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What are alkanes?

The alkanes are a homologous series of hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2 and names ending ane. Alkanes contain only single carboncarbon bonds and so are saturated. No. of carbon atoms 1 2 3 4 Molecular formula CH4 C2H6 C3H8 C4H10 Name methane ethane propane butane

5 6
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C5H12 C6H14

pentane hexane
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Alkanes and isomersim

Alkanes with four or more carbon atoms display structural isomerism because the carbon chain may be either straight or branched.

pentane: straight chain

2-methylbutane: branched chain

The naming of alkanes depends on whether they are straight or branched.

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Naming branched chain alkanes

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Naming the alkanes activity

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Trends in boiling points

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Trends in boiling points

The boiling point of straight-chain alkanes increases with chain length due to increasing van der Waals forces between molecules. As the length of the chain increases, so does its surface area, and so the van der Waals forces are stronger. Branched-chain alkanes have lower boiling points because the chains cannot pack as closely together. There are fewer points of contact between molecules so the van der Waals forces are weaker.
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Crude oil and alkanes

Crude oil is a mixture composed mainly of straight and branched chain alkanes. It also includes lesser amounts of cycloalkanes and arenes, both of which are hydrocarbons containing a ring of carbon atoms, as well as impurities such as sulfur compounds. The exact composition of crude oil depends on the conditions under which it formed, so crude oil extracted at different locations has different compositions.
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Fractional distillation

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Uses of fractions

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Fractions and boiling point

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Supply and demand

The demand for lower boiling point (shorter chain) fractions is greater than the proportion found in crude oil. Crude oil contains more higher boiling point (longer chain) fractions, which are in lower demand and are less economically valuable.

There is therefore a shortage of shorter chain fractions and a surplus of longer chain ones.
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What is cracking?
Cracking is a process that splits long chain alkanes into shorter chain alkanes, alkenes and hydrogen.

C10H22 C7H16 + C3H6

Cracking has the following uses:

it increases the amount of gasoline and other economically important fractions

it increases branching in chains, an important factor for petrol

it produces alkenes, an important feedstock for chemicals.

There are two main types of cracking: thermal and catalytic.

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Thermal cracking

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Catalytic cracking

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Thermal vs. catalytic cracking

Catalytic cracking has several advantages over thermal cracking:

it produces a higher proportion of branched alkanes, which burn more easily than straight-chain alkanes and are therefore an important component of petrol the use of a lower temperature and pressure mean it is cheaper it produces a higher proportion of arenes, which are valuable feedstock chemicals.

However, unlike thermal cracking, catalytic cracking cannot be used on all fractions, such as bitumen, the supply of which outstrips its demand.
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Other products from cracking

Alkenes such as ethene are always produced in cracking. They are an important feedstock for use in the chemical industry, particularly in the production of plastics. Arenes such as benzene are also produced during catalytic cracking. Benzene is added in small quantities to petrol as a replacement for the lead compounds. It too is now the subject of health concerns, and its use is being reduced.

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Cracking: true or false?

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Complete combustion
In excess oxygen, short chain alkanes can undergo complete combustion:

alkane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water

For example:

propane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)

The combustion of alkanes is a highly exothermic process. This makes them good fuels because they release a relatively large amount of energy per gram of fuel.

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Incomplete combustion
If oxygen is limited then incomplete combustion will occur: alkane + oxygen carbon monoxide + water alkane + oxygen carbon + water For example: propane + oxygen carbon monoxide + water C3H8(g) + 3O2(g) 3CO(g) + 4H2O(g) propane + oxygen carbon + water

C3H8(g) + 2O2(g) 3C(s) + 4H2O(g)

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The internal combustion engine: carbon

Alkanes with chain lengths of 510 carbon atoms are used as fuels in internal combustion engines. This releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere: nonane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water C9H20(g) + 14O2(g) 9CO2(g) + 10H2O(g) Although modern internal combustion engines are more efficient than in the past, incomplete combustion still occurs: nonane + oxygen carbon monoxide + water 2C9H20(g) + 19O2(g) 18CO(g) + 20H2O(g)

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The internal combustion engine: nitrogen

The temperature in an internal combustion engine can reach over 2000 C. Here, nitrogen and oxygen, which at normal temperatures dont react, combine to form nitrogen monoxide: N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g) Nitrogen monoxide reacts further forming nitrogen dioxide: 2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g) Nitrogen dioxide gas reacts with rain water and more oxygen to form nitric acid, which contributes to acid rain: 4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g) 4HNO3(aq)
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The catalytic converter

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Sulfur contamination of fossil fuels

Sulfur is found as an impurity in crude oil and other fossil fuels. It burns in oxygen to form sulfur dioxide: S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g) Sulfur dioxide may be oxidized to sulfur trioxide: 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) Both of these oxides dissolve in water forming acidic solutions: SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq) SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)
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What is acid rain?

Acid rain is caused by acidic non-metal oxides such as sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides dissolving in rain water.

Rain water is naturally acidic because carbon dioxide dissolves in it, forming weak carbonic acid. However, sulfur and nitrogen oxides form more acidic solutions, which can damage trees and affect aquatic life in lakes and rivers.
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Removing sulfur dioxide pollution

Sulfur dioxide emissions from vehicle fuels such as petrol and diesel are reduced by removing nearly all of the sulfur impurities from the fuel before it is burnt. Removing the sulfur from coal before it is burnt is not practical. Instead, the acidic sulfur oxides are removed from the waste gases using a base such as calcium oxide.

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Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Fossil fuels are being burned faster than they are being formed, which means that their combustion leads to a net increase in the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide.
It has been suggested that increases in the amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases may be responsible for apparent changes to the climate.
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Greenhouse gases
Carbon dioxide, water vapour and methane have been described as the main greenhouse gases. This is because these have been suggested as the gases responsible for the majority of the greenhouse effect.

The greenhouse effect is a theory that has been suggested to explain apparent rises in the average temperature of the Earth.
Increasing the amount of any of the greenhouse gases traps more heat energy from the Sun in the Earths atmosphere, raising the average temperature.
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Pollutant gases

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Glossary

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Whats the keyword?

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Multiple-choice quiz

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