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The Transformation of the Beef Cattle Industry; with Regards to Artificial Insemination and the Usage of Hormones The status of the United States Cattle and Beef Industry is strongly rooted in its historical development, structure, and characteristics. Drawing on a detailed discussion of the industry, this report analyzes the importance and changes in the cattle and beef industry during the last sixty years while incorporating the history of the usage of hormones and the practices of artificial insemination (A.I.) Trends in new technology, policies, economic forces and other factors have sparked the changes and thus the impacts those changes have made will be examined. This report will serve as a basis to where the cattle and beef industry has been and to where it may be going. The way in which the U.S. cattle and beef industry has developed over time and the resulting structure of those developments have contributed to the type and the extent of the impact that the industry offers the consumers. The transformation of the beef industry over the last sixty years has had a huge impact on practice by incorporating new technologies such as artificial insemination and the introduction of hormone usage in the cattle which in turn has led to a huge increase in production and efficiency. The manner in which the industry operates is in central focus by detailing the history; particularly the structure and characteristics of the industry that includes new technology in reproduction, feeding, and slaughtering. By analyzing the past, historians are able to identify the direction in which the trends of this technology will go and how it will impact future farmers, consumers, and other individuals that are and can be associated to this business. The developments surrounding the incorporation of new reproduction trends and techniques as well as where these trends have surfaced from is a very important facet

of the beef industry and will be focused on in this research. The developments and trends in the past have shaped our current condition of the industry as well as giving consultants the power to make the best possible solutions for the future. With that power, consultants can properly assess herds in regards to the growth, product, and types, in accordance to trends. A significant assessment of the reasons for such changes within the industry offers an insight to the industry as well as to the beef consumers of the United States. In addition to changes in reproduction patterns within the cattle and beef industry, historians can find that the structure and general practices of the industry are ever changing and by evaluating those past practices, the industry can become more efficient as well as versatile. When estimating the impact of those changes, one must take into consideration the change from ranching to feed lots in the 1930s as well as the governments influence on the growth and regulation of the farmers. The number of farms has significantly changed along with the economic changes and number of agriculture jobs slowly diminishing over the last sixty years. In addition, consideration must be given to other features of the United States revolutions. For example, health conscious consumers have paved a new market for specific beef and the trends have tended to change with this existence

Of all these factors, the economic influence regarding the cattle and beef Industry seems to have had the largest impact on the industry in regards to supply, demand, and profitability. The idea of profitability ties directly into efficiency of the herd and the incorporation of new technologies into their programs as well as the fluctuation of government control, consumer trends, and the durability and stability of the cattle that are being bred.

National Agricultural Statistics Sevices, "Number of all Cattle and Beef Cow Operations." Last modified Feb 19, 2013. Accessed December 6, 2013. http://www.nass.usda.gov/Charts_and_Maps/Cattle/acbc_ops.asp. 2 James McGrann, The United States Beef Cattle Industry: Production, Structure and Trends. (lecture., Texas A&M University, ), http://agrilife.org/coastalbend/files/2012/06/The-United-States-Beef-Cattle-Industry-8-9-2010.pdf.

Artificial insemination is a key point when focusing on those new technologies from the past sixty years. First and foremost, artificial insemination which made its way into cattle reproduction practices since 1936 has proven to be a key element in the efficiency of the farmers and ranchers. Although like many new applications, artificial insemination receives a lot of controversy about moral and safety issues; both sides of the argument will be discussed within this research. The relationship that artificial insemination has with the industry is one of great importance. Artificial insemination has shaped the way the industry replenishes its supply as well as encouraged more farmers into efficient programs for their herds. This relatively easy procedure can be performed by any trained person and therefore diminishes the cost of outsourced labor, but often times is outsourced which offers more precision and more opportunity for jobs. This enables the farmer to assess his herd which in turn provides room for efficient changes and growth to his herd and profitability. The cattle and beef industry is a business and all these practices help to aid its efficiency. Artificial insemination offers one fascinating thing: it provides farmers access to genetics that they otherwise would not be able to afford. For example, an Angus bull can vary from $1000 to $20,000 plus the annual veterinarian and feed costs of that particular bull.

Of all the practices within the beef and cattle industry the one that receives the most anguish is the incorporation of hormones. Whether it is the incorporation of hormones into the feed or injection of hormones, this issue is very controversial even though the United States government has put regulations and safety measures in place. In this research, both sides will be taken into consideration, as well as the focus on the application of hormones and exactly where they fit into the industry. The U.S cattle and beef industrys means of production, processing, and marketing have undergone substantial changes over the last two hundred years: it is as old as this country and has had to accommodate to the fluctuations that all nations undergo. To fully understand the industry during the last sixty years, the history of the beef cattle industry before that has to be taken into consideration. Domesticated meat and draft animals are not native to the United States, but brought to this country by Europeans. Early cattle were merely used primarily for draft

Dhuyvetter, Kevin, Tyler Turner, Twig Martson, and Rodney Jones. "Factors In uencing the Selling Prices of Purebred Angus Bulls." lecture., Kansas State University, 2004. http://www.agmanager.info/livestock/budgets/production/beef/KSU-Angus Bull Prices.pdf.

and milk which exhibited a phenotype of a large-framed, light muscled, and slow finishing; meaning slow growing to the ideal market weight. The improvement of these shameful meat animals strived to create a reduced frame size, increase thickness, and ability to finish at a younger age which continued to trend until the 1950s.4 During the mid-eighteen hundreds, cattle were being raised on the open range. These cattle were descendants of Spanish Longhorns that had crossed the Rio Grande River from Mexico. These cattle thrived on the grass of the plains and exhibited very hardy characteristics. The cow hands ranched these cattle until and following the Civil War. Great trail drives sent these cattle southwest to Kansas and east where consumers acquired a taste for beef. During these times, ranches began practicing efficient breeding practices. The breed of cattle that the farmers were using in their herds became very important.5 Black Angus rose to the top of the totem pole to become the more prevalent beef producing breed in the United States after being imported in 1873. Their efficiency of a breed, the ability to turn grazing into bodyweight and seldom occurring dystocia (difficult birthing) made Angus a moneymaker for the farmers that raised them. The prestige associated with Black Angus sparked a marketing tactic almost a hundred years following their presence in the United States, in 1978. The concept of Certified Angus

Ritchie, Harlan. "Historical Review of Cattle Type." Michigan State University. Last modified July 2002. Accessed September 16, 2013. https://www.msu.edu/~ritchieh/historical/cattletype.html.

https://www.msu.edu/~ritchieh/historical/cattletype.html.

Beef follows specific ten specific requirements, including hide color, marbling, and ribeye size.6 Dual purpose cattle such as Shorthorns, which were imported in 1817, were used to improve the native longhorn cattle on the ranges.7 By crossing these two breeds, significant changes were being delivered. In 1910, the massive King Ranch in Texas was interested in using Brahman Cattle to improve the performance of the longhorn and range cattle that made up most of their herds. The ranch was thinking intuitively and began crossing Brahman bulls with Red Shorthorn Cows. The outcome of this crossbreeding had proved to be a good decision. The new breed they had discovered had thick skins and resisted insect pests. These new cattle could also survive high temperatures and water shortages while still gaining weight rapidly. This new breed was Santa Gertrudis. In 1951, an association was formed to register the cattle once the genetic line was sold to the public.8 The trend of importing new breeds and cross breeding cattle continued to soar with the breeds of Red Angus, Barazonas (1942), Simbrah (1960), Santa Cruz (1987), and Hotlanders (1987) among many others.9 This new philosophy of cross breeding cattle proved to be a good practice for most any cattle producer. Every new breed provided specific desirable traits or special

Briggs, H.M. & D.M. Briggs. Modern Breeds of Livestock. Fourth Edition. Macmillan Publishing Co. 1980 (reprinted with permission from Dr. Briggs). http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/cattle/angus/
7

https://www.msu.edu/~ritchieh/historical/cattletype.html.

Reinhardt, Claudia, and Bill Ganzel. "Livestock Breeding & Artificial Insemination during the 1940s." Wessels Living History Farm, Inc. Accessed September 16, 2013. http://www.livinghistoryfarm.org/farminginthe40s/crops_10.html.
9

Fennewald, Dennis. Fennewald Ag Resources, "Factors that Shaped the Beef industry." Last modified 2009. Accessed November 8, 2013. http://fennewaldagresources.com/Articles/Factors_Shaping_the_Beef_Industry.htm.

skills to adapt to harsh conditions. Thus, the productivity of the cross bred cattle began to increase. Furthermore, this was a great thing for cattle producers because the demand for beef soared and the cattlemen were making money. 10 With these new practices in crossbreeding, the phenotype of these animals became more important. Herd performance assessments had begun to take place throughout the country. These tests analyzed the efficiency of the cattle in regards to their offspring. Records became very important to the industry and testing their herd helped to maintain the standards that the farmers were achieving. To choose the most operative genetic line, it must be tested to be sure that it is what it seems but at times could become unpredictable with cross bred cattle which made the crossing between breeds a gamble. By recording birth weights, weaning weights, and days on feed of specific cattle as well as genotype, the consultants can progress a herd to its maximum efficiency. In addition farmers began culling cattle, pregnancy testing, as well as the better nutrition provided to the herds tended to increase calving percentages and weaning weights. In addition, the introduction of artificial insemination in 1936 and embryo transplant not long after, opened doors to maintain highly efficient herds to produce faster growing,

10

"Industry History." Beef Foodservice - Gallery. Accessed September 16, 2013. http://www.beeffoodservice.com/CMDocs/BFS/Fact%20Sheets/Industry%20History.pdf

more feed efficient cattle. In the long run, it meant more money and more beef available to the consumer. 11 With the new and improved maintenance of performance assessed herds, trends began to shift from one drastic end to another because of the availability of technology to do so. In 1950 the trend of short legged, short bodied, thick carcass animals had been birthed from the nonexistent muscle mass of the cattle that came before it. These bootleggers (as seen below) proved to be unsound, small, and did not produce a sufficient carcass for the consumer. These animals did not provide enough product and could not keep up to the rising demand of beef. However, this trend continued to grow until the mid-1960s.12

11

Arthur, P.F, J.A. Archer, D.J. Johnston, R.M. Herd, E.C. Richardson, and P.F. Parnell. Journal of Animal Science, "Genetic and phenotypic variance and covariance components for feed intake, feed efficiency, and other post weaning traits in Angus cattle.." Last modified November 01, 2001. Accessed November 8, 2013. http://www.journalofanimalscience.org/content/79/11/2805.short.
12

https://www.msu.edu/~ritchieh/historical/cattletype.html.

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By the 1970s and 1980s farmers had realized the defeats to such a small package and changed genetic lineage to produce a larger frame, longer bodied, sounder cattle type that would feed out at a higher weight thus meeting consumer needs up to one hundred sixteen pounds of beef per year in 1972.13 From 1965 to 1989, the average carcass weight of a finished steer in the United States increased by 15% from 646 to 742 pounds.14

Once again, farmers through their performance assessments saw deficiencies to this type of cattle which was rooting back to the cattle that took 2-4 years to feed out. The type of cattle was inefficient in feed lots and was not making the industry any profit. By the 1990s current cattle genotypes are of a medium framed carrying the maximum muscle with consideration to soundness and overall marbling of the meat.

13 14

http://fennewaldagresources.com/Articles/Factors_Shaping_the_Beef_Industry.htm
https://www.msu.edu/~ritchieh/historical/cattletype.html.

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This type of cattle is efficient in regards to performance assessments. This style, moderate framed and moderate carcass, as well as growth are all taken into consideration when selecting the genetics to use in commercial production of cattle which occurs in feed lots. When feedlot pens are assembled, the cattle must be alike in size and growth rate. Each pen at a standard feed lot house between one hundred twenty five to one hundred fifty head of cattle. Each cow is supplied between one hundred twenty five to two hundred fifty square feet. If those animals are uniform and fed for the same number of days, they can be sold to market all at the same time. However, if those animals grow at different rates, they will not reach the desirable weight at the same time. The progression of genetics and performance assessed herds have enabled the feed lots to eliminate that aspect of the struggle when feeding out hundreds of thousands head of cattle. Cattle types have now become predictable because of the incorporation of these practices.15

15

Beef Checkoff, "Factsheet: Feedlot Finishing Cattle." Accessed November 8, 2013. http://www.beefusa.org/uDocs/Feedlot finishing fact sheet FINAL_4 26 06.pdf.

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Following a more resourceful approach to the reproduction of the cattle, ranchers also became more efficient in the practices of feeding their cattle. The industry was accustomed to producing four or five year old grass-fed steers which were driven in long drives to large stockyards. Heifers were rarely slaughtered and feeder and stocker cattle did not exist. It was the excess of corn in the Corn Belt that sparked the corn consumption of cattle to simply use up any excess corn; a sideline of the corn and hog enterprises in that area. No longer was the ideal way to finish a cow on the grass of the Midwest, but now grew to a more efficient, more commercialized manner called feed lots. These locations set up to mass produce commercial beef with limited space, feed, and maximum management.16 In 1952, ranchers and farmers began using nutrition consultants for their animals.17 Farmers began to focus more on factors such as days on feed, ration ingredients, and the kind [breed] of cattle being placed in their feedlots. The industry moved to a more uniform system no longer relying on the weather [to an extent] to grow grass and provide water sources for their cattle. Feed lots proved to be a proficient way of raising cattle but farms still continued to be a family operation that have been passed down from generation to the next. In fact, eighty percent of the U.S. cattle businesses today have been in the same families for more than twenty five years, and ten percent for over one hundred years.18 In 1930 Warren Monfort started his cattle feeding business north of Greeley, Colorado and by 1968, Monfort formed the first 100,000 head feed lot.19

16 17

Ibid. http://www.beeffoodservice.com/CMDocs/BFS/Fact%20Sheets/Industry%20History.pdf Ibid. http://fennewaldagresources.com/Articles/Factors_Shaping_the_Beef_Industry.htm 18 Ibid. http://www.beeffoodservice.com/CMDocs/BFS/Fact%20Sheets/Industry%20History.pdf 19 Ibid. http://fennewaldagresources.com/Articles/Factors_Shaping_the_Beef_Industry.htm

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This increase in the quality of the nutrition that the cattle were receiving also sparked innovative practices for managing the feed conversion in the cattle. Many feed companies emerged promising a better ratio and yield by using their feed and their rations on the cattle housed in the feed lots. Farmers found different feedstuffs in various amounts made the outcome of the meat different depending on the desired outcome. They began producing rations that reflected the preferred kind of meat the consumer was interested in. Later, the makeup of what cattle were eating became a more controversial issue with the introduction of hormones. Many cattle in feed lots are given growth promoting products that contain hormones such as estrogen. These controversial issues have entered the mainstream in late decades.20

20

Ibid. http://www.beefusa.org/uDocs/Feedlot finishing fact sheet FINAL_4 26 06.pdf

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In addition, feedlot management focuses on disease prevention and control. Cattle in feed lots are closely monitored for disease, sickness, and external pests as well as administered a sequence of vaccinations including antibiotics in feed, vitamin injections, clostridial vaccines, and treatment for external and internal parasites. All of these treatments are closely monitored and are given the proper withdrawal period before the cattle are marketed.21 The increase in demand sparked a new business within the feed lots. Americans were consuming sixty two pounds of beef per year in 1952.22 With each new technological advancement, such as feed mixing and distribution, and advancements in health and safety practices, farmers became more efficient in their delivery of the product to the consumers table. Government regulation also began to play a crucial role in the cattle and beef industry. Prior to the 1900s live cattle were traded solely on hoof with no way to separate the good cattle from the poor performing cattle. However, in the 1920s the USDA

21

National Cattlemen's Association, "Modern Beef Production Fact Sheet." Last modified 2009. Accessed November 8, 2013. http://www.explorebeef.org/CMDocs/ExploreBeef/FactSheet_ModernBeefProduction.pdf. 22 Ibid. http://fennewaldagresources.com/Articles/Factors_Shaping_the_Beef_Industry.htm

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established benchmarks to assess the quality represented by the genotype of the live cattle. In 1965, the USDA implemented yield grades which measured the quality of the cuts being produced.23 This made the focus on the quality of the beef take center stage. In the 1960s 72% of cattle graded Choice where as of November 4, 2013, 62% of the United States beef slaughtered graded Choice.24 25 Research must take into consideration the lower numbers as well as regulations. They later revised the USDA grades in 1976 to take into consideration adequate marbling. With usage of these federal standards, todays beef producer has to make critical production decisions to reflect market demand for these specific grade requirements and by doing so, improving profit opportunities. The demand for beef is still in a downward trend with Americans consuming on average sixty two pounds of beef compared to the consumption sixty years ago.

With establishing a better market, the consumers had to be taken into consideration. In 1986, the war on fat was launched and six years later, the Department

23 24 25

Ibid. http://www.beeffoodservice.com/CMDocs/BFS/Fact%20Sheets/Industry%20History.pdf
Ibid. http://fennewaldagresources.com/Articles/Factors_Shaping_the_Beef_Industry.htm

USDA, "USDA NATIONAL STEER & HEIFER ESTIMATED GRADING PERCENT REPORT." Last modified Nov 04, 2013. Accessed November 8, 2013. http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/ams/NW_LS196.txt.

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of Agriculture released the food pyramid.26 American citizens were suddenly interested in the makeup of their food. The shift in the industry is known as a Consumer-Driven Beef Market.27 At one time, the beef industry was producer-driven with little regard to the end product; however this shift in power to the consumers changed the paradigm. The beef cuts in a producer driven industry had excess fat and did not fit the desires of the health-conscious consumers. As a result, beef demand began to drop rapidly and in 1998, the lowest demand for beef in the prior twenty years had been reached. Beef producers were beginning to compete with leaner choices, such as chicken. Recognizing the downward trend, associations began market research to assess specific factors influencing consumer demand for beef. Consumers wanted the taste fat, but not the waste fat that was visually unappealing. The War of Fat has dramatically changed the way the industry performs, manages, and produces beef cattle. Cattle producers began constructing a leaner carcass of cattle still with consideration to the frame size of their animal. A lot of changes in diet to the cattle occurred too. In 1994, ultrasound was first used to gather body composition on a live animal which enabled the farmers to see what was successful or not before the cattle left for market and gave him/her a head start on developing a change in their programs to satisfy the needs of the consumer.28 First and foremost, marketing of the meat had changed. Before the introduction of primal cuts into the meat industry, entire carcasses or quarters were being sold to markets and restaurants. However, the concept of subdividing the carcasses at the
26 27 28

Ibid. http://fennewaldagresources.com/Articles/Factors_Shaping_the_Beef_Industry.htm

Ibid. http://www.beeffoodservice.com/CMDocs/BFS/Fact%20Sheets/Industry%20History.pdf
Ibid. http://fennewaldagresources.com/Articles/Factors_Shaping_the_Beef_Industry.htm

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packers and sending out the individual primal cuts soon took off following the USDA grades. This put a strain on the farmers and feedlots to focus on more specific parts of the animal because they are worth more. For instance, the sirloin is located in the loin region of a steer thus, being a more profitable cut of meat, farmers put a lot of emphasis on raising a thick, long loin genetic line of cattle to accommodate to the current trends.29

30

In addition, the economic factors have continued to fluctuate which directly impacts the supply and demand of beef. It takes between two and two and a half years from the conception of a calf to the time in which it is ready for market. All that time and care costs add up so the goal of the producer is to stabilize a sale price that covers all the production costs and provides for a practical profit. When demand for beef fell in1998, prices plummeted which can be said in reverse when the beef supply falls below level of the demand. However, unlike other food sources, the supply of beef cannot be quickly adjusted because it takes a certain amount of time to complete the product. Another specific trait of the beef industry is that the production line does not

29 30

Ibid. http://www.beeffoodservice.com/CMDocs/BFS/Fact%20Sheets/Industry%20History.pdf American Prime Cuts.2013. Hirschs Meats. http://www.hirschsmeats.com/cuts-of-meat.htm

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stop; when cattle are market weight they are sent to market and things cannot be put on hold.31 The market has drastically changed. Even the new way of labeling the product has significantly changed and reflects specific feeding practices of the beef. All traits stem backwards to the feeding and management of the cattle including the genetic supervision. These labeling techniques provide consumers with a variety of beef products and expand their knowledge about the food that they are consuming. Consumers will know who produced the meat and how it was raised. Most beef is produced using conventional methods, first fed from the mother, then relying on forage for the basis of their diet. They are then sent to a grain based conventional feed lot prior to harvest. Studies show that grain finished beef increases the palatability of the product. As stated in an aforementioned paragraph, the industry began to stray towards feed lots when the Corn Belt was looking for a use for their abundance of corn and when technological advances proved feed lots to be the most efficient way to produce commercial cattle. Another labeling tactic marketers use is that of natural beef. Natural beef is regulated under the USDA when in 1982 it issued Policy Memorandum clarifications about the standards regarding what it means to have beef that is considered natural. Natural beef does not contain any artificial ingredients, such as hormones and antibiotics, and is minimally processed. Therefore the product is not fundamentally altered, such as grinding meat. Most of these animals are raised in a non-feed lot

31

Ibid. http://www.beeffoodservice.com/CMDocs/BFS/Fact%20Sheets/Industry%20History.pdf

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environment that does not include the safety measures taken by feedlots to prevent and control disease. However, the misconception about natural beef is that is equivalent to organic beef. Organic beef is a type of product that is relatively new. The Organic Food Production Act, effective in 2002, outlines the standards in which the nurturing of the cattle is strongly regulated. The standards are very specific and require that all operational duties adhere to the regulations put forth by the Organic Food Production Act. First organic beef must be raised completely separate from conventionally raised herds and have access to pasture; such living conditions must accommodate the health of the animal and its natural behavior. Cattle must be fed one hundred percent organically grown feed but be provided certain vitamin and mineral supplements. Organic cattle cannot be given hormones or antibiotics of any sorts. The pastures must not be treated with the use of pesticides among many other regulations. This provides a problem to the cattle and beef industry. Although they are still marketing beef directly, organic beef is becoming more popular and is almost inefficient to raise. This makes the organic beef more expensive because the demand is high yet the supply is low. Trends are starting to regress towards the grazing measures of the twentieth century. The label of grass-finished beef is also taking off in the twenty-first century. Grass finished beef refers to the feeding ration of cattle raised solely on grass with only the supplementing of small amounts of grain when needed; for instance in the winter. Again, by examining the history of the beef industry the trends that are reoccurring can be analyzed in a better, more vast manner to ensure success in the future. Within these labeling systems farmers have to change their programs to accommodate to the

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consumer driven market which interchanges in genetics and management practices to ensure a successful transition into a more valid way of producing these new types of cattle. 32

As stated before, the crossbreeding of cattle and the invention of new cattle has had a huge impact on the cattle and beef industry. The introduction of the methods of crossbreeding proved to be tried and true and found the farmers a new outlet for bigger and better types of cattle. The original influence of crossbreeding was to increase the profitability and frame size of the longhorn cattle that were grazing the frontier. Once those desired crosses proved to aid the industry in durability and new found characteristics, the idea soared. For example in the late twentieth century farmers began to cross Angus with Herefords to gain a Black Baldy. Many times an Angus bull is crossbred to Hereford Heifers to eliminate the chance of dystocia, but also create a better adapted animal with black hides so they cannot be sunburnt in the temperatures of the Midwest. In addition, the
32

Ibid. http://www.beeffoodservice.com/CMDocs/BFS/Fact%20Sheets/Industry%20History.pdf

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offspring exhibit the large muscling of the Angus and the mothering ability of the Hereford.33

34

35

36

33

C.R. Jarvis, "Their Black Baldy System Works," Prog Farmer Birmingham, 91, no. 6 (1976): 39, http://agris.fao.org/agrissearch/search/display.do?f=2013/US/US2013030490410023135.xml;US201303049075 (accessed November 8, 2013). 34 Swigart. TH 75J 243R BAILOUT 144U ET. Topp Herefords. 2013. http://www.toppherefords.com/hereford-herd-bulls/th-75j-243rbailout-144u-et/
35 36

Executive Sires. 2011. http://executivesires.blogspot.com/2011_12_01_archive.html Maximum Exposure. Carpe Diem x Hairy x Double Stuff. Nelson Cattle Company. 2013. http://clubcalfparadise.com/classof20112.php?aucid=10

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The trend to crossbreed cattle has soared and nearly all commercial animals are crossbred for the specific traits that every breed brings to the table. The most common cross is that with the Black Angus to carry on the trait of desirable meat. However, purebreds are also trying to make a comeback. With purebreds comes predictability of the offspring. When one breed is crossed with another, the first generation is relatively predictable, as the black baldy above. However, when that offspring is then crossed with another crossbred the predictability is then jeopardized and when dealing with the growth and substantial evolution in the feedlots, predictability is the foundation of the practice. However, when an operation transitions into the usage of performance assessed genetics instead of hit and miss genetics of the mid-twentieth century, that predictability becomes clearer. Producers in the mid-twentieth century became more opt to assess their herds and keep accurate records once the profitability became more present in many herds across the nation. Performance assessed bulls are the foundation of most herds. The offspring of the said bull is birthed and then assessed based on many factors. First, records of birth weight are taken into consideration. Birth weights should be small enough to eliminate dystocia but large enough to give the calf a jump start on growth. The genetics must allow for maximum growth to weaning weight as well. Steers are usually sent off to feedlots at six to nine months of age as well as some heifers but the keeper heifers must also be analyzed in regards to their ability to grow. Those heifers are then bred and the calving ease of their first partition is evaluated. In addition, the cows that produce these calves must also be examined. Culling of cattle that are acting in an inefficient manner of reproduction is necessary for the herd to be proficient

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in their assessment. In the past, most farmers kept all the heifers to replenish old and broken down cows, however a trend is that of sending non-desired heifers to market.

37

Many more factors in performance assessed herds must also be taken into consideration. Feed conversion of the cattle, market weight, as well as manageability and even temperament of the cattle is also evaluated. All of these things make the offspring of the herd predictable and manageable for the ultimate desired outcome: product and profit. This aspect is something that has transformed the industry from what it was to what it is now. The records and information enhancing the predictability has evolved over the last sixty years when cattle have been condensed to closer spaces and more efficient habits. 38 To increase genetic makeup of the herd new genetics need to be introduce, however more often than not, genetics are rather expensive and for the average farmer, out of reach. These trends in cross breeding and performance assessing were also
37

Anderson, David P., James G. Robb, and James Mintert. Arizona, "The Cattle Cycle." Accessed November 8, 2013. http://www.cals.arizona.edu/arec/wemc/cattlemarket/CatlCycl.pdf.
38

Ibid. http://www.journalofanimalscience.org/content/79/11/2805.short.

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accompanied by the introduction of new breeding management practices including artificial insemination. Established in the early 1900s in Russia, artificial insemination is the deliberate placement of specific semen into the uterus of a female.39 Although more common in dairy cattle, it is becoming a more efficient practice in beef cattle. Semen is collected from performance assessed bulls and sold to the public to use in their own breeding programs.40 In the 1930s the idea migrated to the United States and ten years later scientists refined the practice. It was found that semen could be collected and frozen to be used whenever the cows came into heat.41 This practice transformed the cattle and beef industry.

42

Artificial insemination offers farmers access to genetics that they otherwise would not be able to afford.

39

Ibid. http://www.livinghistoryfarm.org/farminginthe40s/crops_10.html.

40

Foote, R. H. "The history of artificial insemination: Selected notes and notables." Journal or Animal Science 80 (2002): Accessed September, 2013. http://www.journalofanimalscience.org/content/80/E-Suppl_2/1.1.full.pdf+html
41 42

Ibid. http://www.livinghistoryfarm.org/farminginthe40s/crops_10.html. Artificial Insemination. The Beef Site. 2002. http://www.thebeefsite.com/articles/721/artificial-insemination-for-beef-cattle

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The advantages of artificial insemination are overwhelming for cattle producers and the list grows constantly. Providing the ability to use sires of superior genetic merit, farmers can increase the quality of their females as well as the quality of the cattle that they are producing constantly. By improving the production traits of his females, it can help eliminate most forms of dystocia in the cattle operation as well as milk production for the calf. With better cattle, an operation will continue to produce better cattle. Not all cattle are the same; they may be different breeds, genotypes, and throw various types of offspring, so artificial insemination gives the ability to mate specific sires to individual cows that match up with the traits of the sire. Breeding a cow that is super unsound would not be advised to breed to a sire that is also unsound, so by breeding a cow to a sire that has exceptional bone structure and conformation it will balance the offsprings traits. This differentiation aids the farmers in producing sustainable cattle. Additionally, artificial insemination reduces the number of sires a farmer must have in his herd, thus eliminating extra time, space, and money required to maintain a bull. Overall, the increased quality of genetics will reflect the inclusive quality of the herd by providing better genetically sound replacement heifers into the program as well as aiding in the increasing pregnancy rates. Management is the key element in the success of the practice of artificial insemination. When combined with estrous synchronization, a shorter, more uniform calving season can be achieved which results in more consistent, uniform calf crops that screams predictability to the feed lot system. Fifty years ago, cattle were all together with little management practices in place. Bulls ran consistently with cows and heifers and no genetic observations were being endured. However, with the new

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selective breeding techniques maximize efficiency within the genetic facet with measurable pros and cons.43 First, the facility is a huge factor when it comes to managing estrus in cattle. Most farms are made up of hundreds upon thousands of head of beef cattle; therefore a facility to house a portion of those cattle for a segmented period of time must be established. The most limiting factor of using artificial insemination is the proper observation of estrus in cows and heifers. In the 1950s bulls had the job of detecting estrus but the burden now relies on the herdsman. Cows and heifers must be bred at a certain time in her estrus therefore, close observations must be taken. Accurate records are one way that this detection can be successful. All can be considered barriers that farmers must face when using artificial insemination in beef cattle. Farmers argue that there is the lack of time, additional labor, and costs when setting up an artificial insemination program into their herd. Success rate depends on the accurate management practices set forth by the farmer, but if done correctly can make a world of difference in their programs.44 However, a new technique has surfaced in the world of beef cattle genetics that was not offered to the generations prior: Estrus Synchronization. The underlying element of Estrus Synchronization is hormone usage. This method has been practiced for many years using a bull to tease the females and thus throwing them into estrus. A more efficient and more practical procedure has been established. Cattle are sorted into groups, depending on the size of the farm and facility, and are injected with a
43 44

Ibid. http://www.thebeefsite.com/articles/721/artificial-insemination-for-beef-cattle Ahola, Ph.D, Jason. BEEF, "Weighing AI vs. the bull." Last modified May 31, 2007. Accessed November 8, 2013. http://beefmagazine.com/americancowman/beef-and-business/ai-vs-bull.

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progesterone hormone that throws them into estrus; whether it be five or ten days later. This enables the farmers to breed all his females in the allotted time thus making a shorter calving season. Still, no practice is one hundred percent therefore following the allotted time to artificially inseminate the group a [clean up] bull is introduced to catch any cattle that may have been missed. In this instance, the use of hormones trumps any alternative measures to allow for maximum time and quality efficiency. 45 Hormone usage in cattle is a practice that is decades old. There are many reasons for this type of assistance to the cattle industry. Primarily, it is to keep the consumer happy. The whole focus of the beef industry as is derived from the demands of the consumer. With increase in demands come increases in the practices used to meet those demands. The consumer wants a lot of product for little cost which is where hormones present themselves. Already discussed, hormones have been used for quite some time but have recently come into the limelight. One major use of hormones is that of reproduction management. Hormones, such as progesterone and estrogen, are used to synchronize estrus in females as well as manage unwanted pregnancies in heifers. In a feedlot heifers and steers, as well as some bulls, are housed together which increases the probability of an undesired pregnancy in a heifer bound for market. Sometimes a testicle can be retained by a male cow therefore enabling them to impregnate heifers housed with them in the feedlots. This ensures that one cow, not a cow and calf, will be harvested. Additionally at times hormones are given to cows that are in dystocia to aid them into a speedy and safer delivery. Hormonal influence can also increase a cows
45

Day, Mike, and Stephen Boyles. Ohio State University Extension, "ESTRUS SYNCHRONIZATION." Accessed November 8, 2013. http://beef.osu.edu/library/estrusny.html.

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reproduction fertility as well as help her provide more milk to the calf if she is lacking the proper hormones to make it herself.46 A lot of disagreement surrounds that of using hormones in cattle intended for consumers. Consumers of beef traditionally desire the taste and consistency of young steers and heifers that are grain fed the last 120- 200 days prior to harvest. Young male cattle are castrated at a young age to avoid the temperament characteristics of a bull as well as the ability to breed heifers they are housed with. However, when this occurs, the hormones that bulls naturally produce from the addition of their testes, the steer is left with a decreased amount of hormones to help it grow faster, thicker, and with a less percentage of unwanted fat. Heifers also produce hormones but younger heifers lack the amount of hormones that old and even pregnant heifers possess. The incorporation of small amounts of these hormones gives young heifers and steers an opportunity to regain the growth that is possessed by bulls and more mature heifers. The amount given to these animals are only a fraction. These animals are administered the growth hormone by injection. More often than not a small pellet is injected into the ear of the animals when they are introduced into the feed lots. These pellets usually dissolved over the period of one hundred to one hundred twenty days therefore are completely dissolved by the time the cattle have gone to market. The most common hormones that are used are already occurring estrogen and androgens. Depending on the animal, the implants increase the growth rate from ten to twenty percent and decrease the cost of beef production by five to ten percent. This trend is then transformed into savings for the consumer too. This efficient
46

Rasby, Rick, and Gene Deutcher. University of Nebraska-Lincoln, "Synchronizing Estrus In Beef Cattle." Accessed November 8, 2013. http://beef.unl.edu/learning/estrussynch.shtml.

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way of beef production requires less feed and less land resources. Therefore, the number of cows has decreased yet the amount of meat has plateaued or increased.

47

Growth promotants change what the cow is eating and the way the animal is making muscle, not the meat currently in the cow. Muscle growth is enhanced at the expense because muscle is naturally easier for cattle produce compared to fat. An advantage of the consumer is that the carcasses of these animals will be the same weight yet exhibit less fat percentages but still adequate marbling in the meat. However, these cattle have to be fed to heavier weights to gain such marbling since the growth promotant is diminishing the presence of fat. The practice of growth promotants is regulated by the Food and Drug Administration and there are many toxicological tests prior to introducing any new promotants as well as periodical testing for residues in the meat. The natural human production of the hormones given to beef cattle is a couple thousand times the amount a person would receive in a generous serving of beef. In addition, many other foods that

47

Ibid. http://www.cals.arizona.edu/arec/wemc/cattlemarket/CatlCycl.pdf.

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are consumed regularly by Americans have a tremendous amount more hormones than beef.

Many people are concerned with the amount of these hormones that they will be ingesting, however estrogen is already produced within the human body and drastically outnumber that of any beef.48

49

48

Loy, Dan. "Understanding Hormone Use in Beef Cattle." Iowa Beef Center. Last modified March, 2011. http://www.iowabeefcenter.org/information/IBC48.pdf.

49

Ibid. http://www.iowabeefcenter.org/information/IBC48.pdf.

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Researchers that experiment with the history of the beef cattle industry can conclude that the incorporation of the new herd management practices, new technologies in reproduction and the new consumer-driven market have all changed the focus and the interworking of the industry immensely. The incorporation of new production trends have contributed to the huge change. The new technologies surrounding the trends have had a huge contribution to the new trends and practices. Artificial insemination is one of those new technologies since the 1930s has changed the way American beef farmers run their operations. With the new practices, farmers are able to increase the productivity, efficiency, and profitability of their herd. There operations have more control over effects such as estrus and the outcome of breeding through selective reproduction, which was once left to the power of Mother Nature. Since profitability ties directly to efficiency the technology of artificial insemination helps the operations function at maximum capacity of efficiency and have proven to be nothing but an asset to the industry. By operating more efficiently, herds can be performance tested leading to important changes in the management practices that we have seen be very successful in the past. This study will optimize the performance of any herd, by incorporating genetics that otherwise would be out of reach. With the changes in reproduction, historians have seen a dramatic change in the industry as well. The biggest change being that of a shift from a producer-driven market to a consumer-driven market with the desires of the public at center stage. With the different needs of the consumers, producers must yield different, better cattle. The shift in the market has caused cattle of the 1950s, who revealed short, thick carcasses, to change to the cattle trend of the 1970s, that exhibited tall and lean bodied animals.

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Currently, the cattle type is a medium framed and very muscular as well as highly efficient in terms of finish and marbling. The change in trends over the last sixty years is a direct result of the change in taste of the American consumer. This shift in power has also encouraged industrial resourcing to satisfy the consumer. One way that is achieved is by using hormones in the feeding of cattle. All natural hormones are used in beef cattle that they would otherwise be lacking such as that of the common steer in relation to testosterone; as aforementioned. These safe, regulated practices have recently come to the attention of the public, but as historians, we can see a trend of hormones and other growing enhancing procedures being used over the last sixty to one hundred years. By analyzing the past, historians are able to identify the direction in which the current trends have come about and where those trends are headed. The beef cattle industry is not like other industries as it cannot fluctuate rapidly because of the amount of time it takes to produce the beef. However, historians can help predict where the industry is going and help to empower a more efficient, stable industry for the future.

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50

50

Kansas Ag Network, "Beef It's What's for Dinner." Last modified June 17, 2013. Accessed December 6, 2013. http://kansasagnetwork.com/2013/06/beef-its-whats-for-dinner-website-re-designed-to-better-engageconsumers/.

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