PROJECT REPORT on

MANUFACTURE OF L-CYSTINE
Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
by

DIVYA PRABHU (10704006) DHEERAJ.T.S (10704023)

under the guidance of

Ms.K.SOFIYA, M.TECH.,
(Lecturer, School of Chemical Engineering)

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY SRM UNIVERSITY (under section 3 of UGC Act,1956) SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur 603 203 Kancheepuram Dist.

MAY 2008

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report MANUFACTURE OF L-CYSTINE SUGAR is the bonafide work of DIVYA PRABHU (10704006), DHEERAJ.T.S (10704021) who carried out the project work under my supervision.

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

INTERNAL GUIDE

Date:

EXTERNAL EXAMINER Date :

INTERNAL EXAMINER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We take this opportunity to thank the Associate Director Dr. C..Muthamizhchelvan for providing us with an excellent infrastructure and conducive atmosphere for developing our project.

We would also like to thank the Head of Department of Chemical engineering Dr.R.Karthikeyan, for encouraging us to do our project.

We sincerely thank our project guide Ms.K.Sofiya for her valuable guidance, support and encouragement in all aspects of this project and for its completion

We would also like to thank our faculty members and technicians of our Chemical Department who helped in the successful completion of our project.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
S.NO CHAPTER PAGE NO.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION PROPERTIES APPLICATIONS OF L-CYSTINE PROCESS DESCRIPTION MATERIAL BALANCE ENERGY BALANCE DESIGN COST ESTIMATION PLANT LAYOUT AND LOCATION SAFETY AND LOSS PREVENTION MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL CONCLUSION NOMENCLATURE BIBLIOGRAPHY

6 8 12 15 17 22 33 43 55 61 69 72 75 79 81 84

LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE NO.

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5

Glass-Lined Reactor Neutralization Tank 1 Filter Press 1 Decolorization Tank 1 Filter Press 2 Neutralization Tank 2 Filter Press 3 Decolorization Tank 3 Filter Press 4 Final Neutralization Tank Centrifuge Tray Dryer Glass Lined Reactor Neutralization Tank 1 Neutralization Tank 2 Final Neutralization Tank Tray Dryer LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE

24 25 26 26 27 28 29 29 30 31 32 32 35 37 39 41 42

PAGE NO. 18

5.1

Flow sheet for the manufacture

6

of L-Cystine From human hair 8.1 8.2 8.3 10.1 12.1 12.2 12.3 13.1 Design of Reactor Vessel Design of Filter Press Design of Storage Vessel Plant Layout Glass Lined Equipment Neutralization Tank Decolorization Tank Control Scheme 48 51 54 68 73 74 74 78

ABSTRACT

ABSTRACT
The amino-acid L-cystine is manufactured from human hair. Human hair is rich in two basic amino acid compounds such as L-cystine and L-Tyrosine, with L-Cystine comprising about 12% of the hair.

Chemically hair is a biopolymer largely of cystine cross linked proteins termed keratins. L-cystine is a hydrolytic product of human hair, wool, horn, nail, feathers. But human hair is considered to be the cheapest source and it has the major content of LCystine than any other sources. The human hair is hydrolyzed by hydrochloric acid; the hydrolysate consists of LCystine which is separated by repeated neutralization and filtration. pH maintenance is important in this process to obtain the crystals of L-Cystine. L-cystine is used as a food additives, flavor enhancer, nutrient supplement and dough strengthener.

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION
2.1 L-CYSTINE
L-Cystine is a non-essential amino acid which can be produced by human beings. It is present in many proteins and is a major constituent of keratin, the principal protein of hair, skin and wool. Cystine is known as a disulfide amino-acid because it consists of two

10

cysteine segments with their respective sulfur atoms bonded firmly together. Cystine plays a special role as a cross-linking agent in protein structure.

2.2 NOTABLE FEATURES

L-Cystine is found in the form of plates and prisms. It has a bland taste and can be taken in powder or capsule form. The powder is water soluble. L-Cystine is the stable oxidized form of L-Cysteine. L-refers to levorotatory, a type of optical rotation of a compound under plane polarized light.

2.3 FUNCTIONS OF L-CYSTINE

1. It is necessary for the formation of skin and accelerates healing after injury or surgery. 2. L-Cystine strengthens the immune system, reduces damage from free radicals. 3. It promotes leucocyte formation and helps in the assimilation of vitamin B6. 4. This amino-acid is an integral part of the insulin molecule and thus important in glucose metabolism. 5. Its sulfur rich amino group has been found useful in soothing for a variety of skin conditions. 6. Allows skin to appear smooth and supple instead of rough and patchy. 7. It functions as an anti-oxidant and is a powerful aid to the body in protecting against pollution and radiation. 8. It can help slow down the aging process and neutralize toxins. It serves to spare Methanione.

2.4 HISTORY AND ISOLATION FROM NATURAL SOURCES

In 1810 Watlaston described an organic compound which he had isolated from urinary stones; it was soluble in both acids and alkalis, and it separated from alkaline solution on acidification with acetic acid in the form of hexagonal plates. He called it an oxide because of its apparently amphoteric nature and since it was derived from material accumulating in the bladder, he decided on the term cystic oxide. The compound was analyzed by Thaulow in Leibigs laboratory and yielded results from which correct 11

formula C6H12N2O4S2 was deduced. The name cystine instead of cystic acid was introduced by Berrelius in 1833. In 1899 Morner isolated it from a horn hydrolysate. Mauthner was the first to measure the optical rotation of L-Cystine and reported in 1882 an (x)D value at 20 of -205.88 in HCl solution.

2.5 SELECTION OF RAW MATERIAL

The amino acid L-Cystine is produced from many sources like wool, horn, nail, feathers, horse hair and human hair. Among these sources human hair is preferable as its adequately available and cheap. Human hair consists of 12% of L-Cystine, 2.6% LTyrosine, 82.4% of other amino acids, water, lipids, pigments and trace elements. In the acid hydrolysis extraction process only barbed hair is suitable. Lengthy hair create problem in the cleaning process. Dyed hair is also not preferable.

2.6 HAIR CHEMISTRY

2.6.1 HUMAN HAIR DESCRIPTION Human hair is a keratin containing appendage that grows from large cavities or sacs called follicles. The human hair fiber can be divided into three distinct zones along its axis.The zone of biological synthesis and orientation resides at and around the bulb of the hair. The next zone is the zone of keratinisation which is present in the outward direction along the hair shaft, where stability is built into the hair structure via the formation of cystine linkages, the third zone that eventually emerges through the skin surface is the region of the permanent hair fibre which consists of dehydrated cornified cuticle, cortical and sometimes medullary cells and inter-cellular cement. The diameter of human hair fibres varies from 15 to 100m. 2.6.2 COMPONENTS OF THE HUMAN HAIR Hair is a complex tissue consisting of several morphological components and each component consists of several chemical species. Depending on its moisture content (up to 32% by weight) human hair consists of approximately 65% to 95% proteins. Its remaining constituents are water, lipids, pigment and trace elements. Proteins are condensation polymer of amino acids, and those amino acids are Glycine, Alanine, Valine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Phenylalanine, Tyrosine, lysine, Arginine, Histidine, 12

Citrulline, Aspartic acid, Glutamic acid, Threonine, Serine, Cystine, Methionine, Cysteine, Cysteic acid, Proline and Typtophan.

13

PROPERTIES

PROPERTIES
3.1 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Crystal stem Specific rotation Melting point Stability Solubility Hexagonal system []D = -200 ~ -225 (1N HCl, C=2) 260C Decomposes in hot alkaline aqueous solution H2O g/dl 0.0110(25) 14

0.0239(50) 0.0523(70) 0.1140(100)

3.2 PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Physical state Appearance Specific gravity pH State of solution Molecular weight powder white crystals 1.677 5.0~6.5 98% 240.31

EMPIRICAL FORMULA C6H12N2O4S2 C= 29.99% H2= 5.03% O2= 26.63% N2= 11.66% S=26.69%

3.3 STRUCTURE
OOCCHCH2SSCH2CHCOO NH3+ NH3+

3.4 METABOLISM
Glycogenic L-Cystine undergoes a reciprocal conversation with L-Cystine in the oxidation reduction metabolism. It is metabolized to form pyruvic acid. L-Cystine is not essential for human as it is derived from L-Methanione. L-Cystine (1) is reduced to form L-Cysteine (2).

15

3.5 ANALYTICAL REACTIONS

A large number of gravimetric, colorimetric and titrimetric procedures have been offered for the determination of cystine either as such or after its conversion to cysteine. Such procedures depend in part upon a) The ability of the disulfide grouping of cystine to undergo disproportionate cleavage with heavy metals and with certain chemical reagents. b) The kind of oxidation reduction reactions in which the sulfahydryl function of cysteine can participate. c) The property to form colored conjugates with various reagents and hence can be estimated by colorimetric or spectrophotometric means; titration of the sulfahydryl group may be achieved through the application of iodometric, acidimetric and electrometric methods.

16

APPLICATIONS

APPLICATIONS
The demand for L-cystine is 3000 tpa. The applications of L-Cystine in different fields are:

4.1 PHARMACEUTICALS
Expectorant for respiratory diseases such as chronic bronchitis. As a nutrients (transfusion solution) before and after operation on patients having Hypoproteinemia and Hypo alimentation 17

4.2 FOOD
Components in flavors. Meat and meat products. Baby foods. Milk and milk products. Dough conditioner.

4.3 OTHERS
Used to manufacture L-Taurine and L-glutathione . Taurine plays a key role in central nervous system critical for immune system function. Cystine strengthens the protective lining of the stomach and intestines. function. Glutathione is

18

PROCESS DESCRIPTION

19

20

5.1 FLOW SHEET FOR THE MANUFACTIRE OF L-CYSTINE

PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Acid- hydrolysis extraction method is a batch process. Total batch time is 10.5 hrs. Hence there are two batches in a day.

5.1 RAW MATERIAL PREPARATION

Hair is the raw material used in the manufacture of L-cystine. Hair is first cleaned manually, removing unwanted contents such as matches, paper, hair pins and cigarette butts. The other principal contamination is sand which causes trouble and is removed by beater, then hair is sent for screening and the sand particles are screened out. Then hair is immersed in a container of hot water where it is totally rid of all impurities including oil.

5.2 GLASS-LINED REACTOR

The reaction is carried out in a Glass-lined reactor which is a jacketed vessel. HCl is used for the hydrolysis of human hair. The temperature of the hydrolysis process should be 105C to 110C. Acid and water are added to the reactor initially followed by preheating which is done by indirect steam heating. Hair is charged and temp. is maintained at 110C. Hair is hydrolyzed into hydrolysate by the breaking up of the peptide bonds in the hair. The amino-acids present in the hair separates from the pigments, lipids which are the constituents of hair and forms a hydrolysate. The reactor consists of an agitator, which agitates the charged hair and accelerates the conversion of solid hair into hydrolysate. The hydrolysate liquid is pumped to the Neutralization tank 1.

5.3 NEUTRALISATION TANK 1

In the Neutralization tank 1 the acidic condition is neutralized by adding Sodium carbonate. The hydrolysate consists of 21 amino-acids, other impurities, acid is cooled to 50C by water cooling. The pH is maintained at 5.2. From the hydrolysate the amino-acid L-cystine precipitates down due to the pH maintenance. The reaction that takes place in the tank by the addition of soda ash is as follows. Na2CO3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2O + CO2

21

CO2 formed is emitted out and the neutralized solution with salt formed is pumped to the filter press 1 for the filtration process.

5.4 FILTER PRESS 1

The black cake and other amino-acids are separated by filtration process. The black cake consists of L-cystine, salt formed, and certain amount of impurities. The filtration solution is the mother liquor of other amino-acids like glycine, alanine, valine, lysine, tyrosine, cysteine etc. The black cake consists of some traces of other amino acids which are removed in further process. The black cake is then sent to the decolourisation process.

5.5 DECOLOURISATION TANK 1

This decolourisation tank consists of HCl and the black cake is dropped into the tank and agitation is done to dissolve the cake. Then activated carbon is further added to the dissolved cake for decolourisation process. The black cake is decolourised to form a brown acidified solution of L-Cystine.

5.6 FILTER PRESS 2

Activated carbon is separated in the filtration stage. The carbon separated is considered to be waste cake, which should be properly discarded. The filtrate solution is brown in color which is sent to the Neutralization tank 2 to neutralize the acidified solution.

5.7 NEUTRALIZATION TANK 2

The brown color solution is pumped inside the neutralization tank 2 which consist of Sodium hydroxide. The acidic solution is neutralized and the pH is maintained at 1.8. The salt is formed by the following reaction 2HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O The L-cystine in the solution precipitates down due to pH maintenance.

5.8 FILTER PRESS 3

The neutralized solution is filtered to remove impurities. The solution is pumped to filter press 3 to remove the water and separate the brown colored cake. The water removed in 22

this filtration stage is sent to the Effluent Treatment Plant. The brown colored L-cystine obtained is to be further decolorized to give white colored final product.

5.9 DECOLORIZATION TANK 2

The brown colored cake is washed off from filter press 3 and dropped into the decolorization tank 2 which consists of HCl. The cake is dissolved in the acid by agitation, and then activated carbon is added to decolorize the brown cake. The carbon added adsorbs impurities present in the dissolved cake.

5.10 FILTER PRESS 4

The decolorized solution is acidic in nature and it consists of carbon. The carbon content is separated at this filtration stage. The decolorized solution is obtained as a filtrate solution and is sent to the final neutralization tank.

5.11 FINAL NEUTRALIZATION TANK

The acidic solution is neutralized by adding NaOH, the pH is maintained at 2. The Lcystine precipitates down. The salt is formed as follows, HCl +NaOH The solution is then pumped to the centrifuge. NaOH + H2O

5.12 CENTRIFUGE
The neutralized solution consists of excess water which is removed by the centrifugation process. The centrifuge is top suspended type. The salt formed in the final neutralization is removed in this stage. The decanted water consists of iron and traces of impurities.

5.13 TRAY DRYER

The product obtained consists of moisture content to about 10% which is removed by the tray dryer. The humidity is reduced by passing hot air at 120C. The temperature of the product is reduced by natural cooling. The dried product obtained is further blended and packed.

23

MATERIAL BALANCE

MATERIAL BALANCE
24

Molecular weight:
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3) Water (H2O) Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Carbon di-oxide (CO2) = 36.46 = 40 = 106 = 18 = 58.46 = 44

Basis:
1000 Kg of human hair is taken as feed per batch. Pure human hair is 80% of the feed Impurities is 20% of the feed = 800 kg = 200 kg

6.1 GLASS LINED REACTOR

Acid hydrolysis: 60% HCl is required HCl required to hydrolyze 800 kg of human hair = 800 x 0.6 = 480 kg H2O added to hydrolyze 800 kg of human hair = 800x 0.4 = 320 kg 2% of acid added is vaporized. 2% of water added is evaporated. Human hair Pure content=800 kg Impurities=200 kg H2O=320 kg HCl=480 kg GLASS LINED REACTOR Evaporated Solution Water =2% of 320 =6.4 kg HCl =2% of 480 =9.6 kg Hydrolysate H2O=313.6 kg HCl=470.4 kg Total Amino Acids=1000 kg

25

Output (kg) Components Human Hair Water HCl Impurities Total amino acids 16.0 1800 1800 Input (kg) 800 320 480 200 1000.0 6.4 9.6 313.6 470.4 Evaporated Acid Hydrolysate

6.2 NEUTRALIZATION TANK 1

Reaction: 2HCl + NaCO3 Amount of HCl required Amount of NaCl formed Amount of CO2 formed Amount of H2O formed 2NaCl+CO2+H2O = (470.4x2)/36.46 = 25.8036 moles =25.8036 x 58.46 = 1508.4785 kg =25.8036 x 44/2 =567.6792 kg =25.8036 x 18/ 2 =232.2324 kg

Amount of Na2CO3 required = 25.8036 x 106/2 = 1367.5908 kg

76.6587% of NaCO3 solution is required to neutralize the hydrolysate. Water required in neutralization =1784 x (1-0.766587) = 416.4092 kg CO2 formed is emitted out =567.6792 kg Amino acids contain 12% cystine. Water=416.4092 kg Na2CO3=1367.5908 NEUTRALIZATION TANK 1 CO2=567.6792 kg

Total amino acids=1000kg H2O=313.6kg HCl=470.4 kg

Cystine=120 kg NaCl=1508.4785kg H2O=416.4092 +232.2324+313.6 =962.2416 kg Other amino Acids=409.6007 kg

26

Components

Input (kg) Gas

Output (kg) Evaporated Neutralized Solution 962.2416

HCl H2O Na2CO3 Total amino acids Cystine Other amino acids NaCl CO2

470.4000 730.0092 1367.5908 1000.0000 120.0000 409.6007 1508.4785 67.6792 3568.0000 3568.0000

6.3 FILTER PRESS 1

The efficiency of the filter press1 is 90%. The cystine loss is 10%. Black cake consists of 5% of NaCl, 10% of H2O from their weights in the feed and 2% of other amino acids in the form of impurities.

Cystine =120 kg NaCl=1508.4785 kg Water=962.2416 kg Other amino Acids=409.6007 kg

FILTER PRESS 1

Black cake Cystine=108 kg NaCl=75.4239kg H2O=96.2242kg Impurities=8.192kg

Filtrate Cystine=10% of 120 =12 kg NaCl=5% of 1508.4785 =1433.0545 kg Water=10% of 962.2416 =866.0174 kg Other amino Acids =401.4087 kg

27

Components NaCl H2O Cystine Impurities Other amino acids

Input (kg) 1508.4785 962.2416 120.0000 409.6007

Output (kg) Black cake 75.4239 96.2242 108.0000 8.1920 401.4087 287.8402 2712.4806 3000.3208 Filtrate solution 1433.0545 866.0174 12.0000

3000.3208

6.4 DECOLOURIZATION TANK1

10% HCl is required to dissolve cystine cake. HCl required to dissolve 287.8402 kg of cystine cake =287.8402 x 0.1 = 28.7840 kg Water required to dissolve 287.8402 kg of cystine cake =287.8402 x 0.9 = 259.0562 kg 7% of carbon is required to decolorize cystine cake. Carbon required= 287.8402 x 0.07 = 20.1488 kg HCl=28.7840 kg Water=259.0562 kg Carbon=20.1488 kg Cystine=108 kg NaCl=75.4239 kg Water=96.2242 kg Impurities=8.192kg

DECOLORIZATION TANK 1 Input (kg) 108.0000 75.4239 355.2804 28.7840 20.1488 8.1920 595.8291

Cystine=108kg H2O=355.2804kg NaCl=75.4239kg HCl=28.7840kg Carbon=20.1488kg Impurities=8.192kg Output (kg) 108.0000 75.4239 355.2804 28.7840 20.1488 8.1920 595.8291

Components Cystine NaCl H2O HCl Carbon Impurities

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6.5 FILTER PRESS 2

8% of cystine loss. 3% of NaCl loss. 3% of HCl loss.98% of carbon separated. 6% of water loss. Waste cake consists of 80% of total impurities. Cystine=108 kg H2O=355.2804 kg Imp. =8.192kg NaCl=75.4239 kg HCl=28.7840 kg Carbon=20.1488kg Filtrate Cystine=99.36kg H2O=333.9636kg Imp. =1.6384kg NaCl=73.1612kg HCl=27.9205kg

FILTER PRESS2

Waste cake Cystine=0.08 x108 =8.64 kg HCl=0.03 x28.7840 =0.8635 kg H2O=0.06 x355.2804 =21.3168 kg NaCl=0.03 x75.4239 =2.2627 kg Carbon=0.98 x20.1488 =19.7458 kg Imp. =0.8 x8.192kg =6.5536 kg Input (kg) 108.0000 75.4239 355.2804 28.7840 20.1488 8.1920 595.8291

Components Cystine NaCl HO HCl Carbon Impurities

Output (kg) Waste cake 8.6400 2.2627 21.3168 0.8635 19.7458 6.5536 59.3824 595.8291 Filtrate 99.3600 73.1612 333.9636 27.9205 0.4030 1.6384 536.4467

6.6 NEUTRALIZATION TANK 2

NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O = 27.9205/36.46 = 0.7657 moles Amount of HCl reacted

29

Amount of NaOH required = 0.7657 x 40 = 30.6280 kg 5% NaOH solution is required. Water required to neutralize 536.4467 kg of filtrate = 536.4467 x 0.95 = 509.6244 kg Water=509.6244 kg NaOH=30.6280 kg NEUTRALIZATION TANK 2 Cystine=99.36kg NaCl=73.1612 +44.7658 =117.9271kg H2O =333.9636 +509.6244+3.7826 =857.3706 kg Carbon= 0.403 kg Imp. = 1.6384 kg Output (kg) 99.3600 117.9271 857.3706 0.4030 1.6384 1076.6991

Cystine=99.36 kg HCl=27.9205 kg NaCl=73.1612 kg Carbon=0.403 kg Water=333.9636 kg Imp.=1.6384 kg

Components Cystine NaCl H2O HCl Carbon Impurities NaOH

Input (kg) 99.3600 73.1612 843.5880 27.9205 0.4030 1.6384 30.6289 1076.6991

6.7 FILTER PRESS 3

Loss of cystine is 10%. Brown cystine cake consists of 5% of NaCl. 5% of moisture. 50% loss of impurities. Cystine=99.36 kg NaCl=117.9271 kg H2O=857.3706kg Carbon=0.403 kg Imp. =1.6384 kg FILTER PRESS 3 Filtrate solution Cystine=9.936 kg H2O=814.5021 kg NaCl=112.0307 kg Carbon=0.403 kg Imp. =0.8192 kg 30 Brown cake Cystine=0.9x99.36 =89.4240 kg NaCl=0.05x117.9271 =5.8964 kg H2O=0.05x857.3706 =42.8685 kg Imp. =0.50x1.638 =0.8192 kg

Components NaCl H2O Cystine Carbon Impurities

Input (kg) 117.9271 857.3706 99.3600 0.4030 1.6384 1076.6991

Output (kg) Filtrate 112.0307 814.5021 9.9360 0.4030 0.8192 937.691 1076.6991 0.8192 139.0081 Brown cake 5.8964 42.8685 89.4240

6.8 DECOLORIZATION TANK 2

20% of HCl is required to dissolve Brown cystine cake. HCl required = 139.0081 x 0.2 = 27.8016 kg H2O required = 80% of 139.0081 = 111.2065 kg 10% of carbon is required to decolorize Brown Cystine cake. Carbon required = 139.0081 x 0.1 = 13.9008 kg HCl=27.8016 kg Water=111.2065 kg Carbon=13.9008 kg Cystine =89.4240 kg NaCl=5.8964 kg Water=42.8685 kg Impurities=0.8192 kg DECOLORIZATION TANK 2

Cystine =89.4240kg NaCl=5.8964 kg H2O=154.0750 kg HCl=27.8016 kg Imp. =0.8192 kg Carbon=13.9008 kg Output (kg) 89.4240 5.8964 154.0750 27.8016 0.8192 13.9008 291.9170

Components Cystine NaCl H2O HCl Impurities Carbon

Input (kg) 89.4240 5.8964 154.0750 27.8016 0.8192 13.9008 291.9170

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6.9 FILTER PRESS 4

Cystine loss-10%;NaCl loss-10%; HCl loss-5% In waste cake: Impurities-5% from its weight in feed Carbon-98% from its weight in feed. Cystine =89.4240 kg NaCl=5.8964 kg Carbon=13.9008 kg H2O=154.0750 kg HCl=27.8016 kg Imp. =0.8192 kg FILTER PRESS 4 Filtrate Cystine=80.4816kg NaCl=5.3068 kg H2O=146.3712 kg HCl=26.4115 kg Imp. =0.7782 kg Carbon=0.2780 kg

Waste cake Cystine=8.9424kg NaCl=0.5896 kg H2O=7.7038 kg HCl=1.3901 kg Imp. =0.0410 kg Carbon=13.6228kg Input (kg) 89.4240 5.8964 27.8016 0.8192 154.0750 13.9008 291.9170

Components Cystine NaCl HCl Impurities H2O Carbon

Output (kg) Waste cake 8.9424 0.5896 1.3901 0.0410 7.7038 13.6228 32.2897 291.9170 Filtrate 80.4816 5.3068 26.4115 0.7782 146.3712 0.2780 259.6273

6.10 FINAL NEUTRALIZATION TANK

NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O Amount of HCl required = 26.4115/36.46 = 0.7244 moles = 28.9760 kg Amount of NaOH required = 0.7244 x 40

10% NaOH solution is required to neutralize cystine solution. H2O required to neutralize 259.6273 kg of cystine solution=259.6273 x0.9=233.6646 kg

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Amount of NaCl formed = 0.7244 x 40 = 28.9760 kg Amount of H2O formed= 0.7244 x 18 =13.0392 kg

NaOH=28.9760 kg Water=233.6646 kg

Cystine=80.4816 kg NaCl=5.3068 kg Water=146.3712 kg HCl=26.4115 kg Impurities=0.7782 kg Carbon=0.2780 kg

FINAL NEUTRALIZATION TANK

Cystine=80.4816kg NaCl=47.6551kg H2O=393.075kg Imp. =0.7782 kg Carbon=0.2780kg

Components Cystine NaOH Water HCl Impurities Carbon NaCl

Input (kg) 80.4816 28.9760 380.0358 26.4115 0.7782 0.2780 5.3068 522.2679

Output (kg) 80.4816 28.9760 380.0358 26.4115 0.7782 0.2780 5.3068 522.2679

6.11 CENTRIFUGE
15% Cystine loss. Impurities are reduced to 50%. Carbon is completely removed. 98% water loss. 98% NaCl loss. Cystine=80.4816 kg NaCl=47.6551 kg Water=393.0750 kg Imp. =0.7782 kg Carbon=0.2780 kg
CENTRIFUGE

Decanted water Cystine=12.0722kg Imp. =0.3891kg NaCl=46.7020kg Water=385.2135kg Carbon=0.2780kg 33

Cystine cake Cystine=68.4094kg NaCl=0.9531 kg Water=7.8615 kg Imp. =0.3891kg

Components Cystine Water NaCl Impurities Carbon

Input (kg) 80.4816 393.0750 47.6551 0.7782 0.2780 522.2679

Output (kg) Decanted water 12.0722 385.2135 46.7020 0.3891 0.2780 444.6548 522.2679 77.6131 Cystine cake 68.4094 7.8615 0.9531 0.3891

6.12 TRAY DRYER

98% of the total moisture is removed in this process. Cystine=68.4094 kg NaCl=0.9531 kg H2O=7.8615 kg Imp. =0.3891 kg Cystine=68.4094 kg NaCl=0.9531 kg H2O=0.1572 kg Imp. =0.3891kg

TRAY DRYER

H2O=7.7043kg Components Cystine Water NaCl Impurities Input (kg) 68.4094 7.8615 0.9531 0.3891 7.7043 77.6131 77.6131 7.7043 Output (kg) Water removed Cystine 68.4094 0.1572 0.9531 0.3891

PRODUCT
L-cystine = 68.4094 kg /batch = 136.8188 kg/day (Two batches in a day) Thus, L-cystine produced in an yr (300 working days) = 41tpa

34

ENERGY BALANCE

ENERGY BALANCE

35

Reference temperature: 25 C = 298.15 K Room temperature = 30 C =303.15 K Heat of formation (Hf cal/kmol) Na2CO3 (s) = -269.46 x 10 HCl (l) NaOH (l) NaCl (s) H2O (l) CO2 (g) = -39.85 x 10 = -112.193 x 10 = -98.321 x 10 = -68.3164 x 10 = -94.052 x 10 Specific heat constant (CP cal/mol K) Na2CO3 (s) = 28.9 HCl (l) NaOH (l) NaCl (s) H2O (l) CO2 (g) C (s) H2O (g) = 6.7 + 0.00084T = 9.4373 = 10.79 + 0.0042T = 18 = 10.34 + 0.00274T 195500/T = 2.673 + 0.002617T 116900/T = 8.22 + 0.00015T + 0.00000134 T

7.1 GLASS LINED REACTOR

110C

Hair + H2O + HCl

Hydrolyzed hair

HEAT ASSOCIATED WITH REACTANTS

303.15

QHCL = 480 x 10/36.46 (6.7 + 0.00084T) dT cal = 0.4576 x 10 kcal

298.15 303.15

QH2O = 320 x 10/18 (18) dT cal = 0.0889 x 10 kcal

298.15

Q reactant = 0.5465 x 10 kcal HEAT ASSOCIATED WITH PRODUCTS

383.15

QHCL = 470.4 x 10/36.46 (6.7 + 0.00084T) dT cal = 7.6614 x 10 kcal

298.15 383.15

QH2O = 313.6 x10/18 (18) dT cal =26.656 x 10 kcal

36

298.15 373.15

Evaporated acid: QH2O = 6.4 x10 /18 (8.22+ 1.5xE-4 T + 1.34xE-6 T ) dT

298.15

+ 6.4 x10/18 x (9729) = 3.6838 x 10 kcal

383.15

QHCL = 9.6 x10/36.46 (6.7 + 0.00084T) dT + 9.6 x10/18 x (3860)

298.15

= 1.1720 x 10 kcal Q product = 39.1732 x 10 kcal CHANGE IN ENERGY Q required = Q product Q reactant + H R = 39.1732 0.5465 + 0 = 38.6267 x 10 kcal Components HCl H2O(l) H2O(g) Heat of reaction Heat supplied 0 38.6267 39.1732 39.1732 Input (kcal) x 10 0.4576 0.0889 Output (kcal) x 10 7.6614 26.6560 1.1720

7.2 NEUTRALIZATION TANK 1

50C

Na2CO3 + 2HCl HR = (Hf) product For 1mole of Na2CO3 :

2NaCl + CO2 + H2O (Hf) reactant

STANDARD HEAT OF REACTION AT 298.15K

HR= {[2(-98.321) + (-94.052) + (-68.3164)] [(-269.46) + 2(-.85)]} x 10 = 9.8504 x 10 kcal 37

For 1367.5908/106 moles of Na2CO3 : HR= (- 9.8504 x 10) x 1367.5908/106 = -127.0879 x 10 kcal HEAT ASSOCIATED WITH REACTANTS
383.15

QHCL = 470.4 x10/36.46 (6.7 + 0.00084T) dT cal = 7.6614 x 10 kcal

298.15 383.15

QH2O = 730.0092 x10/18 (18) dT cal = 62.0508 x10 kcal

298.15 303.15

QNa2CO3=1367.5908 x10/106 (28.9) dT cal=18.6431 x10 kcal

298.15

Q reactant = 88.3553 x10 kcal HEAT ASSOCIATED WITH PRODUCTS

323.15

QNaCl = 1508.4785 x10 /58.46 (10.79 + 0.0042T) dT cal =7.8022 x10 kcal
298.15 323.15

QH2O = 962.2416 x10 /18 (18) dT cal = 24.056 x10 kcal

298.15 323.15

Qcystine = 120 x10 /240.31 (141.2) dT cal = 1.7627 x10 kcal

298.15 323.15

QCO2=567.6792 x10/44 (10.34+0.00274T195500/T)dT cal = 2.9552 x10 kcal

298.15

38

Q product = 36.5761 x10 kcal CHANGE IN ENERGY Q required = Q product Q reactant + H R = (36.5761 88.3553 127.0879) x10= - 178.8671 x10 kcal Components HCl H2O(l) Na2CO3 NaCl Cystine CO2 Heat of reaction Heat released 215.4432 127.0879 178.8671 215.4432 Input (kcal) x10 7.6614 62.0508 18.6431 7.8022 1.7627 2.9552 24.0560 Output (kcal) x10

7.3 NEUTRALIZATION TANK 2

50C

NaOH + HCl

NaCl + H2O

STANDARD HEAT OF REACTION AT 298.15K HR = (Hf) product For 1mole of NaOH HR = {[(-98.321) + (-68.3164)] [(-112.193) + (-39.85)]} X10 = 14.5944 x10 kcal For 30.628/40 moles of NaOH HR = (-14.5944 x10) x 30.628/40 = -11.1749 x10 kcal HEAT ASSOCIATED WITH REACTANTS
303.15

(Hf) reactant

Qcystine = 99.36 x10/240.31 (141.2) dT cal = 0.2919x10 kcal

39

298.15 303.15

QNaCl = 73.1612 x10/58.46 (10.79 + 0.0042T) dT cal = 0.0754 x10 kcal

298.15 303.15

QNaOH = 30.628 x10 /40 (9.4373) dT cal = 0.0361 x10 kcal

298.15 303.15

QHCL = 27.9205 x10 /36.46 (6.7 + 0.00084T) dT cal = 0.0266 x10 kcal
298.15 303.15

QH2O = 843.588 x10/18 (18) dT cal = 4.2179 x10 kcal

298.15 303.15

Qcarbon = 0.403 x10/12 (2.673+0.002617T116900/T)dT cal = 0.0003 x10 kcal

298.15

Q reactant = 4.6482 x10 kcal HEAT ASSOCIATED WITH PRODUCTS

323.15

Qcystine = 99.36 x10/240.31 (141.2)dT cal = 1.4595 x10 kcal

298.15 323.15

QNaCl = 117.9271 x10/58.46 (10.79 + 0.0042T) dT cal =0.6099 x10kcal

298.15 323.15

QH2O = 857.3706 x10/18 (18) dT cal = 21.4343 x10 kcal

298.15

40

323.15

Qcarbon = 0.403 x10/12 (2.673+0.002617T116900/T)dT cal = 0.0019 x10 kcal

298.15

Q product = 23.5056 x10kcal CHANGE IN ENERGY Q required = Q product Q reactant + H R = (23.5056 4.6482 11.1749) x10 = 7.6825 x10 kcal Components Cystine NaCl H2O HCl Carbon NaOH Heat of reaction Heat supplied Input (kcal) x10 0.2919 0.0754 4.2179 0.0266 0.0003 0.0361 11.1749 7.6845 23.5056 23.5056 0.0019 Output(kcal) x10 1.4595 0.6099 21.4343

7.4 FINAL NEUTRALIZATION TANK

50C

NaOH + HCl HR = (Hf) product For 1mole of NaOH:

NaCl + H2O (Hf) reactant

STANDARD HEAT OF REACTION AT 298.15K

HR = {[(-98.321) + (-68.3164)] [(-112.193) + (-39.85)]} x10= 14.5944 x10 kcal For 28.976/40 moles of NaOH: HR= (-14.5944 x10) x 28.976/40 = -10.5722 x10 kcal HEAT ASSOCIATED WITH REACTANTS
303.15

Qcystine = 80.4816 x10 /240.31 (141.2) dT cal = 0.2364 x10 kcal

41

298.15 303.15

QNaCl = 5.3068 x10 /58.46 (10.79 + 0.0042T) dT cal = 0.0055 x10 kcal
298.15 303.15

QNaOH = 28.976 x10 /40 (9.4373) dT cal = 0.0342 x10 kcal

298.15 303.15

QHCL = 26.4115 x10 /36.46 (6.7 + 0.00084T) dT cal = 0.0334 x10 kcal
298.15 303.15

QH2O = 380.0358 x10 /18 (18) dT cal = 1.9002 x10 kcal

298.15 303.15

Qcarbon = 0.278 x10 /12 (2.673+0.002617T116900/T)dT cal = 0.0002 x10 kcal

298.15

Q reactant = 2.2099 x10 kcal HEAT ASSOCIATED WITH PRODUCTS

323.15

Qcystine =80.4816x10/240.31 (141.2) dT cal=1.1822 x10kcal

298.15 323.15

QNaCl = 47.6551 x10/58.46 (10.79 + 0.0042T) dT cal = 0.2464 x10kcal

298.15 323.15

QH2O = 393.075 x10/18 (18) dT cal = 9.8269 x10 kcal

298.15

42

323.15

Qcarbon = 0.278 x10/12 (2.673+0.002617T116900/T)dT cal = 0.0013 x10 kcal

298.15

Q product = 11.2568 x10kcal CHANGE IN ENERGY Q required = Q product Q reactant + H R = 11.2568 2.2099 10.5722 = -1.5253 x10 kcal Components Cystine NaOH H2O HCl Carbon NaCl Heat of reaction Heat released 12.7821 Input(kcal) x10 0.2364 0.0342 1.9002 0.0334 0.0002 0.0055 10.5722 1.5253 12.7821 0.0013 0.2464 9.8269 Output(kcal) x10 1.1822

7.5 TRAY DRYER

HEAT ASSOCIATED WITH REACTANTS
303.15

Qcystine = 68.4094 x10 /240.31 (141.2) dT cal = 0.2010 x10 kcal

298.15 303.15

QNaCl = 0.9531 x10 /58.46 (10.79 + 0.0042T) dT cal = 0.0001 x10kcal

298.15 303.15

QH2O = 7.8615 x10/18 (18) dT cal = 0.0393 x10 kcal

298.15

43

Q reactant = 0.2404 x10kcal HEAT ASSOCIATED WITH PRODUCTS

393.15

Qcystine = 68.4094 x10/240.31 (141.2) dT cal =3.8186 x10 kcal

298.15 393.15

QNaCl = 0.9531 x10/58.46 (10.79 + 0.0042T)dT cal = 0.0189 x10kcal

298.15 393.15

QH2O = 0.1572 x10/18 (18) dT cal = 0.0149 x10kcal

298.15 393.15

Evaporated water: QH2O = 7.7043 x10/18 (8.22+ 1.5xE-4 T + 1.34xE-6 T ) dT

298.15

+ 7.7043 x10/18 x (9729) = 4.4345 x10kcal Q product = 8.2869 x10kcal CHANGE IN ENERGY Q required = H product H reactant = (8.2869 0.2404 ) x10 = 8.0465 x10kcal Components Cystine H2O(l) NaCl H2O(g) Heat supplied 8.0465 8.2869 8.2869 Input(kcal) x10 0.2010 0.0393 0.0001 Output(kcal) x10 3.8186 0.0149 0.0189 4.5071

44

DESIGN

DESIGN
8.1 DESIGN OF REACTOR VESSEL
Data: Density of water = 1000kg/m

45

Density of HCl Density of Hair Amount of HCL Amount of Hair Volume of HCL Volume of Hair Total volume

= 84.3681 kg/m = 237 kg/m = 480 kg = 800 kg = 480/845.3681 = 0.5678 m = 800/237 = 3.3755 m = 4.2633 m

Amount of water = 320 kg

Volume of water = 320/1000 = 0.32 m

Let us take 10% excess volume Working volume = 4.2633(1+0.1) = 4.6896 m Working volume = volume of cylindrical portion + Volume of conical portion = { x (Dt/2) x Hcy} + { /3x (Dt/2) x Hconi} Where, Dt Diameter of Vessel (m) Hcy Height of Cylindrical Portion (m) Hconi Height of Conical portion (m) Ht Height of Reactor Vessel (m) { x (Dt/2) x Hcy} + { /3x (Dt/2) x Hconi} = 4.6896 Hcy = 2Dt & Hconi = Dt /2 { x (Dt/2) x 2Dt } + { /3x (Dt/2) x Dt /2} = 4.6896 /2 x Dt + /24 x Dt = 4.6896 13 /24 x Dt = 4.6896 Dt = 1.402 m Hcy = 2Dt = 2.804 m Hconi = Dt /2 = 0.701 m Ht = Hcy + Hconi = 3.505 m Thickness of cylindrical portion = pDt = 2f 46 gHcy x Dt = 7861.093 x 9.81x 2.804 x 1.402 2fs 2x (5 x106)

= 0.0303 m = 3.03 cm Thickness of lining = 20% of Thickness of cylindrical portion = 0.2 x 3.03 = 0.06 cm Thickness of conical head = pDt/2f cos = gHconi x Dt = 7861.093 x 9.81x 0.701x 1.402 2fs cos 2x (9.8 x106) xcos45 = 0.0055 m = 5.5 mm Where, fs Shear Stress (kg/cm) P Pressure exerted (N/m) AGITATOR Da =Diameter of Agitator = 1/3 Dt = 0.4673 m Let us assume the speed of agitator u as 350 rpm DaN = u x 0.4673 x N = 350 N = speed of motor = 238.4089 rpm = 3.9734 rps Reynolds number NRe = NDa/ = density = 237 kg/m = viscosity = 6.002 x 10-4 kg/ms NRe = 342614 > 104, thus turbulent region From NRe vs. power number (Np) table : Np = 5 Power number Np = P/( x N x Da5) P = Np x x N x Da5 = 5 x 237 x (3.9734) x (0.46735) = 1656.4721 watts = 1.6565 kw = 2.2214 HP 25% excess power P = 2.2214 (1+0.25) = 2.7768 HP

47

Shaft diameter Tc = Torque = HP x 75 x 60/ 2 N = 2.7768 x 75 x 60 = 8.3417 Nm 2 x 238.4089 Tmax = c x Tc = 1.9 x 8.3417 = 15.8492 Nm ZP = Polar Modulus of shaft = Tmax/fs = 15.8492/ (5 x 106) = 3.1698 x 10-6 m ds/16 = ZP ds = 0.0253 m Some standard ratios Da/ Dt = 1/3 E/Dt = 1/3 L/Da = W/Da = 1/5 H/Dt = 1 J/Dt = 1/12 E = height of impellor above vessel floor = 0.4673 m L = length of impellor blade = 0.1168 m W = width of impellor = 0.0935 m H =depth of liquid in vessel = 1.402 m J = width of baffle = 0.1168 m

DESIGN SUMMARY Diameter of Vessel (Dt) = 1.402 m Height of Cylindrical Portion (Hcy) = 2.804 m Height of Conical portion (Hconi) = 0.701 m Height of Reactor Vessel (Ht) = 3.505 m Thickness of cylindrical portion = 3.03 cm

48

Thickness of lining = 0.06 cm Thickness of conical head = 0.55 cm Diameter of Agitator (Da) =0.4673 m Shaft diameter (ds) = 0.0253 m Height of impellor above vessel floor (E) = 0.4673 m Length of impellor blade (L) = 0.1168 m Width of impellor (W) = 0.0935 m Depth of liquid in vessel (H) = 1.402 m Width of baffle (J) = 0.1168 m

49

FIGURE 8.1 REACTOR

8.2 DESIGN OF FILTER PRESS

50

Basis: Carbon water slurry: 13.91kg of C /154.08 kg H2O = 0.09 kg of C /kg of H2O Specific gravity of carbon = 1.8 Assumptions: A plate and frame filter with frame 0.3 m The press takes 120s to dismantle. 120s to reassemble. 120s to remove cake from each layer. Pressure = 275 KN/ m = 275 x 10 N/m Cake porosity = = 0.5 Let n be the no. of frames and d thickness of frame. Total time for one complete cycle = Tf + 120n +240 sec Overall rate of filtration = Vf Tf + 120n +240 For constant rate of filtration Vf = P A Tf / c Where, Vf = volume of filtrate (m) Tf = time for filtration (s) P= pressure difference = (275-101.3) x 10 N/ m A = area = 2n x 0.09 = 0.18n m = viscosity = 10-3 kgm/s c =mass of solid deposited on filter per unit volume of filtrate =13.6228 (146.3712/1000) = specific cake resistance = 8.8 x 107 x [1+ 1.64 x 10x (P)0.86] m/kg Vf = volume of frames Volume of cake per unit volume of filtrate Vf = P A Tf c (0.9 nd) = (275-101.3) x 10 x (0.18n) x Tf 93 x 10-3 x (0.9 nd) = 1.28 n Tf x 10-5 = 0.3 nd 0.09/ (0.5x1.8) = 0.9nd = 93 kg/m

51

 Tf = 6.328 x 104 d Let us take overall rate of filtration as 1.25 x 10-4 m/s 1.25 x 10-4 = Vf Tf + 120n +240 1.25 x 10-4 = 0.9nd / (6.328 x 104 d +120n + 240) 7.91d + 0.0015 n + 0.03 = 0.9nd n = (7.91d + 0.03) / (0.9d - 0.0015) To find minimum number of trays: dn/dd = 0 (0.9d - 0.0015) (15.82d) - (7.91d + 0.03)0.9 = 0 14.238 d 0.0237d 7.119 d 0.027 = 0 7.119 d 0.0237d 0.027 = 0 d = 0.0633 m = 63.3 mm n = (7.91d + 0.03) / (0.9d - 0.0015) ~ 2 Tf = 253.56 sec Time for one complete cycle = Tf + 120n +240 = 733.56 sec Overall rate of filtration = 0.9 nd Tf + 120n +240 DESIGN SUMMARY Number of frames (n) = 2 Thickness of frame (d) = 63.3 mm Time of filtration (Tf) = 253.56 s Time for one cycle = 733.56 s Overall rate of filtration = 1.55 x 10-4 m/s Pressure = 275 KN/m Area of filter (A) = 0.9 m = 1.55 x 10-4 m/s

52

FIGURE 8.2 FILTER PRESS 8.3 DESIGN OF STORAGE TANK

53

Basis: Storage for one month Material construction stainless steel Data: Density of stainless steel = 7700 kg/m Density of NaCl = 2160 kg/m Density of H2O = 1000 kg/m Density of cystine = 1671 kg/m Density of carbon = 1800 kg/m Amount of NaCl = 224.0651 kg Amount of H2O = 1629.0068 kg Amount of cystine = 19.872 kg Amount of carbon = 0.806 kg Volume of NaCl = 0.1037 m Volume of H2O = 1.629 m Volume of cystine = 0.0119 m Volume of carbon = 0.0005 m Total volume = 1.7451 m Average density = total mass/ total volume = 1073.72 kg/m Volume per batch = 1.7451 m 2 batches per day volume per day = 3.5 m 25 working days in a month volume per month = 87.5 m Assume H/D ratio as 0.5 Volume V = /4 DH 87.5 = /4 D (0.5 D) 87.5 = /8 D3 D = 6.06 m H = 0.5 D = 3.03 m Giving 10% allowance

54

D = 6.06(1+0.1) = 6.666 m H = 3.03(1+0.1) = 3.333 m Pressure p = avg. density x g x H = 1073.72 x 9.81 x 3.333 = 35107.133 N/m = 35.1071 KN/m Design pressure p = 35.1071 (1+0.1) = 38.6178 kN/m As the diameter is less than 15m, assume minimum steel thickness as 5mm. DESIGN SUMMARY Diameter of tank (D) = 6.666 m Height of tank (H) = 3.333 m Design pressure (p) = 38.6178 kN/m Plate thickness = 5 mm

55

FIGURE 8.3 STORAGE TANK

A -Storage tank; B - solution; C - Sludge; D - Tank roof; E - Loading valve; F - Riser; G - Pump hose ; H - Bottom hose; J - Main valve.

56

COST ESTIMATION

COST ESTIMATION
Number of working days per year = 300 Cost of 1kg of L-Cystine = Rs 1,10,000 Production of L-Cystine = 136.8188 kg/day Gross sales for 1 yr or total income =110000x136.8188x 300 = Rs 450,00,00,000

TURN OVER RATIO:

57

It can be defined as the ratio of total income to fixed capital investment. Turn over ratio = Total Income Fixed capital Investment For chemical industries the turn over ratio is one. Thus, Fixed capital investment = Gross Annual Sales = Rs 450,00,00,000 But, Fixed capital investment = Direct cost + Indirect cost

DIRECT COST:
It is taken as 70% of the fixed capital investment= 0.7 x 4500000000 = Rs 3,37,50,00,000 The costs involved in the direct cost are, i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. Equipment cost Installation & Painting cost Instrumentation Cost Electrical cost Piping Cost Building, process and auxiliary cost Service facilities & yard improvement cost Land cost

Equipment cost It is taken as 24% of fixed capital investment = 0.24 x 4500000000 = Rs 108,00,00,000 Painting and installation cost It is taken as 40% of the equipment cost = 0.4 x 1080000000 = Rs 43,20,00,000 Instrumentation cost It can be taken as 10% of equipment cost = 0.1 x 1080000000 = Rs 10,80,00,000

58

Piping cost It is 25% of the equipment cost = 0.25 x 108000000 = Rs 27,00,00,000 Electrical cost It can be taken as 25% of equipment cost = 0.25 x 108000000 = Rs 27,00,00,000 Building, process and auxiliary cost It is 39.1677% of equipment cost = 0.391677 x 108000000 = Rs 42,30,00,400 Service facilities & yard improvement cost It can be taken as 40% of equipment cost = 0.1 x 1080000000 = Rs 10,80,00,000 Land cost It is usually taken as 1% of fixed capital cost = 0.01 x 4500000000 = Rs 4,50,00,000 INDIRECT COST: Indirect cost = Fixed Capital Investment Direct Cost = 4500000000 3375000000 = Rs 1,12,50,00,000 It consists of the following items i. ii. iii. Engineering and supervision cost Contingency Working capital

Engineering and supervision cost It can be taken as 10% of equipment cost = 0.1 x 1080000000 = Rs 10,80,00,000 Contingency It can be taken as 3.7% of fixed capital = 0.037 x 4500000000 = Rs 16,65,00,000 Working capital It is 20% of total capital investment Total capital investment = fixed capital + working capital

59

= 4500000000 + (0.2 x 4500000000) = Rs 5,40,00,00,000 Working capital = 0.2 x 5400000000 = Rs 1,08,00,00,000 Estimation of total product cost Annual income = Rs 45,00,00,00,00 Gross earning is 10% of annual income = 0.1 x 4500000000 = Rs 45,00,00,000 Product cost = Total annual income Gross earnings = 4500000000 450000000 = Rs 4,05,00,00,000 Direct production cost It can be taken as 60% of the total product cost = 0.6 x 4050000000 = Rs 2,43,00,00,000 Raw materials cost It is 2% of the total product cost = 0.02 x 4050000000 = Rs 8,10,00,000 Operating labor cost It can be taken as 15% of total product cost = 0.15 x 4050000000 = Rs 60,75,00,000 Direct supervisory & clinical labor cost It is 20% of operating labor cost = 0.2 x 607500000 = Rs 12,15,00,000

Utilities It can be taken as 15% of total product cost = 0.15 x 4050000000 = Rs 60,75,00,000 Maintenance & repair cost It is 3.6% of fixed capital investment cost = 0.036 x 4500000000 = Rs 16,20,00,000 Laboratory charges It is taken as 6.67% of operating labor cost = 0.0667 x 607500000 = Rs 4,05,20,300

60

Royalties It is taken as 1.45% of the fixed capital cost = 0.0145 x 4500000000 = Rs 6,52,50,000 Fixed charges It can be taken as 20% of product cost = 0.2 x 4050000000 = Rs 81,00,00,000 Plant overheads This includes cost for general upkeep and overhead packaging, medical services, safety and protection, recreation, sewage, laboratories, and storage facilities. It is 5% of the total product cost = 0.05 x 4050000000 = Rs 20,25,00,000 Depreciation Depreciation for machinery is 10% of fixed capital cost = 0.1 x 4500000000 = Rs 45,00,00,000 Depreciation of building is 3% of the land cost = 0.03 x 45000000 = Rs 13,50,000 Total depreciation value = 4500000000 1350000 = Rs 44,86,50,000 Insurance It is 1% of the fixed capital cost = 0.01 x 4500000000 = Rs 45000000 Rent value It is 3.033% of the total product cost = 0.03033 x 4050000000 = Rs 12,28,36,500 General expenses Administrative cost includes cost for officer, legal fees, office supplier and communication. It is 5% of the total; product cost = 0.05 x 4050000000 = Rs 20,25,00,000 Distribution and selling cost

61

It accounts for 7% of the total product cost = 0.07 x 4050000000 = Rs 28,35,00,000 Research and development cost It is 1% of the total product cost = 0.01x 4050000000 = Rs 4,05,00,000 Financing It is 2% of the total product cost = 0.02 x 4050000000 = Rs 8,10,00,000 Net profit It is obtained after deduction of taxes from the Gross Earnings. Net profit is 40% of the Gross Earnings = 0.4 x 4500000000 = Rs 1,80,00,00,000 Determination of Pay-Back period (without interest charges) = = = 2 yrs. Depreciable fixed capital investment (Average profit + average depreciation)/yr 4500000000 (1800000000 + 450000000)

62

PLANT LAYOUT AND LOCATION

PLANT LAYOUT AND LOCATION

A suitable site must be found for a new project, and the site and equipment layout planned.

10.1 PLANT LOCATION AND SITE SELECTION

The geographical location of the final plant can have strong influence on the success of the industrial venture. Considerable care must be exercised in selecting the plant site, and many different factors must be considered. The location of the plant can also have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project. The choice of the final site should first be based on a complete survey of the advantages and disadvantages of various geographical areas and ultimately, on the advantages and disadvantages of the available real estate. The various principal factors

63

that must be considered while selecting a suitable plant site are briefly discussed in this section. The factors to be considered are: 1. Raw material availability. 2. Location, with respect to the marketing area. 3. Availability of suitable land. 4. Transport facilities. 5. Availability of labors. 6. Availability of utilities (Water, Electricity). 7. Environmental impact and effluent disposal. 8. Local community considerations. 9. Climate. 10. Political strategic considerations. 11. Taxations and legal restrictions 10.1.1 RAW MATERIALS AVAILABILITY: The source of raw materials is one of the most important factors influencing the selection of a plant site. Attention should be given to the purchased price of the raw materials, distance from the source of supply, freight and transportation expenses, availability and reliability of supply, purity of raw materials and storage requirements. 10.1.2 LOCATION: The location of markets or intermediate distribution centers affects the cost of product distribution and time required for shipping. Proximity to the major markets is an important consideration in the selection of the plant site, because the buyer usually finds advantageous to purchase from near-by sources. 10.1.3 AVAILABILITY OF SUITABLE LAND: The characteristics of the land at the proposed plant site should be examined carefully. The topography of the tract of land structure must be considered, since either or both may have a pronounced effect on the construction costs. The cost of the land is important, as well as local building costs and living conditions. Future changes may make it desirable or necessary to expand the plant facilities.

64

10.1.4 TRANSPORT The transport of materials and products to and from plant will be an overriding consideration in site selection. If practicable, a site should be selected so that it is close to at least two major forms of transport: road, rail, waterway or a seaport. Road transport is being increasingly used, and is suitable for local distribution from a central warehouse. Rail transport will be cheaper for the long-distance transport. If possible the plant site should have access to all three types of transportation. 10.1.5 AVAILABILITY OF LABORS: Labors will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled construction workers will usually be brought in from outside the site, but there should be an adequate pool of unskilled labors available locally; and labors suitable for training to operate the plant. Skilled tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance. 10.1.6 AVAILABILITY OF UTILITIES: The word utilities is generally used for the ancillary services needed in the operation of any production process. These services will normally be supplied from a central facility and includes Water, Fuel and Electricity which are briefly described as follows: Water: The water is required for large industrial as well as general purposes, starting with water for cooling, washing, steam generation and as a raw material. The plant therefore must be located where a dependable water supply is available namely lakes, rivers, wells, seas. If the water supply shows seasonal fluctuations, its desirable to construct a reservoir or to drill several standby wells Electricity: Power and steam requirements are high in most industrial plants and fuel is ordinarily required to supply these utilities. Power, fuel and steam are required for running the various equipments like generators, motors, turbines, plant lightings and general use and thus be considered as one major factor is choice of plant site.

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10.1.7 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND EFFLUENT DISPOSAL: Facilities must be provided for the effective disposal of the effluent without any public nuisance. In choosing a plant site, the permissible tolerance levels for various effluents should be considered and attention should be given to potential requirements for additional waste treatment facilities. The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents will be covered by local regulations, and the appropriate authorities must be consulted during the initial site survey to determine the standards that must be met 10.1.8 LOCAL COMMUNITY CONSIDERATIONS: The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose a significant additional risk to the community. 10.1.9 CLIMATE: Adverse climatic conditions at site will increase costs. Extremes of low temperatures will require the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment and piping. Similarly, excessive humidity and hot temperatures pose serious problems and must be considered for selecting a site for the plant. Stronger structures will be needed at locations subject to high wind loads or earthquakes. 10.1.10 POLITICAL AND STRATEGIC CONSIDERATIONS Capital grants, tax concessions, and other inducements are often given by governments to direct new investment to preferred locations; such as areas of high unemployment. The availability of such grants can be the overriding consideration in site selection. 10.1.11 TAXATION AND LEGAL RESTRICTIONS: State and local tax rates on property income, unemployment insurance, and similar items vary from one location to another. Similarly, local regulations on zoning, building codes, nuisance aspects and others facilities can have a major influence on the final choice of the plant site.

10.2 THE SITE LAYOUT

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The process units and ancillary buildings should be laid out to give the most economical flow of materials and personnel around the site. Hazardous processes must be located at a safe distance from other buildings. Consideration must also be given to the future expansion of the site. The ancillary buildings and services required on a site, in addition to the main processing units will include: 1. Raw material and Product Storage. 2. Maintenance Workshop. 3. Stores for maintenance and operating supplies. 4. Laboratories for process control. 5. Fire Station and other emergency services. 6. Utilities: steam boilers, compressed air, power generation, refrigeration, transformers. 7. Effluent disposal plant. 8. Offices for general administration. 9. Canteens and other amenity buildings, such as medical Centre. 10. Car parks.

10.3 PLANT LAY OUT

After the flow process diagrams are completed and before detailed piping, structural and electrical design can begin, the layout of process units in a plant and the equipment within these process unit must be planned. This layout can play an important part in determining construction and manufacturing costs, and thus must be planned carefully with attention being given to future problems that may arise. Thus the economic construction and efficient operation of a process unit will depend on how well the plant and equipment specified on the process flow sheet is laid out. The principal factors that are considered are listed below: 1. Economic considerations: construction and operating costs. 2. Process requirements. 3. Convenience of operation. 4. Convenience of maintenance. 5. Health and Safety considerations. 6. Future plant expansion.

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7. Modular construction. 10.3.1 COSTS: The coat of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the shortest run of connecting pipe between equipment, and least amount of structural steel work. However, this will not necessarily be the best arrangement. 10.3.2 PROCESS REQUIREMENTS: An example of the need to take into account process consideration is the need to elevate the base of columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to a pump. 10.3.3 CONVENIENCE OF OPERATION: Equipment that needs to have frequent attention should be located convenient to the control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at convenient positions and heights. Sufficient working space and headroom must be provided 10.3.4 CONVENIENCE OF MAINTENANCE: Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily withdrawn for cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst or packing should be located on the out side of buildings. Equipment that requires dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should be places under cover. 10.3.5 HEALTH AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS: Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and confine the effects of an explosion. At least two escape routes for operators must be provided from each level in process buildings. 10.3.6 FUTURE PLANT EXPANSION:

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Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future expansion of the process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs, and service pipes over-sized to allow for future requirements. 10.3.7 MODULAR CONSTRUCTION: In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant manufacturers site. These modules will include the equipment, structural steel, piping and instrumentation. The modules are then transported to the plant site, by road or sea. The advantages of modular construction are: 1. Improved quality control. 2. Reduced construction cost. 3. Less need for skilled labors on site. The disadvantages of modular construction are: 1. Higher design costs & more structural steel work. 2. More flanged constructions & possible problems with assembly, on site.

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FIGURE 10.1 SITE LAYOUT

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SAFETY AND LOSS PREVENTION

SAFETY AND LOSS PREVENTION

Any organization has a legal and moral obligation to safeguard the health and welfare of its employees and the general public. Safety and loss prevention in process design can be considered under the following broad headings.

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Identification and assessment of hazards. Control of the hazards; for example, by containment of flammable and toxic materials. Control of the process.

Process can be divided into those that are intrinsically safe and those for which the safety has to be engineered in. an intrinsically safe process is one in which safe operation is inherent in the nature of the process. The designer should always select a process that is inherently safe whenever it is practical and economical. The process that we are employing to manufacture l-cystine is inherently safe. However in most chemical manufacturing processes, dangerous situations can develop if the process conditions deviate from the design values. Some of the process hazards are listed. 1. Toxic materials 2. Dust explosion. 3. low temperature 4. Flammable materials 5. Corrosion and erosion 6. Leakage joints and packing

PREVENTIVE AND PROTECTIVE MEASURES

The basic safety and fire protective measures that should be included in all chemical process designs are listed below. 1. Adequate and secure water supplies for fire fighting. 2. Correct structural design of vessels, piping and steel work. 3. Pressure relief devices. 4. Earthing of electrical equipments. 5. Adequate separation of hazardous equipments. 6. Safe design and location of control rooms.

PREVENTIVE MEASURES - CATEGORIES

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1. Those that reduce the number of incidents such as, sound mechanical design of equipment and piping, operating and maintenance procedures and operator training. 2. Those that reduce the scale of a potential incident such as, measures for fire protection and fixed fire fighting equipments. The other common safety measures followed in the process industry are: 1. Compulsory wearing of helmets. 2. Wearing goggles while working in the furnace, any other fired equipment. 3. Wearing gloves while handling chemicals. 4. Wearing leather shoes in order to protect the legs from heavy materials.

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MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
The most important characteristics to be considered when selecting a material of construction are: 1. Mechanical properties. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Strength tensile strength Stiffness elastic modulus (youngs modulus) Toughness fracture resistance Hardness wear resistance Fatigue and creep resistance

2. The effect of high and low temperatures on the mechanical properties. 3. Corrosion resistance.

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4. Any special properties required such as, thermal conductivity, electrical resistance, magnetic properties. 5. Ease of fabrication forming, welding, casting. 6. Availability in standard sizes plates, sections, tubes. 7. Cost.

12.1 REACTOR
The reactor is a glass-lined equipment. Its main body is made of high quality carbon steel lined with special silicate glass by firing them at high temperature. The glass-lined equipment, therefore, has high mechanical features and corrosion resistance

12.2 NEUTRALIZATION TANK

Neutralization tank is cylindrical and have bolted down and gasketed covers. All hardware for bolting are stainless steel, gaskets are neoprene.

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12.3 DECOLORIZATION TANK

Decolorization tank is cylindrical in shape. It is made up of stainless steel as it is fairly corrosion resistant and has good mechanical properties.

INSTRUMENTATION
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AND CONTROL

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

The process flow sheet shows the arrangement of the major equipments and thus, the control of such major equipments is necessary.

13.1 INSTRUMENTS
Instruments are provided to monitor the key process variable during plant operation. They may be incorporated in automatic control loops, or used for the manual monitoring of the process operation. It is desirable that the process variable to be monitored be measured directly: Often, however, this is impractical and some dependent variable, that is easier to measure, is monitored in its place.

13.2 OBJECTIVES
13.2.1 SAFE PLANT OPERATION

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1) To keep the process variables within known safe limits. 2) To detect dangerous situations as they develop and to provide alarms and automatic shut down systems. 3) To provide inter locks and alarms to prevent dangerous operating procedures. 13.2.2 PRODUCTION RATE To achieve the design product output. 13.2.3 PRODUCT QUALITY To maintain the product composition within the specified quality standards. 13.2.4 COST To operate the lowest production cost, commensurate with the other objectives.

13.3 TYPICAL CONTROL SYSTEMS

13.3.1 LEVEL CONTROL In any equipment where an interface exists between two phases (liquid-vapor), some means of maintaining the interface at the required level must be provided. The control valve should be placed on the discharge line from the pump. In this process, a level control valve is used in the reactor, neutralization tanks and Decolorization tanks. 13.3.2 PRESSURE CONTROL Pressure control will be necessary for most systems handling vapor or gas. The method of control will depend on the nature of the process. 13.3.3 FLOW CONTROL Flow control is usually associated with inventory control in a storage tank or other equipment. There must be a reservoir to take up the changes in flow rate. To provide flow control on a compressor or pump running at a fixed speed and supplying a next constant 78

volume output, a by-pass would be used. Flow control valves are used in the reactors, neutralization tanks and Decolorization tanks to control the flow of input and output streams. 13.3.4 CASCADE CONTROL With this arrangement, output of one controller is used to adjust the set point of another. Cascade control can give smoother control in situations where direct control of the variable would lead to unstable operation. In reactor and neutralization tank 1 temperature control is cascaded with flow controls. 13.3.5 REACTOR CONTROL The schemes used for reactor control depend on the process and the type of the reactor. If a reliable on-line analyzer is available, and the reactor dynamics are suitable, the product composition can be monitored continuously and the reactor conditions and feed flows controlled automatically to maintain the desired product composition and yield. More often, the operator is the final link in the control loop, adjusting the controller set points to maintain the product within specification, based on periodic laboratory analyses. Reactor temperature will normally be controlled by regulating the flow of the heating or cooling medium. Pressure is held constant. Material balance control will be necessary to maintain the correct flow of reactants, products and unreacted materials.

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FC

FC TC

FC LC

FIGURE 13.1 STIRRED TANK REACTOR CONTROL SCHEME,

Temperature: cascade control, and Reagent: flow control

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CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION

In this project the dominant route for the manufacture of L-Cystine from Human Hair is discussed. The process is an acid hydrolysis extraction process and is done in batch operation. The yield obtained is 98% pure. This chapter provides a brief idea about the material and energy balance calculations, design of a reactor vessel, the layout of the plant and the pay back period in cost estimation. This process consists of raw materials of low cost and finally yields a product of commercially high cost.

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82

NOMENCLATURE

NOMENCLATURE
A Area of filter (m) CP Specific Heat Constant (cal/mol K) c Mass of solid deposited on filter per unit volume of filtrate ds Diameter of shaft (m) Dt Diameter of Vessel (m) Da Diameter of Agitator (m) d Thickness of frame (m) D Diameter of storage tank (m) E Height of Agitator above vessel floor (m) fs Shear Stress (kg/cm) g Gravitational acceleration (m/s) Hf Heat of Formation (kcal/mol) H Height of storage tank (m) Hcy Height of Cylindrical Portion (m)

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Hconi Height of Conical portion (m) Ht Height of Reactor Vessel (m) HR Heat of reaction (kcal/mole) H Depth of liquid in Vessel (m) J Width of Baffle (m) L Length of Blade (m) L Length of Agitator Blade (m) Np Power number N Rotational speed of Motor (rpm) NRe Reynolds number n Number of Frames in filter press P Power requirement for motor (Watts) P Pressure difference (N/m) p Design pressure for storage tank (N/m) Q Heat required (kcal) T Thickness of Vessel (m) Tc Torque (Nm) Tmax Maximum Torque (Nm) Tf Time for filtration (s) U Speed of Agitator (rpm) Vf Volume of filtrate (m) W Width of Blade (m) Zp Polar Modulus of shaft

Greek letters: Viscosity (kg/ms) Density (kg/m) specific cake resistance (m/kg) Cake porosity

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Douglas D. Schoon , John Halal Hair Structure & Chemistry Milady Publishing Company 1993 David Mautner Himmelblau Basic principles & Calculations in chemical engineering Prentice Hall PTR Publications 1996 Robert H Perry, Don W Green & James O Maloney Chemical Engineers Hand Book Mc Graw Hill Publications 1999 John Metcalfe Coulson, John Francis Richardson Plant Design & Economics for Chemical Engineers Butterworth and Heinemann Publications 2002 Warren L. McCabe, Julian C. Smith, Peter Harriot Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering Mc Graw Hill Publications 2004 Robert Ewald Treybal Mass Transfer operations Mc Graw Hill Publications 2000 M V Joshi, V V Mahajani Process Equipment Design Mac Millan Publications 2003 Max S Peters & Klaus D. Timmerhaus Plant Design & Economics for Chemical Engineers Mc Graw Hill Publications 2004

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