1. Introduction.............................................................

23
1.1 The Helicopter......................................................
23
1.1.1 The Helicopter Rotor......................................
.... 26
1.1.2 Helicopter Configuration..................................
.... 29
1.1.3 Helicopter Operation......................................
.... 30
1.2 History.............................................................
31
1.2.1 Helicopter Development....................................
.... 31
1.2.2 Literature................................................
.... 40
1.3 Notation............................................................
40
1.3.1 Dimensions................................................
.... 40
1.3.2 Physical Description of the Blade.........................
.... 41
1.3.3 Blade Aerodynamics........................................
.... 42
1.3.4 Blade Motion..............................................
.... 43
1.3.5 Rotor Angle of Attack and Velocity........................
.... 44
1.3.6 Rotor Forces and Power....................................
.... 45
1.3.7 Rotor Disk Planes.........................................
.... 46
1.3.8 NACA Notation.............................................
.... 46
2. Vertical Flight I........................................................ 48
2.1 Momentum Theory.....................................................
48
2.1.1 Actuator Disk.............................................
.... 49
2.1.2 Momentum Theory in Hover..................................
.... 50
2.1.3 Momentum Theory in Climb..................................
.... 52
2.1.4 Hover Power Losses........................................
.... 54
2.2 Figure of Merit.....................................................
54
2.3 Extended Momentum Theory............................................
56
2.3.1 Rotor in Hover or Climb...................................
.... 57
2.3.2 Swirl in the Wake.........................................
.... 60
2.3.3 Swirl Due to Profile Torque...............................
.... 65
2.4 Blade Element Theory................................................
65
2.4.1 History of die Development of Blade Element Theory........
.... 66
2.4.2 Blade Element Theory for Vertical Flight..................
.... 69

2.4.2.1 Rotor Thrust....................................

........ 71
2.4.2.2 Induced Velocity................................
........ 72
2.4.2.3 Power or Torque.................................
........ 73
2.5 Combined Blade Element and Momentum Theory..........................
76
2.6 Hover Performance...................................................
77
2.6.1 Tip Losses................................................
.... 78
2.6.2 Induced Power Due to Nonuniform Inflow and Tip Losses.....
.... 81
2.6.3 Root Cutout...............................................
.... 82
2.6.4 Blade Mean Lift Coefficient...............................
.... 82
2.6.5. Equivalent Solidity......................................
.... 83
2.6 .6 The Ideal Rotor..................................................
84
2.6.7 The Optimum Hovering Rotor................................
.... 85
2.6.8 Effect of Twist and Taper.................................
.... 88
2.6.9 Examples of Hover Polars..................................
.... 89
2.6.10 Disk Loading, Span Loading, and Circulation..............
.... 92
2.7 Vortex Theory.......................................................
92
2.7.1 Vortex Representation of the Rotor and Its Wake...........
.... 94
2.7.2 Actuator Disk Vortex Theory...............................
.... 96
2.7.3 Finite Number of Blades...................................
.... 101
2.7.3.1 Wake Structure for Optimum Rotor................
........ 102
2.7.3.2 Prandtl's Tip Loading Solution..................
........ 103
2.7.3.3 Goldstein's Propeller Analysis..................
........ 107
2.7.3.4 Applications to Low Inflow Rotors...............
........ 107
2.7.4 Nonuniform Inflow {Numerical Vortex Theory)...............
.... 108
2.7.5 Literature................................................
.... 111
2.8 Literature..........................................................
111
3. Vertical Flight II....................................................... 113
3.1 Induced Power in Vertical Flight....................................
113
3.1.1 Momentum Theory for Vertical Flight.......................
.... 114
3.1.2 Flow States of the Rotor in Axial Flight..................
.... 118
3.1.2.1 Normal Working State............................

........ 118
3.1.2.2 Vortex Ring State...............................
........ 119
3.1.2.3 Turbulent Wake State............................
........ 121
3.1.2.4 Windmill Brake State............................
........ 121
3.1.3 Induced Velocity Curve....................................
.... 122
3.1.3.1 Hover Performance...............................
........ 125
3.1.3.2 Autorotation....................................
........ 125
3.1.3.3 Vortex Ring State...............................
........ 126
3.1.4 Literature................................................
.... 127
3.2 Autorotation in Vertical Descent....................................
127
3.3 Ciimb in Vei:ticai Fiight...........................................
134
3.4 Vertical Drag.......................................................
136
3.5 Twin Rotor Interference in Hover....................................
138
3.6 Ground Effect.......................................................
142
4. Forward Flight I......................................................... 145
4.1 Momentum Theory in Forward Flight...................................
146
4.1.1 Rotor Induced Power.......................................
.... 146
4.1.2 Climb, Descent, and Autorotation in Forward Flight........
.... 152
4.1.3 Tip Loss Factor...........................................
.... 153
4.2 Vortex Theory in Forward Flight.....................................
154
4.2.1 Classical Vortex Theory Results...........................
.... 156
4.2.2 Induced Velocity Variation in Forward Flight..............
.... 159
4.2.3 Literature................................................
.... 161
4.3 Twin Rotor Interference in Forward Flight...........................
162
4.4 Ground Effect in Forward Flight.....................................
166
5. Forward Flight II........................................................ 169
5.1 The Helicopter Rotor in Forward Flight..............................
169
5.2 Aerodynamics of Forwa.rd Flight.....................................
187
5.3 Rotor Aerodynamic Forces............................................
191
5.4 Power in Forward Flight.............................................
199
5.5 Rotor Flapping Motion...............................................
204
5.6 Examples of Performance and Flapping in Forward Flight..............

214
5.7 Review of Assumptions...............................................
225
5.8 Tip Loss and Root Cutout............................................
226
5.9 Blade Weight Moment.................................................
226
5.10 Linear Inflow Variation............................................
227
5.11 Higher? Harmonic Flapping Motion...................................
230
5.12 Profile Power and Radial Flow......................................
233
5.13 Flap Motion with a Hinge Spring....................................
242
5.14 Flap Hinge Offset..................................................
247
5.15 Hingeless Rotor....................................................
254
5.16 Gimballed or Teetering Rotor.......................................
255
5.17 Pitch.Flap Coupling................................................
258
5.18 Helicopter Force, Moment, and Power Equilibrium....................
263
5.19 Lag Motion.........................................................
270
5.20 Reverse Flow.......................................................
275
5.21 Compressibility....................................................
282
5.22 Tail Rotor.........................................................
284
5.23 Numerical Solutions................................................
285
5.24 Literature.........................................................
286
6. Performance.............................................................. 298
6.1 Hover Performance...................................................
300
6.1.1 Power Required in Hover and Vertical Flight...............
.... 300
6.1.2 Climb and Descent.........................................
.... 302
6.1. 3 Power Available..................................................
302
6.2 Forward Flight Performance..........................................
304
6.2.1 Power Required in Forward Flight..........................
.... 304
6.2.2 Climb and Descent in Forward Flight.......................
.... 306
6.2.3 D/L Formulation...........................................
.... 306
6.2.4 Rotor Lift and Drag.......................................
.... 308
6.2.5 PIT Formulation...........................................
.... 309
6.3 Helicopter Performance Factors......................................
310

6.3.1 Hover Performance.........................................

.... 310
6.3.2 Minimum Power Loading in Hover............................
.... 311
6.3.3 Power Required in Level Flight............................
.... 313
6.3.4 Climb and Descent.........................................
.... 315
6.3.5 Maximum Speed.............................................
.... 316
6.3.6 Maximum Altitude..........................................
.... 318
6.3.7 Range and Endurance.......................................
.... 319
6.4 Other Performance Problems..........................................
321
6.4.1 Power Specified (Autogyro)................................
.... 321
6.4.2 Shaft Angle Specified (Tail Rotor)........................
.... 322
6.5 Improved Performance Calculations...................................
323
6.6 Literature..........................................................
324
7. Design................................................................... 333
7.1 Rotor Types.........................................................
333
7.2 Helicopter Types....................................................
335
7.3 Preliminary Design..................................................
338
7.4 Helicopter Speed Limitations........................................
341
7.5 Autorotational Landings after Power Failure.........................
345
7.6 Helicopter Drag.....................................................
351
7.7 Rotor Blade Airfoil Selection.......................................
352
7.8 Rotor Blade Profile Drag............................................
357
7.9 Literature..........................................................
360
8 Mathematics of Rotating Systems........................................... 364
8.1 Fourier Series......................................................
364
8.2 Sum of Harmonics....................................................
367
8.3 Harmonic Analysis...................................................
368
8.4 Fourier Coordinate Transformation...................................
369
8.4.1 Transformation of the Degrees of Freedom..................
.... 370
8.4.2 Conversion of the Equations of Motion.....................
.... 375
8.5 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of the Rotor Motion....................
381
8.6 Analysis of Linear, Periodic Systems................................
385

8.6.1 Linear, Constant Coefficient Equations....................

.... 386
8.6.2 Linear, Periodic Coefficient Equations....................
.... 389
9. Rotary Wing Dynamics I................................................... 398
9.1 Sturm.Liouville Theory..............................................
398
9.2 Out.of.Plane Motion.................................................
401
9.2.1 Rigid Flapping............................................
.... 401
9.2.2 Out.of.Plane Bending......................................
.... 404
9.2.3 Nonrotating Frame.........................................
.... 410
9.2.4 Bending Moments...........................................
.... 412
9.3 In.plane Motion.....................................................
413
9.3.1 Rigid Flap and Lag........................................
.... 413
9.3.2 In.Plane Bending..........................................
.... 417
9.3.3 In.Plane and Out.of.Plane Bending.........................
.... 419
9.4 Torsionai Motion....................................................
423
9.4.1 Rigid Pitch and Flap......................................
.... 423
9.4.2 Structural Pitch.Flap and Pitch.Lag Coupling..............
.... 428
9.4.3 Torsion and Out.of.Plane Bending..........................
.... 432
9.4.4 Nonrotating Frame.........................................
.... 441
9.5. Hub Reactions......................................................
442
9.5.1 Rotating Loads............................................
.... 443
9.5.2 Nonrotating Loads.........................................
.... 449
9.6 Shaft Motion........................................................
455
9.7 Coupled Flap.Lag.Torsion Motion.....................................
463
9.8 Rotor Blade Bending Modes...........................................
463
9.8.1 Engineering Beam Theory for a Twisted Blade...............
.... 463
9.8.2 Modal Equations...........................................
.... 474
9.8.3 Bending Natural Frequencies...............................
.... 476
9.8.4 Literature................................................
.... 479
9.9 Derivation of the Equations of Motion...............................
480
9.9.1 Integral Newtonian Method.................................
.... 481
9.9.2 Differential Newtonian Method.............................

.... 481
9.9.3 Normal Mode Method........................................
.... 482
9.9.4 Galerkin Method...........................................
.... 484
9.9.5 Lagrangian Method.........................................
.... 486
9.9.6 Rayleigh.Ritz Method......................................
.... 487
9.9.7 Lumped Parameter Methods..................................
.... 488
10. Rotary Wing Aerodynamics I.............................................. 489
10.1 Lifting.Line Theory................................................
489
10.2 Two.Dimensional Unsteady Airfoil Theory............................
491
10.3 Near Shed Wake.....................................................
504
10.4 Unsteady Airfoil Theory with a Time.Varying Free Stream............
512
10.5 Two.Dimensional Model for Rotary Wing Unsteady Aerodynamics........
518
10.6 Approximate Solutions for Rotary Wing Unsteady Aerodynamics........
533
10.6.1 Lifting.Line Approximation...............................
.... 533
10.6.2 Two.Dimensional, Continuous Wake Approximation...........
.... 534
10.6.3 Rotary Wing Actuator Disk Model..........................
.... 535
10.6.4 Perturbation Inflow Model for Rotor Unsteady Aerodynamics
.... 540
10.7 Unsteady Airfoil Theory for a Rotary Wing..........................
546
10.8 Vortex.Induced Velocity............................................
555
10.8.1 Straight, Infinite Line Vortex 5.........................
.... 56
10.8.2 Finite.Length Vortex Line Element........................
.... 560
10.8.3 Rectangular Vortex Sheet.................................
.... 564
11. Rotary Wing Aerodynamics II............................................. 568
11.1 Section Aerodynamics...............................................
569
11.2 Flap Motion........................................................
576
11.3 Flap and Lag Motion................................................
580
11.4 Nonrotating Frame..................................................
584
11.5? Hub Reactions.....................................................
594
11.5 .1 Rotating Frame..................................................
594
11.5.2 Nonrotating Frame........................................
.... 599
11.6 Shaft Motion.......................................................
603
11.7 Summary............................................................

610
11.8 Pitch and Flap Motion..............................................
616
12. Rotary Wing Dynamics II................................................. 621
12.1 Flapping Dynamics..................................................
621
12.1.1 Rotating Frame...........................................
.... 622
12.1.1.1 Hover Roots....................................
........ 623
12.1.1.2 Forward Flight Roots...........................
........ 625
12.1.1.3 Hover Transf er Function.......................
........ 632
12.1.2 Nonrotating Frame........................................
.... 633
12.1.2.1 Hover Roots and Modes..........................
........ 635
12.1.2.2 Hover Transfer Functions.......................
........ 637
12.1.3 Low Frequency Response...................................
.... 642
12.1.4 Hub Reactions............................................
.... 648
12.1.5 Two.Bladed Rotor.........................................
.... 652
12.1.6 Literature...............................................
.... 656
12.2 Flutter............................................................
657
12.2.1 Pitch.Flap Equations.....................................
.... 658
12.2.2 Divergence Instability...................................
.... 660
12.2.3 Flutter Instability......................................
.... 662
12.2.4 Other Factors Influencing Pitch.Flap Stability...........
.... 666
12.2.4.1 Shed Wake Influence............................
........ 666
12.2.4.2 Wake.Excited Flutter...........................
........ 667
12.2.4.3 Influence of Forward Flight....................
........ 668
12.2.4.4 Coupled Blades.................................
........ 669
12.2.4.S Additional Degrees of Freedom..................
........ 670
12.2.5 Literature...............................................
.... 670
12.3 Flap.Lag Dynamics..................................................
673
12.3.1 Flap.Lag Equations.......................................
.... 673
12.3.2 Articulated Rotors.......................................
.... 677
12.3.3 Hingeless Rotors.........................................
.... 678
12.3.4 Improved Analytical Models...............................
.... 683

12.3.5 Literature...............................................
.... 684
12.4 Ground Resonance...................................................
688
12.4.1 Ground Resonance Equations...............................
.... 689
12.4.2 No.Damping Case..........................................
.... 693
12.4.3 Damping Required for Ground Resonance Stability..........
.... 701
12.4.4 Two.Bladed Rotor.........................................
.... 705
12.4.5 Literature...............................................
.... 713
12.5 Vibration and Loads................................................
714
12.5.1 Vibration................................................
.... 714
12.5.2 Loads....................................................
.... 719
12.5.3 Calculation of Vibration and Loads.......................
.... 726
12.5.4 Blade Frequencies........................................
.... 726
12.5.5 Literature...............................................
.... 727
13. Rotary Wing Aerodynamics III............................................ 730
13.1 Rotor Vortex Wake..................................................
730
13.2 Nonuniform Inflow..................................................
733
13.3 Wake Geometry......................................................
755
13.4 Vortex.Induced Loads...............................................
769
13.5 Vortices and Wakes.................................................
773
13.6 Lifting.Surface Theory.............................................
774
13.7 Boundary Layers....................................................
775
14. Helicopter Aeroelasticity............................................... 776
14.1 Aeroelastic Analyses...............................................
776
14.2 Integration of the Equations of Motion.............................
780
14.3 Literature.........................................................
787
15. Stability and Control................................................... 788
15.1 Control............................................................
788
15.2 Stability..........................................................
794
15.3 Flying Qualities in Hover..........................................
795
15.3.1 Equations of Motion......................................
.... 795
15.3.2 Vertical Dynamics........................................
.... 802
15.3.3 Yaw Dynamics.............................................

.... 804
15.3.4 Longitudinal Dynamics....................................
.... 807
15.3.4.1 Equations of Motion............................
........ 807
15.3.4.2 Poles and Zeros................................
........ 808
15.3.4.3 Loop Closures..................................
........ 814
15.3.4.4 Hingeiess Rotors...............................
........ 820
15.3.4.5 Response to Control............................
........ 823
15.3.4.6 Examples.......................................
........ 824
15.3.4.7 Flying Qualities Characteristics...............
........ 827
15.5 Low Frequency Rotor Response...............
............ 872
15.6 Stability Augmentation.....................
............ 874
15.7 Flying Qualities Specifications............
............ 882
15.8 Literature.................................
............ 889
15.3.5 Lateral Dynamics.........................................
.... 828
15.3.6 Coupied Longitudinai and Laterai Dynamics........
........ 830
15.3.7 Tandem Helicopters...............................
........ 833
15.4 Flying Qualities in Forward Flight.................................
842
15.4.1 Equations of Motion......................................
.... 842
15.4.2 Longitudinal Dynamics....................................
.... 847
15.4.2.1 Equations of Motion............................
........ 847
15.4.2.2 Poles..........................................
........ 849
15.4.2.3 Short Period Approximation.....................
........ 851
15.4.2.4 Static Stability...............................
........ 858
15.4.2.5 Example........................................
........ 860
15.4.2.6 Flying Qualities Characteristics...............
........ 861
15.4.3 Lateral Dynamics.........................................
.... 863
15.4.4 Tandem Helicopters.......................................
.... 868
15.4.5 Hingeless Rotor Helicopters..............................
.... 871
16. Stall................................................................... 893
16.1 Rotary Wing Stall Characteristics..................................
894
16.2 NACA Stall Research................................................
903

16.3 Dynamic Stall......................................................

908
16.4 Literature.........................................................
919
17. Noise................................................................... 923
17.1 Helicopter Rotor Noise.............................................
923
17.2 Vortex Noise.......................................................
929
17.3 Rotational Noise...................................................
935
17.3.1 Rotor Pressure Dist~bution...............................
.... 937
17.3.2 Hovering Rotor with ~teady Loading.......................
.... 940
17.3.3 Vertical Flight and Steady Loading.......................
.... 947
17.3.4 Stationary Rotor with Unsteady Loading...................
.... 949
17.3.5 Forward Flight and Steady Loading........................
.... 951
17.3.6 Forward Flight and Unsteady Loading......................
.... 954
17.3.7 Thickness Noise..........................................
.... 959
17.3 .8 Rotating Frame Analysis.........................................
963
17.3.9 Doppler Shift............................................
.... 972
17.4 Blade Slap.........................................................
972
17.5 Rotor Noise Reduction..............................................
976
17.6 Literature.........................................................
977
Cited Literature............................................................ 981
Index.......................................................................1105