ' #
" #
+

s s
3
s 0

with
31' and
+ . !
.
262
An overdamped system
8onsider the second(order model
" #
+
+
t du %x
dt
dx
&
dt
x d
+ +
Its transfer function is
% &s s
d
s 0
+ +

+
" #
#&..(.5"
If the system is overdamped, both roots are real and distinct, and
we can write 0(s) as
" ' "# ' #
;
'
;
" #
+ '
+ + +

+ +

s s
% d
s
%
&
s
%

% d
s 0

#&..(.6"
where '

and +

are the time constants of the roots.

Feturning to #&..(++" and #&..(+.", we see that
' log +! ' log +! log +! " # log +! " #
+ '
+ + . .
%
d
. 0
#&..(&!"
" ' # " ' # " #
+ '
+ + . .
%
d

#&..(&'"
where 3=d/%,
' " #
' '
+ . . 5
and
' " #
+ +
+ . . 5
. Thus, the
magnitude ratio plot in db consists of a constant term,
% d ; log +!
,
minus the sum of the plots for two first(order lead terms.
)ssume that + '
>
. Then for + '
; ' ; ' < <
, the slope is
approimately (+! db;decade. -or +
; ' >
, the contribution of
the term
" ' #
+
+ .
is significant. This causes the slope to
decrease by an additional +! db;decade, to produce a net slope
of (&!db;decade for +
; ' >
. The rest of the plot can be sketched
as before. The result is shown in -igure &.''afor dBk. The phase
angle plot shown in -igure &.''b is produced in a similar
manner by using #&..(&'". @ote that if d/%B!,

#d/%"1!
o
.
263
-igure &.'' -requency response plots for the overdamped
system
" ' "# ' #
;
" #
+ '
+ +

s s
% d
s 0

264
An underdamped system
If the transfer function given by #&..(.5" has comple con/ugate
roots, it can be epressed as form & in table &.+.
' +
;
'
;
" #
+
+
+ +

,
_

+ +

, ,
s s
% d
s
%
&
s
%

% d
s 0

#&..(&+"
We have seen that the constant term d/% merely shifts the
magnitude ratio up or down by a fied amount and adds either !
o
or ('5!
o
to the phase angle plot. Therefore, for now, let us take
d/%1' and consider the following quadratic factor, obtained from
#&..(&+" by replacing s with
.
.
. .
.
. 0
, , , ,

+
'
'
'
+
'
" #
+ +
+

,
_

+ +

,
_

#&..(&."
The magnitude ratio is
1
1
]
1

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

+ +
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
' log '!
+
' log +!
+
'
'
log +! " #
,
,
,
,
, ,
.

#&..(&&"
The asymptotic approimations are as follows. -or ,
<<
,
! ' log +! " #
-or ,
>>
,
,
,
,

log &! log +! & log +! " #

&
&
+
+
+
&
&
+
Thus, for low frequencies, the curve is hori,ontal at 1!, while
for high frequencies, it has a slope of (&!db;decade, /ust as in
the overdamped case. The high(frequency and low(frequency
asymptotes intersect at the corner frequency ,

.
The underdamped case differs from the overdamped case in the
vicinity of the corner frequency. To see this, eamine
" # M
.
265
+ +
+
+
+
'
'
" #

,
_

,
_

,
,
M

#&..(&0"
This has a maimum value when the denominator has a
minimum. 9etting the derivative of the denominator with respect
to

equal to ,ero shows that the maimum

" # M
occurs at
+
+ '
,
. This frequency is the resonant frequency r

. The
peak of
" # M
eists only when the term under the radical is
positive* that is, when
4!4 . !
. Thus,
4!4 . ! ! + '
+

, r
#&..(&3"
The value of the peak M
!
is found by substituting r

into
" # M
.
This gives
4!4 . ! !
' +
'
" #
+

r !
M M
#&..(&4"
If
4!4 . ! >
, no peak eists, and the maimum value of M occurs
at
!
where M1'. @ote that as
!
, , r

, and

!
M
. -or
an underdamped system, the resonant frequency is the natural
frequency ,

.
) plot of
" #
versus log

is shown in -igure &.'+a for

several values of

. @ote that the correction to the asymptotic

approimation in the vicinity of the corner frequency depends
on the value of

. The peak value in decibels is

" ' + log# +! " #
+

r !

#&..(&5"
)t ,

,
+ log +! " #
,

#&..(&6"
The curve can be sketched more accurately by repeated
evaluation of #&..(&&" for values of

near ,

.
266
-igure &.'+ -requency response plots for the underdamped
system
' +
;
" #
+
+ +

,
_

, ,
s s
% d
s 0

The phase angle plot is obtained in a similar manner. -rom the

additive property for angles #&..(+.", we see that for #&..(&.",
1
]
1

+ .
, ,

+
" # ' " #
+
267
Thus,
1
1
1
1
1
]
1

,
_

+
'
+
" # tan
,
,

#&..(0!"
where
" #
is in the third or fourth quadrant. -or ,
>>
+
'5! " #
)t the corner frequency,
+
,
6! tan " #
'



This result is independent of

. The rest of the plot can be

sketched by evaluating #&..(0!" at various values of

. The plot
is shown for several values of

in -igure &.'+b.
)t the resonant frequency.

+
'
+ '
tan " #



r
#&..(0'"
268