SOCA Test 2 Study Guide CH (5-7)

CH 5 Groups and Organizations 1) Social Groups i) Social Group-Is two or more people who identify with and interact with one another ii) Groups contain people with shared experiences, loyalties and interests iii) People with a status in common ex women, homeowners ext are not a group but a category iv) A loosely formed collection of people in one place is a Crowd v) The right circumstances can turn a crowd into a group b) Primary and Secondary Groups i) According to Charles Horton Cooley Primary Group is a small social group whose members share personal and lasting relationships (Family Members) ii) Personal Orientation iii) Cooley called personal and tightly integrated groups primary because they are among the first groups we experience in life iv) Secondary Group is a large and impersonal social group whose members pursue a specific goal or activity (1) Characteristics opposite to those of primary groups, involve weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of one another (2) Include more people than primary groups (3) Goal Orientation c) Group Leadership i) Typically benefit from two kinds of leadership ii) Two Leadership Roles (1) Instrumental Leadership refers to group leadership that focuses on the completion of tasks (a) Concentrate on performance, usually have formal secondary relationships with other members (b) Give orders and reward or punish people according to how much they contribute to the groups efforts (2) Expressive Leadership Is a group leadership that focuses on the groups well-being (a) Expressive leaders take less interest in achieving goals and focus on promoting the wellbeing of members and minimizing tension and conflict among members (i) Build more personal primary ties, offer sympathy to members going through tough times keep the group united and lighten serious moments with humor iii) Three Leadership Styles (1) Authoritarian Leadership (a) Focuses on instrumental concerns, takes personal charge of decision making and demands that group members obey orders (2) Democratic Leadership (a) More expressive, making a point of including everyone in the decision making process, generally draw on the ideas of all members to develop creative solutions to problems (3) Laissez faire

d)

e)

f)

g)

(a) leave it alone typically the least effective in promoting group goals iv) Group Conformity (1) Aschs Research (a) Used the line test as a means of studying group peer pressure (2) Milgrams Research (a) Used the shock learning test to see how pressure from an authority figure effected people (3) Janiss Groupthink (a) Groupthink tendency of group members to conform, resulting in a narrow view of some issue Reference Groups (1) Reference group a social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluation and decisions (2) Ex: a young man who imagines his familys response to a woman he is dating is using his family as a reference group ii) Stouffers Research (1) Used soldiers to rate their own or anyone elses chances of promotion in their army unit Study of reference groups In-Groups and Out-Groups i) In Group a social group toward which a members feels respect and loyalty ii) Out-Group a social group toward which a person feels a sense of competition or opposition iii) Tensions between groups usually sharpen the groups boundaries and give people a clearer social identity iv) Members of In-Groups generally hold overly positive views of themselves ann overly negative views of various Out-Groups Group Size i) Dyad Georg Simmel (1) Social group with two members (a) Typically more intense than in larger groups because neither member must share the others attention with anyone else (b) Usually unstable ii) Triad Simmel (1) A social group with three members (a) More stable because one member can act as a mediator (b) Two of the three can team up to express their views on the third person (2) As the group grown beyond 3 members is becomes more stable and capable of withstanding the loss of one or more members (3) Increases in group size reduce the intense interaction possible in only the smallest groups Social Diversity: Race, Class, and Gender i) Large groups turn inward (1) Blau explains that the larger the group is the more likely its members are to concentrate relations among themselves ii) Heterogonous groups turn outward

(1) More socially diverse a group is the more likely its members are to interact with outsiders iii) Physical boundaries create social boundaries (1) To the extent that a social group is physically segregated from others (having its own dorm for example) (2) Members are less likely to interact with other people h) Networks i) Network a web of weak social ties (1) Fuzzy group containing people who come into occasional contact but lack a sense of boundaries and belonging (2) Social Web (3) Commonly, a network includes people we know of or who know of us but with whom we interact rarely if at all 2) Formal Organizations i) Formal organizations large secondary groups organized to achieve goals efficiently ii) Corporations and government agencies differ from small primary groups in their impersonality and their formally planned atmosphere b) Types of Formal Organizations (1) Amitai Etzioni - identified three types of formal organizations distinguished by the reasons people participate in them ii) Utilitarian Organizations Employment (1) Just about everyone who works for income belongs to this group one that pays people for their efforts iii) Normative Organizations Volunteer Groups (1) People join these groups not for income but to pursue some goal they think is morally worthwhile (2) voluntary associations (3) 73% of first year college students un the US said they had participated in some organized volunteer activity within the past year iv) Coercive Organizations Prisons (1) Involuntary memberships (2) People are forced to join as a form of punishment prisons, psychiatric hospitals (3) Have features such as locked doors, and barred windows c) Origins of Formal Organizations i) Date back thousands of years ii) Early organizations had two limitation (1) Lacked technology to travel over large distances, communicate quickly, and gather and store information (2) Preindustrial societies that they were trying to rule had traditional cultures iii) Tradition according to Max Weber, consists of values and beliefs passed from generation to generation (1) Makes a society conservative because if limits an organization efficiency and ability to change

iv) Rationality according to Weber is described as the modern worldview as a way of thinking that emphasizes deliberate, matter-of-fact calculation of the most efficient way to accomplish a particular task (1) Pays little attention to the past and is open to any changes that might get the job done better or more quickly v) Rise of Organizational Society rests on what Weber called the: (1) Rationalization of Society (a) Is the historical change from tradition to rationality as the main type of human thought d) Characteristics of Bureaucracy i) Bureaucracy is an organizational model rationally designed to perform tasks efficiently ii) Weber identified six key elements of the ideal bureaucratic organization (1) Specialization (a) Assigns individuals highly specialized jobs (2) Hierarchy of offices (a) Arrange workers in a vertical ranking, each persons is this supervised by someone higher up (b) Usually few at the top and many at the bottom (3) Rules and regulations (a) Rationally enacted rules and regulations guide a bureaucracys operation (b) Seeks to operate in a completely predictable way (4) Technical competence (a) Have the technical competence to carry out their duties (b) Typically hire new members according to set standards and hen monitor their performance (5) Impersonality (a) Puts rules ahead of personal whim so that both clients and workers are all treated in the same way (b) The impersonal approach come the common place image of the Faceless Bureaucrat (6) Formal, written communications (a) Depends on formal written memos and reports e) Organizational Environment i) Factors outside an organization that affect its operation (1) Technology, economic and political trends, current events etc. f) The Informal Side of Bureaucracy i) Human beings are creative enough to resist bureaucratic regulation ii) Informality may amount to cutting corners on the job at times but also can provide the flexibility needed for an organization to adapt and be successful g) Problems of Bureaucracy (1) Many people are uneasy about large organization gaining too much influence (2) Can dehumanize and manipulate people and some also say it poses a threat to political democracy ii) Bureaucratic Alienation

(1) Impersonality that fosters efficiency also keeps officials an clients from responding to each others unique personal needs (2) By Weber, formal organization create alienation by reducing the human being to a small cog in a ceaselessly moving mechanism iii) Bureaucratic Inefficiency and Ritualism (1) Too much Red Tape: (2) Bureaucratic Ritualism Robert Merton describes focusing on rules and regulations to the point of undermining an organizations goals (3) Rules and regulations should be a means to an end, not an end in themselves that takes the focus away from the organizations stated foals iv) Bureaucratic Inertia (1) Refers to the tendency of bureaucratic organizations to perpetuate themselves (a) Tend to take on a life f their own beyond their formal objectives h) Oligarchy i) The rule of the many by the few (1) Michels countered that hierarchy also weekend democracy because officials can and often do use their access to information resources and the media to promote their own personal interests 3) Evolution of Formal Organizations i) Problems of bureaucracy alienation, and oligarchy stem from two organizational traits (1) Hierarchy & Rigidity b) Scientific Management i) Frederick Winslow Taylor stated that scientific management is the application of scientific principles to the operation of a business or other large organization ii) Scientific Management involves three steps (1) Managers carefully observe the job performed by each worker identifying all the operations involved and measuring the time needed for each (2) Manager analyze their data, trying to discover ways for workers to perform each job more efficiently (3) Management provides guidance and incentive for workers to do their jobs more efficiently iii) Taylor stated that if scientific principles were applied to all the steps of the production process, companies would become more profitable, workers would earn higher wages and consumers would pay lower prices iv) By breaking down work into small steps and fiving managers close control over the working process, scientific management also leads to greater social inequality between managers and worker c) First Challenge: Race and Gender (1) Rather than hiring on the basis of competence as Weber has proposed, they routinely excluded women and other minorities ii) Patterns of Privilege and Exclusion (1) Non-Hispanic white men in the US, 32% of the working age population still held 64% of senior level management jobs

(2) Non-Hispanic white women made up 32% of the population but held just 24% of executive position (3) Excluding women and minorities from the workplace ignores the talents of more than half the population (4) Sometimes what passes for merit in an organization is simply being of the right social category iii) Female Advantage (1) Deborah Tannen women have a greater information focus and more readily ask question in order to understand an issue (2) Sally Helgesen found three other gender linked patterns (a) Women place greater value on communication skills and share information more than men do (b) Women are more flexible leaders who typically give their employees greater freedom (c) Compared to men, women tend to emphasize the interconnectedness of all organizational operations d) Second Challenge: Japanese Work Organization i) Value cooperation more like large primary groups ii) William Ouchi highlighted difference between formal organization in Japan and in the US (1) Japanese companies hired new workers in groups giving everyone the same salary and responsibilities (2) Many Japanese companies hired workers for life, fostering strong sense of loyalty (3) With the idea that employees would spend their entire careers there, many Japanese organization trained workers in all phases of their operations (4) Although Japanese corporate leaders took ultimate responsibility for their o rganizations performance, they involved workers in quality circles to discuss decisions that affected them (5) Japanese companies played a large role in the lives of workers, providing home mortgages etc. e) Third Challenge: Changing Nature of Work i) Creative Freedom (1) Todays organization treat employees with information age skills as a vital resource (2) Executives can set production foals but cannot dictate how to accomplish tasks that require imagination and discovery (3) Gives highly skilled workers creative freedom ii) Competitive Work Teams (1) Many organizations allow several groups of employees to work on a problem and offer the greatest rewards to the group that comes up with the best solution (2) Draws out the creative contributions of everyone and at the same time reduce the alienation often found in conventional organizations iii) Flatter Organization (1) Conventional bureaucracy is replaced by an organizational form with fewer levels in the chain of command iv) Greater Flexibility (1) Helps generate new ideas and adapts quickly to the rapidly changing global marketplace

v) The postindustrial economy has created two very different types of work: high skill creative work and low skill service work f) McDonaldization of Society (1) 98% of school children could identify Ronald McDonald (2) Organizational principles that underlie McDonalds are coming to dominate our entire society ii) Four Principles (a) According to George Ritzer the McDonaldization of society involves four basic organizational principles (2) Efficiency (3) Predictability (4) Uniformity (5) Control g) Future of Organizations: Opposing Trends CH 6 Sexuality and Society 1) Understanding Sexuality a) Sex: A Biological Issue i) Refers to the biological distinction between females and males b) Sex and the Body (1) Primary Sex Characteristics Genitals (2) Secondary Sec Characteristics Bodily development apart from the genitals that distinguishes biologically mature females and males (3) Sex is NOT the same thing as gender (a) Gender is an element of culture and refers to the personal traits and patterns of behaviors including responsibilities, opportunities and privileges that a culture attached to being female or male ii) Intersexual People (1) Regers to people whose bodies including genitals have bnoth gamale and male characteristics (2) Both natural and very rare <1% iii) Transsexuals (1) People who feel they are on sec even though biologically they are the other 1 to 2 in every 1000 (2) Transgender c) Sex: A Cultural Issue i) Cultural Variation (1) Differences in sexual actions between various cultures around the world d) Incest Taboo i) Cultural universal in which it is forbidding sexual relations or marriage between certain relatives ii) 50% states allow first cousin marriage iii) Suggestion why humans observe an incest taboo is to limit sexual competition in families by restricting sex to spouses iv) Because family ties define peoples rights and obligation toward one another

v) Requiting people to marry outside their immediate families 2) Sexual Attitudes in the US i) Fornication laws, which forbid intercourse buy unmarried couples are still on the books in eight states ii) Is the US restrictive or permissive? (1) On one hand many people in the US still view sexual conduct as an important indicator of personal morality (2) On the other sex is increasingly a part of popular culture carried by the mass media b) Sexual Revolution i) Roaring Twenties when people were living from their families and meeting new people in the workplace ii) Books written by Kinsey encouraged a new openness toward sexuality which helped set the sexual revolution in motion iii) New technology also played a part birth control c) Sexual Counterrevolution i) The climate of sexual freedom that had marked the late 60s and 70s was criticize dby some people as evidence of our countrys moral decline ii) Return to Family Values d) Premarital Sex i) 29% of people characterize sexual relation before marriage as Always wrong ii) 17% consider premarital sex Wrong only Sometimes iii) 52% Not Wrong at All iv) Public opinion is far more accepting today than was the case a generation ago e) Sex between Adults i) 1/3 reported having sex with a partner a few times a year or not at all ii) 1/3 several times a month iii) 1/3 two or more times a week iv) Married people report he highest level of satisfaction both physical and emotional f) Extramarital Sex i) Adultery (1) Widely condemned in the US (a) 90% Always Wrong (2) 25% men and 10% women have had at least one extramarital sexual experience (3) Extramarital sex is higher among the young than the old (4) Higher among men than women (5) Higher among people of low social position (6) Higher among those who report no religious affiliation g) Sex Over the Lift Course i) Young adults report highest frequency 3) Sexual Orientation i) A persons romantic and emotional attraction to another person ii) Heterosexuality norm in all human societies, sexual attraction to someone of the other sex

Homosexuality sexual attraction to someone of the same sex Bisexuality sexual attraction to people of both sexes Asexuality Lack of sexual attraction to people of either sex Sexual attraction is NOT the same thing as sexual behavior (1) Ex. Many people have experiences some attraction to someone of the same sex but few ever actually engage in same sex behavior b) What Gives Us a Sexual Orientation i) A Product of Society (1) Approach that argues that people in any society attach meanings to sexual activity and theses meaning differ from place to place and over time ii) A Product of Biology (1) Growing body of evidence suggests that sexual orientation is innate or tooted in human biology (a) Born That Way (2) Genetics may also influence sexual orientation c) How Many Gay People Are There? i) Alfred Kinsey estimated about 4% of males and 2% of females have exclusively same sex orientation although he pointed out that most people experience same sex attraction at some point in their lives ii) Social scientists put the hay share of the population at 10% d) Gay Rights Movement i) Publics attitude toward homosexuality has been moving toward greater acceptance ii) American Psychiatric Association declared that homosexuality was not an illness but simply a form of sexual behavior iii) Homophobia discomfort over close personal interaction with people thought to be gay , lesbian, or bisexual 4) Sexual Issues and Controversies a) Teen Pregnancy i) Some 750k teen preganicies each year most unplanned ii) US rate of births to teenage women is higher than that of all other high income countries and is twice the rate in Canada iii) Low income sharply increases the likelihood of becoming sexually active and having an unplanned child b) Pornography i) Is sexually explicit material intended to cause sexual arousal ii) Also seen as a political issue because most of it degrades women iii) Some critics also clam that tis is ta cause of violence toward women c) Prostitution (1) Selling of sexual services (2) Most people think that sex should de an expression of intimacy they find the idea of sex for money disturbing and as a result prostitution is against the law everywhere in the US except for parts of Nevada ii) Types of Prostitution

iii) iv) v) vi)

(1) (In order of hierarchy) (a) Call Girls>Massage parlor workers>streetwalkers (2) Most consider this type of work to be degrading iii) A Victimless Crime? (1) Many people have a live and let live attitude toward prostitution (2) Subjects many women to abuse and outright violence and plays a part in spreading sexually transmitted diseases d) Sexual Violence: Rape and Date Rape i) Rape (1) Although some people think rape is motivated only buy a desire for sex, it is actually an expression of power (2) The carnal knowledge of a female forcibly and against her will ii) Date Rape (1) 73% of all rapes involve people who know one another (2) Another myth is the idea that ta woman who has been raped much have done something to encourage the man and make him think she wanted to have sex 5) Theories of Sexuality a) Structural-Functional Theory (1) Explains the contribution of any social pattern to the overall operation of society ii) Need to Regulate Sexuality (1) Cultural and social institutions regulate with whom and when people reproduce (2) Ex. most societies condemn married people who have sex with someone other than a spouse because if sexual passion would go unchecked it would threaten family life, especially raising of children (3) Reproduction by family members other than married partners would break down the kinship system and hopelessly confuse human relationships iii) Latent Functions: Case of Prostitution (1) Prostitution is one way to meet the sexual needs of a large number of people who do not have ready access to sex Kingsley Davis b) Symbolic-Interaction Theory (1) Highlights how, as people interact, they construct everyday reality ii) Social Construction of Sexuality (1) Virginity norm changing as time has progressed and birth control us more readily available (2) Sexual education had change concerning children iii) Global Comparisons (1) Sexual practices vary by culture c) Social-Conflict and Feminist Theories (1) Highlights dimensions of inequality (a) reveals how sexuality both reflects patterns of social inequality and helps perpetuate them ii) Sexuality: Reflecting Social Inequality (1) Bender bias in terms of who is and is not wrong regarding something such as prostution

iii) Sexuality: Creating Social Inequality (1) Sexuality is pointed to as the root of inequality between women and men (2) Defining women in sexual terms devalues them from full human beings to objects of mens interest and attention iv) Queer Theory (1) Refers to a body of research finding that challenges the heterosexual bias in US society (2) Begins with the claim that our society is characterized by heterosexism, (a) Heterosexisms a view that labels anyone who Is not heterosexual as qeer

CH 7 Deviance 1) What is Deviance i) Recognized violation of cultural norms ii) Crime category of deviance, the violation of societys formally enacted criminal law b) Social Control i) Attempts by society to regulate peoples thoughts and behavior ii) Cases of serious deviance may bring action by the criminal justice system c) Biological Context i) human behavior to be the result of biological instincts ii) Early interest in criminality therefore focused on biological issues iii) No physical traits distinguish criminals from noncriminal iv) William Sheldon suggested that body structure might predict criminality (1) Determined that delinquency was most common among boys with muscular athletic builds v) Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck confirmed that conclusion but cautioned that a powerful build does not necessarily cause or even predict criminality d) Personality Factors i) Most psychologists think personality is shaped primarily by social experience (1) Deviance is then viewed as the result of unsuccessful socialization ii) Containment Theory from the research of Reckless and Dinitz that surveyed males into categories of who would and would not be more likely to have trouble with the law later in life e) Social Foundations of Deviance (1) Deviance as well as conformity is shaped by society ii) Deviance varies according to cultural norms (1) No though or action is inherently deviant, it becomes deviant only in relation to particular norms iii) People become deviants as others define them that way iv) Both norms and the way people define rule breaking involve social power (1) Karl Marx claimed that the law is a means by which powerful people protect their interests (2) Norms and how we apply them reflect social inequality 2) Functions of Deviance: Structural Functional Theories i) Key insight is that deviance is a necessary part of social organization b) Durkheims Basic Insight

(1) Emile Durkheim made a statement that there is nothing abnormal about deviance, in which it actually performs four essential functions ii) Deviance affirms cultural values and norms (1) There can be no good without evil and no justice without crime (2) Deviance is needed to define and support morality iii) Responding to deviance clarifies moral boundaries (1) Br defining some individuals as deviant, people draw a boundary between right and wrong iv) Responding to deviance brings people together (1) People typically react to serious deviance with shared outrage v) Deviance encourages social change (1) Deviant people push a societys moral boundaries, suggesting alternatives to the status quo and encouraging change c) Mertons Strain Theory i) Argued that too much deviance results from particular social arrangements (1) Specifically the extent and type of deviance depend on whether a society provides the means (such as schooling and job opportunities) to achieve cultural goals (2) Conformity lies in pursuing cultural goals through approved means (3) Strain between out cultures emphases on wealth and the lack of opportunities to get rich may encourage some people to engage in stealing, drug dealing, ad other forms of street crime (4) Merton called this type of deviance Innovation using unconventional means rather than conventional means to achieve a culturally approved goal d) Deviant Subcultures i) Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin extended Mertons theory, proposing that crime results not simply from limited legitimate opportunity but also from readily accessible illegitimate opportunity ii) Deviance or conformity depends on the (relative opportunity structure) that frames a persons life iii) Where the structure of opportunity favors criminal activity, Cloward and Ohlin predict that development of Criminal Subcultures iv) When people are unable to fund any opportunity legal or illegal (1) Deviance may take on one of two forms: (a) Conflict Subcultures armed street gangs (b) Re-treatist Subcultures deviants drop out and abuse alcohol or other drugs v) Albert Cohen suggests that criminality is most common among lower-class youths because they have the least opportunity to achieve success by conventional means vi) Walter Miller adds that deviant subcultures are characterized by (1) Trouble arising from frequent conflict (2) Toughness value placed on physical size and strength especially among males (3) Smartness ability to succeed on the streets (4) Need for Excitement search for thrills, risk, danger (5) Belief in Fate a sense that people lack control over their own lives (6) Desire for Freedom - often expressed as anger toward authority figures

vii) Elijah Anderson explained that in poor urban neighborhoods most people manage to conform to conventional values 3) Defining Deviance: Symbolic-Interaction Theories i) Explains how people come to see defiance in everyday situations b) Labeling Theory (1) Idea that deviance and conformity result not so much from what people do as from how others respond to those actions ii) Primary and Secondary Deviance (1) Edwin Lemert (a) Primary Deviance some norm violations may provoke some reaction from others, but this process has little effect on a persons self-concept (b) Secondary Deviance - After an audience has defined some action as primary deviance, the individual may being to change, taking on a deviant identify by talking, actin, or dressing in a different way, rejecting the people who are critical, and repeatedly breaking the rules iii) Stigma (1) A powerfully negative label that greatly changes a persons self-concept and social identity (2) Operates as a master status, overpowering other dimensions of identity so that a person is discredited in the minds of others and informally as others begin to see the individual in deviant terms iv) Retrospective and Projective Labeling (1) Once people stigmatize a persons as deviant they may engage in retrospective labeling (a) A reinterpretation of the persons past in light of some present deviance (2) Retrospective Labeling - Process of selecting out certain facts about a persons biography (3) Projective Labeling using a deviant identity to predict the persons future actions v) Labeling Difference as Deviance (1) Szasz claims, that labeling people as Mentally Ill for conditions that simply amount to differences we dont like enforces conformity to the standards of people powerful enough to impose their will on others c) Medicalization of Deviance i) Transformation of moral and legal deviance into a medical condition (1) Amounts to swapping one set of labels for another (from good or bad to sick or well) d) Difference Labels Make i) Whether we define deviance as a moral or a medical issue has three consequences (1) It affects who responds to deviance (a) A moral offence typically brings a reaction from members of the community or police (b) A medical label places the situation under the control of clinical specialists (2) How people respond to deviance (a) Moral approach defines deviants as offenders subject to punishment (b) Medically they are patients who need treatment (3) Competence of the deviant person (a) Morally we are right or wrong

(b) Once defined as sick we are seen as unable to control or actions e) Sutherlands Differential Association Theory i) A persons tendency toward conformity or deviance depends on the amount of contact with others who encourage or reject conventional behavior f) Hirschis Control Theory (1) States that social control depends on peoples anticipating the consequences of their behavior (a) Hirschi assumes that everyone finds at least some deviance tempting but the thought of a ruined career keeps most people from breaking the rules (2) Hirschi links conformity to four different types of social control: (a) Attachment (i) Strong social and emotional attachments encourage conformity (b) Commitment (i) Greater a persons stake in conformity the lower the risk of deviance (c) Involvement (i) Extensive involvement in legitimate activities inhibits deviance (d) Belief (i) Strong beliefs in conventional morality and respect for authority figures encourages conformity and restrains tendencies toward deviance 4) Deviance and Inequality: Social-Conflict Theories i) Links deviance to social inequality b) Deviance and Power i) Alexander Liazos points out that people that we tend to define as deviants are typically not as bad or harmful as they are powerless ii) Social Conflict theory explains this pattern in three ways: (1) All norms generally reflect the interests of the rich and powerful (2) Even if their behavior is called into question, the powerful have the resources to resist deviant labels (3) Widespread belief that norms and laws are just masks their political character c) Deviance and Capitalism i) Steven Spitzer argues that devant labels are applied to people who interfere with the operation of capitalism (1) Because capitalism is based on private control of property (2) Because capitalism depends on productive labor people who cannot or will not work risk being labeled deviant (3) The operation of the capitalist system demands on respect for authority figures ii) Capitalist system also tries to control people who dont fit into the system d) White-Collar Crime i) A crime committed by people of high social position in the course of their occupations (1) Most common are: (a) Bank embezzlement, fraud, bribery e) Corporate Crime

i) Illegal actions of a corporation or people acting on its behalf (1) Knowingly selling faulty or dangerous products to pollution f) Organized Crime i) A business supplying illegal foods or services 5) Deviance, Race, and Gender: Race-Conflict and Feminist Theories a) Race-Conflict Theory: Hate Crimes i) Hate crime criminal act against a person or a persons property by an offender motivated by racial or other bias b) Feminist Theory: Deviance and Gender i) Virtually every society in the world places stricter controls on the behavior of women than men ii) According to labeling theory, gender influences how we define deviance because people commonly use different standards to judge behavior of females and males] iii) Because society puts men in position of power over women, men often escape direct responsibility for action that victimize women 6) Crime i) Violation of criminal laws enacted by a locality, state, or deferral government b) Types of Crime i) Two major types of crime make up the FBI Crime Index (1) Crimes Against the Person (a) Also referred to as violent crimes crimes that direct violence or the threat of violence against others (2) Crimes Against Property (a) Crimes that involve theft of money or property belonging to others (3) Victimless Crimes (a) Violations of low in which there are no obvious victims crimes without complaint c) Criminal Statistics i) Researchers check official crime statistics by conducting victimization surveys which showed the actual number of serious crimes was almost twice as high as police reports indicated d) Street Criminal: A Profile i) Gender (1) 62.4% of males were arrested in all property crimes 37.6% were women (2) 80% of males were arrested involving violent crimes ii) Greatest gender difference in crime rates occurs in societies that most severely limit the opportunities women iii) Age (1) Crime rates rise during adolescence and peak in the late teens (2) Between 15-24 years of age accounted for 39.4% of all arrest for violent crimes and 47.6% for property crimes iv) Social Class (1) Research indicates that street crime is more widespread among people of lower social position (2) Connection between social standing and criminality also depends on the type of crime v) Race and Ethnicity

(1) 69.4% of arrests for index crimes in 2010 were white people (2) African Americans are higher in proportion to their share of the general population (a) 13% of population but account for 28.9% of arrests for property crimes (b) 38.1% of arrests for violent crimes 7) US Criminal Justice System i) Societies response to crime b) Due Process i) Idea that the criminal justice system must operate according to law ii) In general terms the concept of due process means that anyone charged with a crime must receive (1) Fair notice of the proceedings (2) A hearing on t charged conducted according to law and with the ability to present a decenve (3) Just or jury that weighs evidence impartially c) Police i) Generally serve as the point of contact between a population and the criminal justice system ii) Use a great deal of personal judgment d) Courts i) Determines a suspects guilt or innocence ii) US courts rely on an adversarial process involving attorneys (1) Plea Bargaining legal negotiation in which a prosecutor reduces a charge in exchange for a defendant guilty plea (2) Plea bargaining spares the system the time and expense of trials e) Punishment i) Retribution (1) Act of moral vengeance by which society makes the offender suffer as much as the suffering cause by the crime ii) Deterrence (1) The attempt to discourage criminality through the use of punishment (2) Punishment may deter crime in two ways: (a) Specific Deterrence - convinces an individual offender that crime does not pay (b) General Deterrence punishing one person serves as an example to others iii) Rehabilitation (1) A program for reforming the offender to prevent later offences iv) Societal Protection (1) Rendering an offender incapable of further offences temporarily through imprisonment or permanently by execution (2) Criminal Recidivism later offences by people previously convicted of crimes repeat offenders f) Death Penalty g) Community-Based Correction (1) Correctional programs operating within society at large rather than behind prision walls (2) Three main advantages (a) Reduce costs

(b) Reduce overcrowding in prisons (c) Allow for supervision of convicts while eliminating the hardships of prison life and the stigma that accompanies going to jail (3) Not so much as punish but to reform ii) Probation (1) Policy of permitting a convicted offender to remain in the community under condition imposed by a court iii) Shock probation (1) Policy by which a judge orders a convicted offender to prison for a short time and then suspends the remainder of the sentence in favor of probation iv) Parole (1) Policy of releasing inmates from prison to serve the remainder of their sentences in the local community under the supervision of a parole office