40/639

40

H y d r a u lic F u n d a m e n t a ls
R K e it h M o b le y
The Plant Performance Group

C o n te n ts
40.1 Introduction 40/641

40.2 Basic hydraulics 40/642 40.2.1 States of matter 40/643 40.2.2 Development of hydraulics 40/643 40.2.3 Use of hydraulics 40/643 40.2.4 Operation of hydraulic components 40/644 40.3 Forces 40.3.1 40.3.2 40.3.4 40.3.5 40.3.6 in liquids 40/644 Liquids at rest (hydrostatics) 40/644 Liquids in motion (hydraulics) 40/647 Transmission of force through liquids 40/651 Pressure and force in hydraulic systems 40/651 Multiplication of force 40/651

40.4 Hydraulic pumps 40/653 40.4.1 Operation 40/653 40.4.2 Performance 40/653 40.5 Hydraulic uids 40/654 40.5.1 Purpose of uid 40/654 40.5.2 Properties 40/655 40.5.3 Contamination 40/660 40.5.4 Contamination control 40/662 40.5.5 Hydraulic uid sampling 40/662 40.6 Reservoirs, strainers, lters and accumulators 40/663 40.6.1 Reservoirs 40/663 40.6.2 Accumulators 40/664 40.6.3 Filtration 40/665 40.6.4 Heat exchangers 40/665 40.7 Actuators 40/666 40.7.1 Hydraulic cylinders 40.8 Control valves 40/670 40.8.1 Valve classication 40/666 40/670

40.9 Lines, ttings and seals 40/673 40.9.1 Types of lines 40/673 40.9.2 Types of ttings and connectors

40/678

Introduction 40/6 4 1

40.1 In t r o d u c t io n
The study of hydraulics deals w ith the use and characteristics of liquids and gases. Since the beginning of time, man has used uids to ease his burden. E arliest recorded history show s that devices such as pumps and w ater w heels w ere used to generate useable mechanical pow er. Fluid pow er encompasses most applications that use liquids or gases to transmit pow er in the form of mechanical w ork , pressure and/or volume in a system. This denition includes all systems that rely on pumps or compressors to transmit specic volumes and pressures of liquids or gases w ithin a closed system. The complexity of these systems range from a simple centrifugal pump used to remove casual w ater from a basement to complex airplane control systems that rely on highpressure hydraulic systems. Fluid pow er systems have been developing rapidly over the past thirty-ve years. Fluid pow er lled a need during W orld W ar II for an energy transmission system w ith muscle, w hich could easily be adapted to automated machinery. Today, uid pow er technology is seen in every phase of mans activities. Fluid pow er is found in areas of manufacturing such as metal forming, plastics, basic metals, and material handling. Fluid pow er is evident in transportation as pow er and control systems of ships, airplanes, and automobiles. The environment is another place uid pow er is hard at w ork compacting w aste materials and controlling oodgates of hydroelectric dams. Food processing, construction equipment and medical technology are a few more areas of uid pow er involvement. Fluid pow er applications are only limited by imagination. There are alternatives to uid pow er systems. E ach system, regardless of the type, has its ow n advantages and disadvantages. E ach has applications w here it is best suited to do the job. This is probably the reason you w ont nd a uid pow er w ristw atch or hoses carrying uid pow er replacing electrical pow er lines.

the position of a suspended load w ithout a constant supply of air pressure. The load w ill force the air trapped w ithin the cylinder to compress and allow the suspended load to creep. This compressibility also limits the motion of pneumatic actuators w hen under load. Pneumatic systems can be used for applications that require low to medium pressure and only accurate control. Applications that require medium pressure, more accurate force transmission and moderate motion control can use a combination of hydraulics and pneumatics, or hydropneumatics. Hydraulics systems must be used for applications that require high pressure and/or extremely accurate force and motion control. The exibility of uid pow er, both hydraulic and pneumatic elements, present a number of problems. Since uids and gases have no shape of their ow n, they must be positively conned throughout the entire system. This is especially true in hydraulics w here leak age of hydraulic oil can result in safety or environmental concerns. Special consideration must be given to the structural integrity of the parts of a hydraulic system. Strong pipes, tubing and hoses, as w ell as the containers must be provided. Leak s must be prevented. This is a serious problem w ith the high pressure obtained in many hydraulic system applications.

Fluid power systems vs. mechanical systems

Some desirable characteristics of uid pow er systems w hen compared w ith mechanical systems. A uid pow er system is often a simpler means of transmitting energy. There are few er mechanical parts than in an ordinary industrial system. Since there are few er mechanical parts, a uid pow er system is more efcient and more dependable. In the common industrial system, there is no need to w orry about hundreds of moving parts failing, w ith uid or gas as the transmission medium. W ith uid or gas as the transmission medium, various components of a system can be located at convenient places on the machine. Fluid pow er can be transmitted and controlled quick ly and efciently up, dow n, and around corners w ith few controlling elements. Since uid pow er is efciently transmitted and controlled, it gives freedom in designing a machine. The need for gear, cam, and lever systems is eliminated. Fluid pow er systems can provide innitely variable speed, force and direction control w ith simple, reliable elements.

Advantages of uid power

If a uid pow er system is properly designed and used, it w ill provide smooth, exible, uniform action w ithout vibration, and is unaffected by variation of load. In case of an overload, an automatic release of pressure can be guaranteed, so that the system is protected against break dow n or excessive strain. Fluid pow er systems can provide w idely variable motions in both rotary and linear transmission of pow er and the need for manual control can be minimiz ed. In addition, uid pow er systems are economical to operate. Fluid pow er includes hydraulic, hydro-pneumatic and pneumatic systems. W hy are hydraulics used in some applications, pneumatics in others or combination systems, in still others? Both the user and the manufacturer must consider many factors w hen determining w hich type of system should be used in a specic application. In general, pneumatic systems are less expensive to manufacture and operate, but there are factors that prohibit their universal application. The compressibility of air, as any gas, limits the operation of pneumatic systems. For example, a pneumatic cylinder cannot maintain

Fluid power vs. electrical systems

Mechanical force can be more easily controlled using uid pow er. The simple use of valves and rotary or linear actuators control speed, direction and force. The simplicity of hydraulic and pneumatic components greatly increases their reliability. In addition, components and overall system siz e are typically much smaller than comparable electrical transmission devices.

Special problems
The operation of the system involves constant movement of the hydraulic uid w ithin its lines and components.

40/6 4 2 H y draulic Fundamentals

This movement causes friction w ithin the uid itself and against the containing surfaces. E xcessive friction can lead to serious losses in efciency or damage to system components. Foreign matter must not be allow ed to accumulate in the system, w here it w ill clog small passages or score closely tted parts. Chemical action may cause corrosion. Anyone w ork ing w ith hydraulic systems must k now how a uid pow er system and its components operate, both in terms of the general principles common to all physical mechanisms and of the peculiarities of the specic arrangement at hand. The w ord hydraulics is based on the G reek w ord for w ater, the rst used form of hydraulic pow er transmission. Initially, hydraulics covered the study of the physical behavior of w ater at rest and in motion. It has been expanded to include the behavior of all liquids, although it is primarily limited to the motion or k inetics of liquids.

severe re haz ard is generated w hen a break in the highpressure piping occurs and the oil is vaporiz ed into the atmosphere. E xtra precautions against re should be practiced in these areas. If oil is pressuriz ed by compressed air, an explosive haz ard exists. If high-pressure air encounters the oil, it may create a diesel effect, w hich may result in an explosion. A carefully follow ed preventive maintenance plan is the best precaution against explosions.

40.2 B a s ic h y d r a u lic s
Fluid pow er systems have developed rapidly over the past thirty-ve years. Today, uid pow er technology is used in every phase of human existence. The extensive use of hydraulics to transmit pow er is due the fact that properly constructed uid pow er systems possess a number of favorable characteristics. They eliminate the need for complicated systems of gears, cams, and levers. Motion can be transmitted w ithout the slack or mechanical looseness inherent in the use of solid machine parts. The uids used are not subject to break age as are mechanical parts, and the mechanisms are not subjected to great w ear. The operation of a typical uid pow er system is illustrated in Figure 40.1. Oil from a tank or reservoir ow s through a pipe into a pump. An electric motor, air motor,
Cylinder Push to move a given load Piston Piston rod

H az ards
Any use of a pressuriz ed medium, such as hydraulic uid, can be dangerous. Hydraulic systems carry all the haz ards of pressuriz ed systems and special haz ards related directly to the composition of the uid used. W hen using oil as a uid in a high-pressure hydraulic system, the possibility of re or an explosion exists. A

Pressure control

Directional control

Driving means

Pump

Functional control

Filter
F ig u r e 40.1 B as ic hy draulic s y s tem

B as ic hy draulics 40/6 4 3

gas or steam turbine, or an internal combustion engine can drive the pump. The pump increases the pressure of the oil. The actual pressure developed depends on the design of the system. The high-pressure oil ow s in piping through a control valve. The control valve changes the direction of oil ow . A relief valve, set at a desired, safe operating pressure, protects the system from an over pressure condition. The oil that enters the cylinder acts on the piston, w ith the pressure acting over the area of the piston, developing a force on the piston rod. The force on the piston rod enables the movement of a load or device.

40.2.1 States of matter

The material that mak es up the universe is k now n as matter. Matter is dened as any substance that occupies space and has w eight. Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid, and gas. E ach has distinguishing characteristics. Solids have a dened volume and a denite shape. Liquids have a denite volume, but tak e the shape of their containing vessels. G ases have neither a denite shape nor volume. G ases not only tak e the shape of the containing vessel, but also expand to ll the vessel, regardless of its volume. E xamples of the states of matter are iron, w ater, and air. Matter can change from one state to another. W ater is a good example. At high temperatures, above 212 F, it is in a gaseous state k now n as steam. At moderate temperatures, it is liquid, and at low temperatures, below 32 F, it becomes ice, a solid. In this example, the temperature is the dominant factor in determining the state that the substance assumes. Pressure is another important factor that w ill affect changes in the state of matter. At pressures higher than atmospheric, 14.7 psi, w ater w ill boil and thus change to steam at temperatures below 212 F. Pressure is also a critical factor in changing some gases to liquids or solids. N ormally, w hen pressure and chilling are both applied to a gas, the gas assumes a liquid state. Liquid air, w hich is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen, is produced in this manner. In the study of uid pow er, w e are concerned primarily w ith the properties and characteristics of liquids and gases. How ever, you should k eep in mind that the properties of solids also affect the characteristics of liquids and gases. The lines and components, w hich are solids, enclose and control the liquid or gas in their respective systems.

After the break up of the ancient w orld, there w ere few new developments for many centuries. Then, over a comparatively short period, beginning near the end of the seventeenth century, Italian physicist, E vangelista Torricelle, French Physicist, E dme Mariotte and later Daniel Bernoulli conducted experiments to study the force generated by the discharge of w ater through small openings in the sides of tank s and through short pipes. During the same period, Blaise Pascal, a French scientist, discovered the fundamental law for the science of hydraulics. Pascals law states that an increase in pressure on the surface of a conned uid is transmitted throughout the conning vessel or system w ithout any loss of pressure. Figure 40.2 illustrates the transmission of forces through liquids. For Pascals law to become effective for practical applications, a piston or ram conned w ithin a close tolerance cylinder w as needed. It w as not until the latter part of the eighteenth century that methods w ere developed that could mak e the snugly tted parts required mak ing hydraulic systems practical. This w as accomplished by the invention of machines that w ere used to cut and shape the necessary closely tted parts and, particularly, by the development of gask ets and pack ing. Since that time, components such as valves, pumps, actuating cylinders and motors have been developed and rened to mak e hydraulics one of the leading methods of transmitting pow er.

40.2.3 Use of hydraulics

The hydraulic press, invented by an E nglishman, J ohn Brahmah, w as one of the rst w ork able machines that used hydraulics in its operation. It consisted of a plunger pump piped to a large cylinder and a ram. This press found w ide use in E ngland because it provided a more effective and economical means of applying large, uniform forces in industrial uses. Today, hydraulic pow er is used to operate many different tools and mechanisms. In a garage, a mechanic raises the end of an automobile w ith a hydraulic jack . Dentists and barbers use hydraulic pow er to lift and position their chairs. Hydraulic doorstops k eep heavy doors from slamming. Hydraulic brak es have been standard equipment on automobiles since the 1930s. Most automobiles are equipped w ith automatic transmissions
Force 1 = 10 0 lb s. Force 2 = 10 0 lb s.

40.2.2 Development of hydraulics

The use of hydraulics is not new . The E gyptians and people of ancient Persia, India and China conveyed w ater along channels for irrigation and other domestic purposes. They used dams and sluice gates to control the ow and w aterw ays to direct the w ater to w here it w as needed. The ancient Cretins had elaborate plumbing systems. Archimedes studied the law s of oating and submerged bodies. The Romans constructed aqueducts to carry w ater to their cities.

F ig u r e 40.2 Trans mis s ion of forces

40/6 4 4 H y draulic Fundamentals

that are hydraulically operated. Pow er steering is another application of hydraulic pow er. Construction w ork ers depend upon hydraulic pow er for their equipment. For example, the blade of a bulldoz er is normally operated by hydraulic pow er.

R elief valves
Most hydraulic systems use a positive displacement pump to generate energy w ithin the system. Unless the pressure is controlled, these pumps w ill generate excessive pressure that can cause catastrophic failure of system component. A relief valve is alw ays installed dow nstream of the hydraulic pump to prevent excessive pressure and to provide a positive relief should a problem develop w ithin the system. The relief valve is designed to open at a preset system pressure. W hen the valve opens, it diverts ow to the receiver tank or reservoir.

40.2.4 O peration of hydraulic components

To transmit and control pow er through pressuriz ed uids, an arrangement of interconnected components is required. Such an arrangement is commonly referred to as a system. The number and arrangement of the components vary from system to system, depending on the particular application. In many applications, one main system supplies pow er to several subsystems, w hich are sometimes referred to as circuits. The complete system may be a small, compact unit or a large, complex system that has components located at w idely separated points w ithin the plant. The basic components of a hydraulic system are essentially the same regardless of the complexity of the system. Seven basic components must be in a hydraulic system. These basic components are:

L ines (pipe, tubing or ex ible hoses)

All systems require some means to transmit hydraulic uid from one component to another. The material of the connecting lines w ill vary from system to system or w ithin the system.

H ydraulic uid
The uid provides the vehicle that transmits input pow er, such as from a hydraulic pump to the actuator device or devices that perform w ork .

R eservoir or receiver
This is usually a closed tank or vessels that hold the volume of uid required supporting the system. The vessels normally provide several functions in addition to holding uid reserves. The major functions include ltration of the uid, heat dissipation, and w ater separation.

40.3 F o r c e s in liq u id s
The study of liquids is divided into tw o main parts: liquids at rest, hydrostatics; and liquids in motion, hydraulics. The effect of liquids at rest can often be expressed by simple formulas. The effects of liquids in motion are more difcult to express due to frictional and other factors w hose actions cannot be expressed by simple mathematics. Liquids are almost incompressible. For example, if a pressure of 100 pounds per square inch, psi, is applied to a given volume of w ater that is at atmospheric pressure, the volume w ill decrease by only 0.03 per cent. It w ould tak e a force of approximately 32 tons to reduce its volume by 10 per cent; how ever, w hen this force is removed, the w ater immediately returns to its original volume. Other liquids behave in about the same manner as w ater. Another characteristic of a liquid is the tendency to k eep its free surface level. If the surface is not level, liquids w ill ow in the direction w hich w ill tend to mak e the surface level.

H ydraulic pump
This is the energy source for hydraulic systems. It converts electrical energy into dynamic, hydraulic pressure. In almost all cases, hydraulic systems utiliz e positive displacement pumps as their primary pow er source. These are brok en dow n into tw o primary sub-classications: constant-volume or variable-volume. In the former, the pumps are designed to deliver a xed output (i.e. both volume and pressure) of hydraulic uid. In the later, the pump delivers only the volume or pressure required for specic functions of the system or its components.

C ontrol valves
The energy generated by the hydraulic pump must be directed and controlled so that the energy can be used. A variety of directional and functional control valves are designed to provide a w ide range of control functions.

40.3.1 L iq uids at rest (hydrostatics)

In the study of uids at rest, w e are concerned w ith the transmission of force and the factors w hich affect the forces in liquids. Additionally, pressure in and on liquids and factors affecting pressure are of great importance.

Actuating devices
The energy w ithin a hydraulic system is of no value until it is converted into w ork . Typically, this is accomplished by using an actuating device of some type. This actuating device may be a cylinder, w hich converts the hydraulic energy into linear mechanical force; a hydraulic motor, that converts energy into rotational force; or a variety of other actuators designed to provide specic w ork functions.

P ressure and force

The terms force and pressure are used extensively in the study of uid pow er. It is essential that w e distinguish betw een these terms. Force is the total pressure applied to or generated by a system. It is the total pressure exerted against the total area of a particular surface and is expressed in pounds or grams.

Forces in liq uids 40/6 4 5

Pressure is the amount of force applied to each unit area of a surface and is expressed in pounds per square inch, lb/in2 (psi) or grams per square centimeter, gm/cm2 . Pressure may be exerted in one direction, in several directions, or in all directions. A formula is used in computing force, pressure, and area in uid pow er systems. In this formula, P refers to pressure; F indicates force, and A represents area. Force equals pressure times area. Thus, the formula is w ritten:
FDPA

(a)

14 .7 lb /in2

14 .7 14 .7 14 .7

14 .7 14 .7 14 .7

Pressure equals force divided by area. By rearranging the formula, this statement may be condensed to:
F PD A
(b )

14 .7 14 .7 lb /in2

Since area equals force divided by pressure, the formula is w ritten:

AD F P

Atmospheric pressure
The atmosphere is the entire mass of air that surrounds the earth. W hile it extends upw ard for about 500 miles, the section of primary interest is the portion that rests on the earths surface and extends upw ard for about 71 2 miles. This layer is called the troposphere. If a column of air 1-inch square extended to the top of the atmosphere could be w eighed, this column of air w ould w eigh approximately 14.7 pounds at sea level. Thus, atmospheric pressure, at sea level, is approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch or psi. Atmospheric pressure decreases by approximately 1.0 psi for every 2343 feet of elevation. E levations below sea level, such as in excavations and depressions, atmospheric pressure increases. Pressures under w ater differ from those under air only because the w eight of the w ater must be added to the pressure of the air. Atmospheric pressure can be measured by any of several methods. The common laboratory method uses a mercury column barometer. The height of the mercury column serves as an indicator of atmospheric pressure. At sea level and at a temperature of 0 Celsius (C), the height of the mercury column is approximately 30 inches, or 76 centimeters. This represents a pressure of approximately 14.7 psia. The 30-inch column is used as a reference standard. Atmospheric pressure does not vary uniformly w ith altitude. It changes more rapidly at low er altitudes because of the compressibility of air, w hich causes the air layers close to the earths surface to be compressed by the air masses above them. This effect, how ever, is partially counteracted by the contraction of the upper layers due to cooling. The cooling tends to increase the density of the air. Atmospheric pressures are quite large, but in most instances, practically the same pressure is present on all sides of objects so that no single surface is subjected to a greater load. Atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of a liquid, Figure 40.3 view (a), is transmitted equally

F ig u r e 40.3 E ffects of atmos pheric pres s ure

throughout the liquid to the w alls of the container, but is balanced by the same atmospheric pressure acting on the outer w alls of the container. In view (b), Atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of one piston is balanced by the same pressure acting on the surface of the other piston. The different areas of the tw o surfaces mak e no difference, since for a unit of area, pressures are balanced.
D 62.4 lbs 1 ft2

P ascals law
The foundation of modern hydraulics w as established w ith Pascals discovery that pressure in a uid acts equally in all directions. This pressure acts at right angles to the containing surfaces. If some type of pressure gauge, w ith an exposed face, is placed beneath the surface of a liquid, Figure 40.4, at a specic depth and pointed in different directions, the pressure w ill read the same. Thus, w e can say that pressure in a liquid is independent of direction. Pressure due to w eight of a liquid, at any level, depends on the depth of the uid from the surface. If the exposed face of the pressure gauge, Figure 40.4, is moved closer to the surface of the liquid, the indicated pressure w ill be less. W hen the depth is doubled, the indicated pressure is also doubled. Thus, the pressure in a liquid is directly proportional to the depth. Consider a container w ith vertical sides, Figure 40.5, that is 1 foot high and 1 foot w ide.

40/6 4 6 H y draulic Fundamentals

1 foot high, having a cross-sectional area of 1 square inch, is 0.433 pounds. If the depth of the column is tripled, the w eight of the column w ill be 3 0.433 or 1.299 pounds and the pressure at the bottom w ill be 1.299 lb/in2 (psi), since the pressure is equal to the force divided by the area. Thus, the pressure at any depth in a liquid is equal to the w eight of the column of liquid at the depth divided by the cross-sectional area of the column at that depth. The volume of a liquid that produces the pressure is referred to as the uid head of the liquid. The pressure of a liquid due to its uid head is also dependent on the density of the liquid. If w e let A equal any cross-sectional area of a liquid column and h equal the depth of the column, the volume becomes Ah. Using the equation D D W/V, the w eight of the liquid above area A is equal to AhD , or:
DD W W D Ah D Ah

F ig u r e 40.4 Pres s ure of a liq uid is independent of direction

Since pressure is equal to the force per unit area, set A equal to 1. Then the formula for pressure becomes:
P D hD

Let it be lled w ith w ater 1 foot deep, thus providing 1 ft of w ater. W e learned earlier in this chapter that 1 ft3 of w ater w eighs 62.4 pounds. Using this information and the equation for pressure, w e can calculate the pressure on the bottom of the container.
PD F A 62.4 D 0.433 lbs/inch2 144

It is essential that h and D be expressed in similar units. That is, if D is expressed in pounds per cubic foot, the value of h must be expressed in feet. If the desired pressure is to be expressed in pounds per square inch, the pressure formula becomes:
PD hD 144

PD

Since there are 144 square inches in 1 square foot, this can be stated as follow s: the w eight of a column of w ater

Pascal w as also the rst to prove by experiment that the shape and volume of a container in no w ay alters pressure. Thus in Figure 40.6, if the pressure due to the w eight of the liquid at a point on horiz ontal line H is 8 psi, the pressure is 8 psi everyw here at level H in the system.

W ater w eight 6 2.4 lb W ater pressure 6 2.4 lb / ft2

0 .4 3 3 lb /in2

F ig u r e 40.5 W ater pres s ure in a 1 -cubic foot container

Forces in liq uids 40/6 4 7

S urface

Head

F ig u r e 40.6 Pres s ure relations hip w ith s hape

40.3.2 L iq uids in motion (hydraulics)

In the operation of uid pow er systems, there must be ow of uid. The amount of ow w ill vary from system to system. To understand uid pow er systems, it is necessary to understand some of the characteristics of liquids in motion. Liquids in motion have characteristics different from liquids at rest. Frictional resistances w ithin the uid, viscosity, and inertia contribute to these differences. Inertia, w hich means the resistance a mass offers to being set in motion, w ill be discussed later in this section. Other relationships of liquids in motion you must be familiar w ith. Among these are volume and velocity of ow ; ow rate, and speed; laminar and turbulent ow ; and more importantly, the force and energy changes w hich occur in ow .

ow increases as the cross-section or siz e of the pipe decreases, and the velocity of ow decreases as the crosssection or pipe siz e increases. For example, the velocity of ow is slow at w ide parts, yet the volume of liquid passing each part of the stream is the same. In Figure 40.7, if the cross-sectional area of the pipe is 16 square inches at point A and 4 square inches at point B, w e can calculate the relative velocity of ow using the ow equation:
Q D vA

W here Q is the volume of ow , v is the velocity of ow and A is the cross-sectional area of the liquid. Since the volume of ow at point a, Q1 , is equal to the volume of ow at point B, Q2 , w e can use this equation to determine the ratio of the velocity of ow at point A, v1 , to the velocity of ow at point B, v2 . Since
Q1 D Q2 , then A1 v1 D A2 v2

V olume and velocity of ow

The volume of a liquid passing a point in a given time is k now n as its volume of ow or ow rate. The volume of ow is usually expressed in gallons per minute (gpm) and is associated w ith the relative pressures of the liquid, such as 5 gpm at 40 psig. The velocity of ow or velocity of the uid is dened as the average speed at w hich the uid moves past a given point. It is usually expressed in feet per minute (fpm) or inches per second (ips). Velocity of ow is an important consideration in siz ing the hydraulic piping and other system components. Volume and velocity of ow must be considered together. W ith other conditions unaltered, the velocity of

From Figure 40.7:

A1 D 16 square inches , A2 D 4 square inches

Substituting:
16v1 D 4v2 or v2 D 4v1

Therefore, the velocity of ow at point B is four times greater than the velocity of ow at point A.

V olume of ow and speed

W hen you consider the cylinder volume that must be lled and the distance that the piston must travel, you can relate

40/6 4 8 H y draulic Fundamentals

16 in2

4 in2

B A V el = 1
F ig u r e 40.7 V olume and v elocity of ow

V el = 4

the volume of ow to the speed of the piston. The volume of the cylinder is found by multiplying the piston area by the length the piston must travel. This length is k now n as strok e. Suppose you have determined that tw o cylinders have the same volume and that one cylinder is tw ice as long as the other. In this case, the cross-sectional area of the longer tube w ill be half of the cross-sectional area of the other tube. If uid is pumped into each cylinder at the same rate, both pistons w ill reach their full travel at the same time. How ever, the piston in the smaller cylinder must travel tw ice as fast because it has tw ice as far to go. There are tw o w ays of controlling the speed of the piston, (1) by varying the siz e of the cylinder and (2) by varying the volume of ow (gpm) to the cylinders.

obstructions, the degree of curvature of bends, and the number of bends in the pipe. In setting up or maintaining uid pow er systems, care should be tak en to eliminate or minimiz e as many causes of turbulence as possible, since energy consumed by turbulence is w asted. W hile designers of uid pow er equipment do w hat they can to minimiz e turbulence, it cannot be avoided. For example, in a 4-inch pipe at 68 F, ow becomes turbulent at velocities over approximately 6 inches per second (ips) or about 3 ips in a 6-inch pipe. These velocities are far below those commonly encountered in uid pow er systems, w here velocities of 5 feet per second (fps) and above are common. In laminar ow , losses due to friction increase directly w ith velocity. W ith turbulent ow , these losses increase much more rapidly.

Streamline and turbulent ow

At low velocities or in tubes of small diameter, ow is streamlined. This means that a given particle of uid moves straight forw ard w ithout bumping into other particles and w ithout crossing their paths. Streamline ow is often referred to as laminar ow , w hich is dened as a ow situation in w hich uid moves in parallel lamina or layers. An example of streamline ow is an open stream ow ing at a slow , uniform rate w ith logs oating on its surface. The logs represent particles of uid. As long as the stream ow s at a slow , uniform rate, each log oats dow nstream in its ow n path, w ithout crossing or bumping into the others. If the stream narrow s and the volume of ow remains the same, the velocity w ill increase. If the velocity increases sufciently, the w ater becomes turbulent. Sw irls, eddies, and cross-motions are set up in the w ater. As this happens, the logs are throw n against each other and against the bank s of the stream, and the paths follow ed by different logs w ill cross and re-cross. Particles of uid ow ing in pipes act in the same manner. The ow is streamlined if the uid ow s slow ly enough, and remains streamlined at greater velocities if the diameter of the pipe is small. If the velocity of ow or siz e of pipe is increased sufciently, the ow becomes turbulent. W hile a high velocity of ow w ill produce turbulence in any pipe, other factors contribute to turbulence. Among these are the roughness of the inside of the pipe,

Factors involved in ow
An understanding of the behavior of uids in motion, or solids for that matter, requires an understanding of the term inertia. Inertia is the term used by scientists to describe the property possessed by all forms of matter that mak e it resist being moved w hen it is at rest and to resist any change in its rate or motion w hen it is moving. The basic statement covering inertia is N ew tons rst law of motion. His rst law states: A body at rest tends to remain at rest, and a body in motion tends to remain in motion at the same speed and direction, unless acted on by some unbalanced force. This simply says w hat you have learned by experience that you must push an object to start it moving and push it in the opposite direction to stop it again. A familiar illustration is the effort a pitcher must exert to mak e a fast pitch and the opposition the catcher must put forth to stop the ball. Similarly, the engine to mak e an automobile begin to roll must perform considerable w ork ; although, after it has attained a certain velocity, it w ill roll along the road at uniform speed if just enough effort is expended to overcome friction, w hile brak es are necessary to stop its motion. Inertia also explains the k ick or recoil of guns and the tremendous strik ing force of projectiles.

Inertia and force

To overcome the tendency of an object to resist any change in its state of rest or motion, some force that

Forces in liq uids 40/6 4 9

is not otherw ise canceled or balanced must act on the object. Some unbalanced force must be applied w henever uids are set in motion or increased in velocity; w hile conversely, forces are made to do w ork elsew here w henever uids in motion are retarded or stopped. There is a direct relationship betw een the magnitude of the force exerted and the inertia against w hich it acts. This force depends on tw o factors: (1) the mass of the object and (2) the rate at w hich the velocity of the object is changed. The rule is that the force, in pounds, required to overcome inertia is equal to the w eight of the object multiplied by the change in velocity, measured in feet per second (fps) and divided by 32 times the time, in seconds, required to accomplish the change. Thus, the rate of change in velocity of an object is proportional to the force applied. The number 32 appears because it is the conversion factor betw een w eight and mass. Five physical factors act on a uid to affect its behavior. All of the physical actions of uids in all systems are determined by the relationship of these ve factors to each other. Summariz ing, these ve factors are: 1. G ravity, w hich acts at all times on all bodies, regardless of other forces. 2. Atmospheric pressure, w hich acts on any part of a system exposed to the open air. 3. Specic applied forces, w hich may or may not be present, but w hich are entirely independent of the presence or absence of motion. 4. Inertia, w hich comes into play w henever there is a change from rest to motion, or the opposite, or w henever there is a change in direction or in rate of motion. 5. W henever there is motion, friction is alw ays present.

K inetic energy
An external force must be applied to an object in order to give it a velocity or to increase the velocity it already has. W hether the force begins or changes velocity, it acts over a certain distance. Force acting over a certain distance is called w ork . W ork and all forms into w hich it can be changed are classied as energy. Obviously then, energy is required to give an object velocity. The greater the energy used, the greater the velocity w ill be. Disregarding friction, for an object to be brought to rest or for its motion to be slow ed dow n, a force opposed to its motion must be applied to it. This force also acts over some distance. In this w ay, energy is given up by the object and delivered in some form to w hatever opposed its continuous motion. The moving object is therefore a means of receiving energy at one place and delivering it to another point. W hile it is in motion, it is said to contain this energy, as energy of motion or k inetics energy. Since energy can never be destroyed, it follow s that if friction is disregarded the energy delivered to stop the object w ill exactly equal the energy that w as required to increase its speed. At all times, the amount of k inetic energy possessed by an object depends on its w eight and the velocity at w hich it is moving. The mathematical relationship for k inetic energy is stated in the rule. K inetic energy, in foot-pounds, is equal to the force, in pounds, w hich created it, multiplied by the

distance through w hich it w as applied, or to the w eight of the moving object, in pounds, multiplied by the square of its velocity, in feet per second, and divided by 64. The relationship betw een inertia forces, velocity, and k inetic energy can be illustrated by analyz ing w hat happens w hen a gun res a projectile against the armor of an enemy ship. The explosive force of the pow der in the breach pushes the projectile out of the gun, giving it a high velocity. Because of its inertia, the projectile offers opposition to this sudden velocity and a reaction is set up that pushes the gun back w ards. The force of the explosion acts on the projectile throughout its movement in the gun. This is force acting through a distance producing w ork . This w ork appears as k inetic energy in the speeding projectile. The resistance of the air produces friction, w hich uses some of the energy and slow s dow n the projectile. W hen the projectile hits the target, it tries to continue moving. The target, being relatively stationary, tends to remain stationary because of inertia. The result is that a tremendous force is set up that either leads to the penetration of the armor or the shattering of the projectile. The projectile is simply a means to transfer energy from the gun to the enemy ship. This energy is transmitted in the form of energy in motion or k inetic energy. A similar action tak es place in a uid pow er system in w hich the uid tak es the place of the projectile. For example, the pump in a hydraulic system imparts energy to the uid, w hich overcomes the inertia of the uid at rest and causes it to ow through the lines. The uid ow s against some type of actuator that is at rest. The uid tends to continue ow ing, overcomes the inertia of the actuator, and moves the actuator to do w ork . Friction uses up a portion of the energy as the uid ow s through the lines and components.

R elationship of force, pressure, and head

In dealing w ith uids, forces are usually considered in relation to the areas over w hich they are applied. As previously discussed, a force acting over a unit area is a pressure, and pressure can alternately be stated in pounds per square inch or in terms of head, w hich is the vertical height of the column of uid w hose w eight w ould produce that pressure. All ve of the factors that control the actions of uids can be expressed either as force or in terms of equivalent pressures or head. In either situation, the different factors are referred to in the same terms.

Static and dynamic factors

G ravity, applied forces, and atmospheric pressure are examples of static factors that apply equally to uids at rest or in motion. Inertia and friction are dynamic forces that apply only to uids in motion. The mathematical sum of gravity, applied forces, and atmospheric pressure is the static pressure obtained at any one point in a uid system at a given point in time. Static pressure exists in addition to any dynamic factors that may also be present at the same time. Remember that Pascals law states that a pressure set up in a uid acts equally in all directions and at right angles

40/6 5 0 H y draulic Fundamentals

to the containing surfaces. This covers the situation only for uids at rest. It is true only for the factors mak ing up static head. Obviously, w hen velocity becomes a factor, it must have a direction of ow . The same is true of the force created by velocity. Pascals law alone does not apply to the dynamic factors of uid pow er systems. The dynamic factors of inertia and friction are related to the static factors. Velocity head and friction head are obtained at the expense of static head. How ever, a portion of the velocity head can alw ays be reconverted to static head. Force, w hich can be produced by pressure or head w hen dealing w ith uids, is necessary to start a body moving if it is at rest, and is present in some form w hen the motion of the body is arrested. Therefore, w henever a uid is given velocity, some part of its original static head is used to impart this velocity, w hich then exists as velocity head.

overcoming friction still exists, it has been converted to heat. In an actual system, the pressure in chamber B w ould be less than that in chamber A. The difference w ould be the amount of pressure used to overcome friction w ithin the system. At all points in a system, the static pressure is alw ays equal to the original static pressure less any velocity head at a specic point in the system and less the friction head required to reach that point. Since both the velocity head and friction head represent energy and energy cannot be destroyed, the sum of the static head, the velocity head, and the friction head at any point in the system must add up to the original static head. This is k now n as Bernoullis principal, w hich states: For the horiz ontal ow of uids through a tube, the sum of the pressure and the k inetic energy per unit volume of the uid is constant. This principle governs the relationship of the static and dynamic factors in hydraulic systems.

B ernoulis principle
Review the system illustrated in Figure 40.8. Chamber A is under pressure and is connected by a tube to chamber B, w hich is also under pressure. The pressure in chamber A is static pressure of 100 psi. The pressure at some point (X ) along the connecting tube consists of a velocity pressure of 10 psi exerted in a direction parallel to the line of ow , plus the unused static pressure of 90 psi. The static pressure (90 psi) follow s Pascals law and exerts equal pressure in all directions. As the uid enters chamber B, it slow s dow n and its velocity is reduced. As a volume of liquid moves from a small, conned space into a larger area, the uid w ill expand to ll the greater volume. The result of this expansion is a reduction of velocity and a momentary reduction in pressure. In the example, the force required to absorb the uids inertia equals the force required to start the uid moving originally, so that the static pressure in chamber B is equal to that in chamber A. This example disregards friction. Therefore, it w ould not be encountered in actual practice. Force or head is also required to overcome friction. Unlik e inertia, this force cannot be recovered. E ven though the energy required
Force 1= 20 lb s. Input piston 2 in2 Chamb er A Pressure 10 lb /in2

M inimiz ing friction

Fluid pow er equipment is designed to reduce friction as much as possible. Since energy cannot be destroyed, some of the energy created by both static pressure and velocity is converted to heat energy as the uid ow s through the piping and components w ithin a hydraulic system. As friction increases, so does the amount of dynamic and static energy that is converted into heat. To minimiz e the loss of useable energy lost to its conversion to heat energy, care must be tak en in the design, installation and operation of hydraulic system. As a minimum the follow ing factors must be considered: Proper uid must be chosen and used in the system. It must have the best viscosity, operating temperature range and other characteristics that are conducive to proper operation of the system and low est possible friction component. Fluid ow is also critical for proper operation of a hydraulic system. Turbulent ow should be avoided as much as possible. Clean, smooth pipe or tubing should be used to provide laminar ow and the low est friction possible w ithin the system. Sharp, close radius bends and sudden changes in cross-sectional area are avoided.
Force 2 = 20 0 lb s.

O utput piston 20 in2 Chamb er B

1inch

1 inch 10

F ig u r e 40.8 R elation of s tatic and dy namic factors

Forces in liq uids 40/6 5 1

System components, such as pumps, valves and gauges, create both turbulent ow and high friction components. Pressure drop, or a loss of pressure, is created by a combination of turbulent ow and friction as the uid ow s through the unit. System components that are designed to provide minimum interruption of ow and pressure should be selected for the system.

the uid regardless of the shape of the container. Consider the effect of this in the system show n in Figure 40.10. If there is a resistance on the output piston and the input piston is pushed dow nw ard, a pressure is created through the uid w hich acts equally at right angles to surfaces in all parts of the container. If force 1 is 100 pounds and the area of the input piston is 10 square inches, then the pressure in the uid is 10 psi.
100 lbs 10 square inches

40.3.4 T ransmission of force throug h liq uids

W hen the end of a solid bar is struck , the main force of the blow is carried straight through the bar to the other end (Figure 40.9, view A). This happens because the bar is rigid. The direction of the blow almost entirely determines the direction of the transmitted force. The more rigid the bar, the less force is lost inside the bar or transmitted outw ard at right angles to the direction of the blow . W hen a force is applied to the end of a column of conned liquid (Figure 40.9, view B), it is transmitted straight through to the other end. It is also equal and undiminished in every direction throughout the column forw ard, back w ard and sidew ays so that the containing vessel is literally lled w ith the added pressure. So far, w e have explained the effects of atmospheric pressure on liquids and how external forces are distributed through liquids. Let us now focus our attention on forces generated by the w eight of liquids themselves. To do this, w e must rst discuss density, specic gravity and Pascals law .

40.3.5 P ressure and force in hydraulic systems

According to Pascals law , any force applied to a conned uid is transmitted uniformly in all directions throughout

N ote: Fluid pressure cannot be created w ithout resistance to ow . In this case, the equipment to w hich the output piston is attached provides resistance. The force of resistance acts against the top of the output piston. The pressure is created in the system, by the input piston pushing on the underside of the output piston w ith a force of 10 pounds per square inch. In this case, the uid column has a uniform cross section, so the area of the output piston is the same as the area of the input piston, or 10 square inches. Therefore, the upw ard force on the output piston is 100 pounds and is equal to the force applied to the input piston. All that w as accomplished in this system w as to transmit the 100 pounds of force around the bend. How ever, this principle underlies practically all mechanical applications of hydraulics or uid pow er. At this point, you should note that since Pascals law is independent of the shape of the container, it is not necessary that the tube connecting the tw o pistons has the same cross-sectional area of the pistons. A connection of any siz e, shape or length w ill do, as long as an unobstructed passage is provided. Therefore, the system show n in Figure 40.11, w ith a relatively small, bent pipe connecting tw o cylinders w ill act the same as the system show n in Figure 40.10.

40.3.6 M ultiplication of force

Unlik e the preceding discussion, hydraulic systems can provide mechanical advantage or a multiplication of input force. Figure 40.12 illustrates an example of an increase in output force. Assume that the area of the input piston is 2 square inches. W ith a resistant force on the output piston, a dow nw ard force of 20 pounds acting on the input
Force 1 = 10 0 lb s. Input piston 10 in2 Force 2 = 10 0 lb s. O utput piston 10 in2

Pressure 10 lb /in2

(A)

(B)
F ig u r e 40.1 0 Force trans mitted throug h uid

F ig u r e 40.9 Trans mis s ion of force: (A ) s olid; (B ) uid

40/6 5 2 H y draulic Fundamentals

Force 1 = 10 0 lb s. Input piston 10 in 2

Force 2 = 10 0 lb s. O utput piston 10 in 2

Pressure 10 lb / in 2

F ig u r e 40.1 1 Trans mitting force throug h s mall pipe

piston w ill create a pressure of 20 2 or 10 psi in the uid. Although this force is much smaller than the force applied in Figures 40.10 and 40.11, the pressure is the same. This is because the force is applied to a smaller area. This pressure of 10 psi acts on all parts of the uid container, including the bottom of the output piston. The upw ard force on the output piston is 200 pounds (10 psi piston area). In this case, the original force has been multiplied tenfold w hile using the same pressure in the uid as before. In any system w ith these dimensions, the ratio of output force to input force is alw ays 10 to 1, regardless of the applied force. For example, if the applied force of the input piston is 50 pounds, the pressure in the system w ill be 25 psi. This w ill support a resistant force of 500 pounds on the output piston. The system w ork s the same in reverse. If w e change the applied force and place a 200-pound force on the output piston, Figure 40.12, mak ing it the input piston, the output force on the input piston w ill be one-tenth the input force, or 20 pounds. Therefore, if tw o pistons are used in a uid pow er system, the force acting on each piston is directly proportional to its area, and the magnitude of each force is the product of the pressure and the area of each piston.
Force 2 = 20 0 lb s. Force 1= 10 0 lb s.

D ifferential areas
Figure 40.13 is a simple example of differential pressure. The gure illustrates a single piston, w ith a surface area of 6 in2 , attached to a piston rod, w ith an area of 2 in2 . W ithout any external force applied to the end of the piston rod, an equal force, 20 psig, is applied to both sides of the piston, and w ill cause the piston to move to the right. This motion is the result of differential forces. E ven though the input force, 20 psig, is applied to both sides of the piston the difference in area, 6 in2 on the left face and 2 in2 on the right face, w ill cause the piston to move. The opposed faces of the piston behave lik e tw o pistons acting against each other. The area of one face is the full cross-sectional area of the cylinder or 6 in2 , w hile the area of the opposing face is the area of the piston minus the area of the piston rod, or 2 in2 . This leaves an effective area of 4 in2 on the piston rod side of the piston. The force acting on the left side of the piston is equal to 20 psi 6 in2 or 120 pounds. The opposing force generated by the right side of the piston is 20 psi 4 in2 or 80 pounds. Therefore, there is a net unbalanced force of 40 pounds (120 80) acting the right, and the piston w ill move in that direction.

20 lb /in2

Input piston 2 in2

O utput piston 20 in2

Piston
Pressure 10 lb /in2

Cylinder

Piston rod

4 0 lb
1inch 1 inch 10

Area 6 in2

Area 2 in2

F ig u r e 40.1 2 M ultiplication of forces

F ig u r e 40.1 3 D ifferential areas on a pis ton

H y draulic pumps 40/6 5 3

V olume and distance factors

Y ou have learned that if a force is applied to a system and the cross-sectional areas of the input and output are equal, the force on the input piston w ill support an equal resistant force on the output piston. The pressure of the liquid at this point is equal to the force applied to the input piston divided by the pistons area. Let us now look at w hat happens w hen a force greater than the resistance is applied to the input piston. In the system illustrated in Figure 40.10, assume that the resistant force on the output piston is 100 pounds. If a force slightly greater than 100 pounds is applied to the input piston, the pressure in the system w ill be slightly greater than 10 psi. This increase in pressure w ill overcome the resistant force on the output piston. If the input piston is forced dow nw ard 1 inch, the movement displaces 10 in3 of uid. The uid must go somew here. Since the system is closed and the uid is practically incompressible, the uid w ill move the right side of the system. Because the output piston also has a cross-sectional area of 10 in2 , it w ill move upw ard 1 inch to accommodate the 10 in3 of uid. Y ou may generaliz e this by saying that if tw o pistons in a closed system have equal cross-sectional areas and one piston is pushed and moved, the other piston w ill move the same distance in the opposite direction. This is because a decrease in volume in one part of the system is balanced by an equal increase in volume in another part of the system. Apply this reasoning to the system is Figure 40.11. If the input piston is pushed dow n a distance of 1 inch, the volume in the left cylinder w ill decrease by 2 in3 . At the same time, the volume in the right cylinder w ill increase by 2 in2 . Since the diameter of the right cylinder cannot change, the piston must move upw ard to allow the volume to increase. The piston w ill move a distance equal to the volume increase divided by the surface area of the piston. In this example, the piston w ill move one-tenth of an inch (2 in3 /20 in2 ). This leads to the second basic rule for uid pow er systems that contain tw o pistons: The distances the pistons move are inversely proportional to the areas of the pistons. Or more simply, if one piston is smaller than the other, the smaller piston must move a greater distance than the larger piston any time the pistons move.

load imposed on the system or the action of a pressureregulating valve controls the system pressure.

40.4.1 O peration
A pump must have a continuous supply of uid available to its inlet port before it can supply uid to the system. As the pump forces uid through the outlet port, a partial vacuum or low -pressure area is created at the inlet port. W hen the pressure at the inlet port of the pump is low er than the atmospheric pressure, the atmospheric pressure acting on the uid in the reservoir must force the uid into the pumps inlet. This is called a suction lift condition.

40.4.2 P erformance
Pumps are normally rated by their volumetric output and discharge pressure. Volumetric output is the amount of uid a pump can deliver to its outlet port in a certain period of time and at a given speed. Volumetric output is usually expressed in gallons per minute (gpm). Since changes in pump speed affect volumetric output, some pumps are rated by their displacement. Pump displacement is the amount of uid the pump can deliver per cycle or complete rotation. Since most pumps use a rotary drive, displacement is usually expressed in terms of cubic inches per revolution. W hile pumps do not directly create pressure, the system pressure created by the restrictions or w ork performed by the system has a direct affect on the volumetric output of the pump. As the system pressure increases, the volumetric output of the pump decreases. This drop in volumetric output is the result of an increase in the amount of leak age w ithin the pump. This leak age is referred to as pump slippage or slip. A factor must be considered in all hydraulic pumps.

P ump ratings
Pumps are generally rated by their maximum operating pressure capability and their output in gallons per minute (gpm) at a given operating speed.

P ressure
The manufacturer based on reasonable service life expectancy under specied operating conditions determine the pressure rating of a pump. It is important to note that there is no standard industry-w ide safety factor in this rating. Operating at higher pressure may result in reduced pump life or damage that is more serious.

40.4 H y d r a u lic p u m p s
The purpose of a hydraulic pump is to supply the ow of uid required by a hydraulic system. The pump does not create system pressure. System pressure is created by a combination of the ow generated by the pump and the resistance to ow created by friction and restrictions w ithin the system. As the pump provides ow , it transmits a force to the uid. W hen the ow encounters resistance, this force is changed into pressure. Resistance to ow is the result of a restriction or obstruction in the ow path. This restriction is normally the w ork accomplished by the hydraulic system, but there can also be restrictions created by the lines, ttings or components w ithin the system. Thus, the

D isplacement
The ow capacity of a pump can be expressed as its displacement per revolution or by its output in gallons per minute (gpm). Displacement is the volume of liquid transferred in one complete cycle of pump operation. It is equal to the volume of one pumping chamber multiplied by the number of chambers that pass the outlet during one complete revolution or cycle. Displacement is expressed in cubic inches per revolution.

40/6 5 4 H y draulic Fundamentals

Most pumps that are used in hydraulic applications have a xed displacement w hich cannot be changed except by replacing certain components. How ever, in some, it is possible to vary the siz e of the pumping chamber and thereby the displacement by means of external controls. Some unbalanced vane pumps and many piston units can be varied from maximum to z ero delivery or even to reverse ow w ithout modication to the pumps internal conguration.

40.5 H y d r a u lic u id s
Selection and care of the hydraulic uid for a machine w ill have an important effect on how it performs and on the life of the hydraulic components. During the design of equipment that requires uid pow er, many factors are considered in selecting the type of system to be used-hydraulic, pneumatic, or a combination of the tw o. Some of the factors required are speed and accuracy of operation, surrounding atmospheric conditions, economic conditions, availability of replacement uid, required pressure level, operating temperature range, contamination possibilities, cost of transmission lines, limitations of the equipment, lubricity, safety to the operators, and expected service life of the equipment. After the type of system has been selected, many of these same factors must be considered in selecting the uid for the system. This chapter is devoted to hydraulic uids. Included in it are sections on the properties and characteristics desired of hydraulic uids; types of hydraulic uids; haz ards and safety precautions for w ork ing w ith, handling, and disposing of hydraulic liquids; types and control of contamination; and sampling.

V olumetric ef ciency
In theory, a pump delivers an amount of uid equal to its displacement each cycle or revolution. In reality, the actual output is reduced because of internal leak age or slippage. As pressure increases, the leak age from the outlet to the inlet or to the drain also increases and the volumetric efciency decreases. Volumetric efciency is equal to the actual output divided by the theoretical output. It is expressed as a percentage.
E fciency D Actual output 100 Theoretical output

For example, if a pump theoretically should deliver 10 gpm by delivers only 9 gpm at 1000 psig, its volumetric efciency at that pressure is 90 per cent.
E fciency D 9 gpm 100 D 90% 10 gpm

40.5.1 P urpose of the uid

As a pow er transmission medium, the uid must ow easily through lines and component passages. Too much resistance to ow creates considerable pow er loss. The uid also must be as incompressible as possible so that action is instantaneous w hen the pump is started or a valve shifts.

If the discharge pressure is increased, the amount of slippage w ill increase. If w e increase the pressure in the above example, to 1500 psig, the actual output may drop to 8 gpm. Therefore, the volumetric efciency w ill decrease to 80 per cent at 1500 psig.

L ubrication
In most hydraulic components, the hydraulic uid provides internal lubrication. Pump elements and other w ear parts slide against each other on a lm of uid, Figure 40.14.

2. Inside its b ody... 1. A typical sliding valve spool moves b ack and forth... 3 . O n a thin film of hydraulic fluid (show n greatly ex aggerated).

4 . If this passage is under pressure, the fluid film seals it from adjacent passage.
F ig u r e 40.1 4 Fluid lubricates w ork ing parts

H y draulic uids 40/6 5 5

For long component life, the oil must contain the necessary additives to ensure high anti-w ear characteristics. N ot all hydraulic oils contain these additives.

In equation form, this is w ritten as:

DD W V

Sealing
In many applications, hydraulic uid is the only seal against pressure inside system components. In Figure 40.14, there is no seal ring betw een the valve spool and body to prevent leak age from the highpressure passage to the low -pressure passage. The close mechanical t and viscosity of the hydraulic uid determine leak age rate.

E x ample: The liquid that lls a certain container w eighs 1496.6 pounds. The container is 4 feet long, 3 feet w ide and 2 feet deep. Its volume is 24 cubic feet (4 ft 3 ft 2 ft). If 24 ft3 of this liquid w eighs 1497.6 pounds, then 1 cubic foot w eighs:
DD 1, 497.6 24

C ooling
Circulation of the hydraulic oil through lines, heat exchangers and the w alls of the reservoir, Figure 40.15, gives up heat that is generated w ithin the system. W ithout this cooling, the heat generated by the hydraulic pump and mechanical w ork performed by system actuators w ould build to a point that damage of system components could cause premature failure of the system.

40.5.2 P roperties
If uidity, the physical property of a substance that enables it to ow and incompressibility w ere the only properties required, any liquid that is not too thick might be used in a hydraulic system. How ever, a satisfactory liquid for a particular system must possess a number of other properties. The most important properties and some characteristics are discussed in the follow ing paragraphs.

or 62.4 pounds. Therefore, the density of the liquid is 62.4 pounds per cubic foot or 62.4 lbs/ft3 . This is the density of w ater at 40 C and is usually used as the standard for comparing densities of other substances. The temperature of 40 C w as selected because w ater has its maximum density at this temperature. This standard temperature is used w henever the density of liquids and solids is measured. Changes in temperature w ill not change the w eight of a substance but w ill change the volume of the substance by expansion or contraction, thus changing the w eight per unit volume, density. In physics, the w ord specic implies a ratio. W eight is the measure of the earths attraction for a body, w hich is called gravity. Thus, the ratio of the w eight of a unit volume of some substance to the w eight of an equal volume of a standard substance, measured under standard pressure and temperature, is called specic gravity. The terms specic w eight and specic density are also sometimes used to express this ratio.
Specic gravity, Sp.G r. D W eight of the substance W eight of an equal volume of w ater

D ensity and speci c gravity

The density of a substance is its w eight per unit of volume. The unit of volume in the E nglish system of measurement is 1 cubic foot or 1 f3 . To nd the density of a substance, you must k now its w eight and volume. Y ou then divide its w eight by its volume to nd the w eight per unit volume.

or, the specic gravity of w ater is 1.0 or a density of 62.4 lbs/ft3 . If a cubic foot of a liquid w eighs 68.64 pounds, then its specic gravity is 1.1 or
68.64 62.4 Sp.G r. D Density of the substance Density of w ater

From hydraulic system

To hydraulic system Pump

3 . Heat generated in the system is given off into the atmosphere.

1. As the hydraulic fluid circulates through lines... 2. And the reservoir...

F ig u r e 40.1 5 C irculating oil cools s y s tem

40/6 5 6 H y draulic Fundamentals

Thus, the specic gravity of the liquid is the ratio of its density to the density of w ater. If the specic gravity of a liquid or solid is k now n, the density can be obtained by multiplying its specic gravity by the density of w ater. For example, if a hydraulic uid has a specic gravity of 0.8, 1 ft3 of the uid w eighs 0.8 times the w eight of w ater (62.4 pounds) or 49.92 pounds. Specic gravity and density are independent of the siz e of the sample and depend only on the substance of w hich it is made.

pressure drops throughout the system, sluggish operation of the equipment, and an increase in pow er consumption.

M easurement of viscosity
Viscosity is normally determined by measuring the time required for a xed volume of a uid, at a given temperature, to ow through a calibrated orice or capillary tube. The instruments used to measure the viscosity of a liquid are k now n as viscosimeters. In decreasing order of exactness, methods of dening viscosity include absolute (poise) viscosity; k inematic viscosity in centistok es; relative viscosity in Saybolt universal seconds (SUS); and SAE numbers.

V iscosity
Viscosity is one of the most important properties of hydraulic uids. It is a measure of a uids resistance to ow . A liquid such as gasoline w hich ow s easily has a low viscosity, and a liquid such as tar w hich ow s slow ly has a high viscosity. The viscosity of a liquid is affected by changes in temperature and pressure. As the temperature of liquid increases, its viscosity decreases. That is, a liquid ow s more easily w hen it is hot than w hen it is cold. The viscosity of a liquid w ill increase as the pressure on the liquid increases. A satisfactory liquid for a hydraulic system must be thick enough to give a good seal at pumps, motors, valves, and so on. These components depend on close ts for creating and maintaining pressure. Any internal leak age through these clearances results in loss of pressure, instantaneous control, and pump efciency. Leak age losses are greater w ith thinner liquids (low viscosity). A liquid that is too thin w ill also allow rapid w earing of moving parts, or of parts that operate under heavy loads. On the other hand, if the liquid is too thick , viscosity too high, the internal friction of the liquid w ill cause an increase in the liquids ow resistance through clearances of closely tted parts, lines, and internal passages. This results in

Absolute viscosity
The resistance w hen moving one layer of liquid over another is the basis for the laboratory method of measuring absolute viscosity. P oise viscosity is dened as the force (pounds) per unit of area, in square inches, required to move one parallel surface at a speed of one centimeterper-second past another parallel surface w hen the tw o surfaces are separated by a uid lm one centimeter thick , Figure 40.16. In the metric system, force is expressed in dynes and area in square centimeters. Poise is also the ratio betw een the shearing stress and the rate of shear of the uid.
Absolute viscosity D Shear stress Rate of shear Dyne second Square centimeter

1 poise D 1

A smaller unit of absolute viscosity is the centipoise, w hich is one-hundredth of a poise or 1 centipoise D 0.01 poise.

1. If this moving surface is one sq uare centimeter in area and moves at a velocity of one centimeter per second on... O il 1 cm.

2. A film of fluid one centimeter thick ...

F ig u r e 40.1 6 M eas uring abs olute v is cos ity

3 . And a force of 1 dyne is req uired to move the surface, the viscosity is eq ual to one poise.

H y draulic uids 40/6 5 7

K inematic viscosity
The concept of k inematic viscosity is the outgrow th of the use of a head of liquid to produce a ow through a capillary tube. The coefcient of absolute viscosity, w hen divided by the density of the liquid is called the k inematic viscosity. In the metric system, the unit of viscosity is called the stok e and it has the units of centimeters squared per second. One one-hundredth of a stok e is a centistok e. The relationship betw een absolute and k inematic viscosity can be stated as:
Centipoise D Centistok e Density

faster. Since oil becomes thick er at low temperatures and thins w hen w armed, the viscosity must be expressed as a specic SUS at a given temperature. Tests are usually conducted at either 100 F or 210 F. For industrial applications, hydraulic oil viscosity is typically approximately 150 SUS at 100 F. It is a general rule that the viscosity should never go below 45 SUS or above 4000 SUS, regardless of temperature. W here temperature extremes are encountered, the uid should have a high viscosity index.

SAE number
SAE numbers have been established by the Society of Automotive E ngineers to specify ranges of SUS viscosities of oils at SAE test temperatures. W inter numbers (5W , 10W , 20W ) are determined by tests at 0 F. Summer numbers (20W , 30W , etc.) designate the SUS range at 210 F. Table 40.1 is a chart of the temperature ranges. The follow ing formulas may be used to convert centistok es (cSt units) to approximate Saybolt universal seconds (SUS units). For SUS values betw een 32 and 100:
cST D 0.226 SSU 195 SSU

or,
Centipoise Centistok e D Density

SU S viscosity
For most practical purposes, it w ill serve to k now the relative viscosity of the uid. Relative viscosity is determined by timing the ow of a given quantity of the hydraulic uid through a standard orice at a given temperature. There are several methods in use. The most acceptable method in the United States is the Saybolt viscosimeter, Figure 40.17. The time it tak es for the measured quantity of liquid to ow through the orice is measured w ith a stopw atch. The viscosity in Saybolt universal seconds (SUS) equals the elapsed time. Obviously, a thick liquid w ill ow slow ly, and the SUS viscosity w ill be higher than for a thin liquid, w hich ow s

For SUS values greater than 100:

cST D 0.220 SSU 135 SSU

Although the viscometers discussed above are used in laboratories, there are other viscometers in the supply system that are available for local use. These viscometers can be
T hermometer

1. A measured q uantity of oil is heated to the test temperature...

2. By a surrounding oil b ath...

Heating element

3 . And then allow ed to drain through an orifice of a particular siz e. 6 0 ml. 4 . T he elapsed time in seconds eq uals the viscosity in S S U .
F ig u r e 40.1 7 S ay bolt v is cos imeter

40/6 5 8 H y draulic Fundamentals T a b le 40.1 S A E v is cos ity numbers for crank cas e oils

SAE number

V iscosity unitsa At 0 F M inimum

V iscosity rangeb At 210 F M inimum M ax imum

M ax imum Less than 1,200 1,300 6,000 Less than 2,400 2,600 12,000 Less than 9,600 10,500 48,000

5W Centipoise Centistok es SUS 10W Centipoise Centistok es SUS 20W Centipoise Centistok es SUS Centistok es SUS Centistok es SUS Centistok es SUS Centistok es SUS 2,400d 2,600 12,000 1,200c 1,300 6,000

5.7 45 9.6 58 12.9 70 16.8 85

than 58 than 70 than 85 than 110

20 30 40 50

Less Less Less Less

9.6 12.9 16.8 22.7

a The of cial v alues in this clas s i cation are bas ed upon 2 1 0 F v is cos ity in centis tok es (A S TM D 4 4 5 ) and 0 F v is cos ities in centipois e (A S TM D 2 6 0 -2 ). A pprox imate v alues in other units of v is cos ity are g iv en for information only . The approx imate v alues at 0 F w ere calculated us ing an as s umed oil dens ity of 0 .9 g m/cc at that temperature. b The v is cos ity of all oils included in this clas s i cation s hall not be les s than 3 .0 centis tok es at 2 1 0 F (3 9 S U S ). c M inimum v is cos ity at 0 F may be w aiv ed prov ided v is cos ity at 2 1 0 F is not below 4 .2 centis tok es (4 0 S U S ). d M inimum v is cos ity at 0 F may be w aiv ed prov ided v is cos ity at 2 1 0 F is not below 5 .7 centis tok es (4 5 S U S ).

used to test the viscosity of hydraulic uids either prior to their being added to a system or periodically after they have been in an operating system for a w hile.

V iscosity index
The viscosity index, VI, of oil is a number that indicates the effect of temperature changes on the viscosity of the oil. A low VI signies a relatively large change of viscosity w ith changes of temperature. In other w ords, the oil becomes extremely thin at high temperatures and extremely thick at low temperatures. On the other hand, a high VI signies relatively little change in viscosity over a w ide temperature range. Figure 40.18 illustrates the relative change of viscosity w ith changes in oil temperature. Ideal oil for most purposes is one that maintains a constant viscosity throughout temperature changes. The importance of the VI can be show n easily by considering automotive lubricants. Oil having a high VI resists excessive thick ening w hen the engine is cold and, consequently, promotes rapid starting and prompt circulation; it resists excessive thinning w hen the motor is hot and thus provides full lubrication and prevents excessive oil consumption.

Another example of the importance of the VI is the need for a high viscosity index hydraulic oil for military aircraft, since hydraulic control systems may be exposed to temperatures ranging from below 65 F at high altitudes to over 100 F on the ground. For the proper operation of the hydraulic control system, the hydraulic uid must have a sufciently high VI to perform its functions at the extremes of the expected temperature range. Liquids w ith a high viscosity have a greater resistance to heat than low viscosity liquids, w hich have been derived from the same source. The average hydraulic liquid has a relatively low viscosity. Fortunately, there is a w ide choice of liquids available for use in the viscosity range required of hydraulic liquids. The VI of oil may be determined if its viscosity at any tw o temperatures is k now n. Tables based on a large number of tests are issued by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). These tables permit calculation of the VI from k now n viscosity.

P our point
Pour point is the low est temperature at w hich a uid w ill ow . If the hydraulic system w ill be exposed to extremely low temperatures, it is a very important specication. For

H y draulic uids 40/6 5 9

5 0 ,0 0 0 12,0 0 0 8 ,0 0 0

2. At z ero degrees, the 5 0 V I oil is thick er

1. Both oils have the same viscosity at 10 0 f V iscosity in S S U 15 0

50 43 41 40

0 F

10 0 F

210 F 3 . And at 210 F, the 5 0 V I oil is thinner.

F ig u r e 40.1 8 V is cos ity Index (V I) is a relativ e meas ure of v is cos ity chang e w ith temperature chang e

a rule of thumb, the pour point should be 20 F below the low est temperature to be encountered.

L ubricating power
If motion tak es place betw een surfaces in contact, friction tends to oppose the motion. W hen pressure forces the liquid of a hydraulic system betw een the surfaces of moving parts, the liquid spreads out into a thin lm w hich enables the parts to move more freely. Different liquids, including oils, vary greatly not only in their lubricating ability but also in lm strength. Film strength is the capability of a liquid to resist being w iped or squeez ed out from betw een the surfaces w hen spread out in an extremely thin layer. A liquid w ill no longer lubricate if the lm break s dow n, since the motion of part against part w ipes the metal clean of liquid. Lubricating pow er varies w ith temperature changes; therefore the climatic and w ork ing conditions must enter into the determination of the lubricating qualities of a liquid. Unlik e viscosity, w hich is a physical property, the lubricating pow er and lm strength of a liquid is directly related to its chemical nature. Lubricating qualities and lm strength can be improved by the addition of certain chemical agents.

C hemical stability
Chemical stability is another property w hich is exceedingly important in the selection of a hydraulic liquid. It is dened as the liquids ability to resist oxidation and

deterioration for long periods. All liquids tend to undergo unfavorable changes under severe operating conditions. This is the case, for example, w hen a system operates for a considerable period at high temperatures. E xcessive temperatures, especially extremely high temperatures, have a great effect on the life of a liquid. The temperature of the liquid in the reservoir of an operating hydraulic system does not alw ays indicate the operating conditions throughout the system. Localiz ed hot spots occur on bearings, gear teeth, or at other points w here the liquid under pressure is forced through small orices. Continuous passage of the liquid through these points may produce local temperatures high enough to carboniz e the liquid or turn it into sludge, yet the liquid in the reservoir may not indicate an excessively high temperature. Liquids may break dow n if exposed to air, w ater, salt, or other impurities, especially if they are in constant motion or subjected to heat. Some metals, such as z inc, lead, brass, and copper, have undesirable chemical reactions w ith certain liquids. These chemical reactions result in the formation of sludge, gums, carbon, or other deposits, w hich clog openings, cause valves and pistons to stick or leak , and give poor lubrication to moving parts. Once a small amount of sludge or other deposits is formed, the rate of formation generally increases more rapidly. As these deposits are formed, certain changes in the physical and chemical properties of the liquid tak e place. The liquid usually becomes dark er, the viscosity increases and damaging acids are formed.

40/6 6 0 H y draulic Fundamentals

The extent to w hich changes occur in different liquids depends on the type of liquid, type of rening, and w hether it has been treated to provide further resistance to oxidation. The stability of liquids can be improved by the addition of oxidation inhibitors. Inhibitors selected to improve stability must be compatible w ith the other required properties of the liquid.

Freedom from acidity

An ideal hydraulic liquid should be free from acids that cause corrosion of the metals in the system. Most liquids cannot be expected to remain completely non-corrosive under severe operating conditions. W hen new , the degree of acidity of a liquid may be satisfactory; but after use, the liquid may tend to become corrosive as it begins to deteriorate. Many systems are idle for long periods after operating at high temperatures. This permits moisture to condense in the system, resulting in rust formation. Certain corrosionand rust-preventive additives are added to hydraulic liquids. Some of these additives are effective only for a limited period. Therefore, the best procedure is to use the liquid specied for the system for the time specied by the system manufacturer and to protect the liquid and the system as much as possible from contamination by foreign matter, from abnormal temperatures, and from misuse.

a uid w ith a specic gravity greater than one can be tolerated. W here avoidance of detection by military units is desired, a uid that sink s rather than rises to the surface of the w ater is desirable. Fluids having a specic gravity greater than 1.0 are desired, as leak ing uid w ill sink , allow ing the vessel w ith the leak to remain undetected. Under extreme pressure, a uid may be compressed up to 7 per cent of its original volume. Highly compressible uids produce sluggish system operation. This does not present a serious problem in small, low -speed operations, but it must be considered in the operating instructions.

Foaming tendencies
Foam is an emulsion of gas bubbles in the uid. In a hydraulic system, foam results from compressed gases in the hydraulic uid. A uid under high pressure can contain a large volume of air bubbles. W hen this uid is depressuriz ed, as w hen it reaches the reservoir, the gas bubbles in the uid expand and produce foam. Any amount of foaming may cause pump cavitation and produce poor system response and sponge control. Therefore, defoaming agents are often added to uids to prevent foaming. Minimiz ing air in uid systems is discussed later in this chapter.

C leanliness
Cleanliness in hydraulic systems has received considerable attention recently. Some hydraulic systems, such as aerospace hydraulic systems, are extremely sensitive to contamination. Fluid cleanliness is of primary importance because contaminants can cause component malfunction, prevent proper valve seating, cause w ear in components, and may increase the response time of servo valves. Fluid contaminants are discussed later in this chapter. The inside of a hydraulic system can only be k ept as clean as the uid added to it. Initial uid cleanliness can be achieved by observing stringent cleanliness requirements (discussed later in this chapter) or by ltering all uid added to the system.

Flashpoint
Flashpoint is the temperature at w hich a liquid gives off vapor in sufcient quantity to ignite momentarily or ash w hen a ame is applied. A high ashpoint is desirable for hydraulic liquids because it provides good resistance to combustion and a low degree of evaporation at normal temperatures. Required ashpoint minimums vary from 300 F for the lightest oils to 510 F for the heaviest oils.

Firepoint
Fire point is the temperature at w hich a substance gives off vapor in sufcient quantity to ignite and continue to burn w hen exposed to a spark or ame. Lik e ashpoint, a high re point is required of desirable hydraulic liquids.

40.5.3 C ontamination
Hydraulic uid contamination may be described as any foreign material or substance w hose presence in the uid is capable of adversely affecting system performance or reliability. It may assume many different forms, including liquids, gases, and solid matter of various composition, siz es, and shapes. Solid matter is the type most often found in hydraulic systems and is generally referred to as particulate contamination. Contamination is alw ays present to some degree, even in new , unused uid, but must be k ept below a level that w ill adversely affect system operation. Hydraulic contamination control consists of requirements, techniques, and practices necessary to minimiz e and control uid contamination.

M inimum tox icity

Toxicity is dened as the quality, state, or degree of being toxic or poisonous. Some liquids contain chemicals that are a serious toxic haz ard. These toxic or poisonous chemicals may enter the body through inhalation, by absorption through the sk in, or through the eyes or the mouth. The result is sick ness and, in some cases, death. Manufacturers of hydraulic liquids strive to produce suitable liquids that contain no toxic chemicals and, as a result, most hydraulic liquids are free of harmful chemicals. Some re-resistant liquids are toxic, and suitable protection and care in handling must be provided.

D ensity and compressibility

A uid w ith a specic gravity of less than 1.0 is desired w hen w eight is critical, although w ith proper system design,

C lassi cation
There are many types of contaminants w hich are harmful to hydraulic systems and liquids. These contaminants

H y draulic uids 40/6 6 1

may be divided into tw o different classes particulate and uid. P articulate contamination This class of contaminants includes organic, metallic solid, and inorganic solid contaminants. These contaminants are discussed in the follow ing paragraphs. O rganic W ear, oxidation, or polymeriz ation produces organic solids or semisolids found in hydraulic systems. Minute particles of O-rings, seals, gask ets, and hoses are present, due to w ear or chemical reactions. Synthetic products, such as neoprene, silicones, and hypalon, though resistant to chemical reaction w ith hydraulic uids, produce small w ear particles. Oxidation of hydraulic uids increases w ith pressure and temperature, although antioxidants are blended into hydraulic uids to minimiz e such oxidation. The ability of a hydraulic uid to resist oxidation or polymeriz ation in service is dened as its oxidation stability. Oxidation products appear as organic acids, asphaltics, gums, and varnishes. These products combine w ith particles in the hydraulic uid to form sludge. Some oxidation products are oil soluble and cause the hydraulic uid to increase in viscosity; other oxidation products are not oil soluble and form sediment. M etallic solids Metallic contaminants are usually present in a hydraulic system and w ill range in siz e from microscopic particles to particles readily visible to the nak ed eye. These particles are the result of w earing and scoring of bare metal parts and plating materials, such as silver and chromium. Although practically all metals commonly used for parts fabrication and plating may be found in hydraulic uids, the major metallic materials found are ferrous, aluminum, and chromium particles. Because of their continuous high-speed internal movement, hydraulic pumps usually contribute most of the metallic particulate contamination present in hydraulic systems. Metal particles are also produced by other hydraulic system components, such as valves and actuators, due to body w ear and the chipping and w earing aw ay of small pieces of metal plating materials. Inorganic solids This contaminant group includes dust, paint particles, dirt, and silicates. G lass particles from glass bead peening and blasting may also be found as contaminants. G lass particles are very undesirable contaminants due to their abrasive effect on synthetic rubber seals and the very ne surfaces of critical moving parts. Atmospheric dust, dirt, paint particles, and other materials are often draw n into hydraulic systems from external sources. For example, the w et piston shaft of a hydraulic actuator may draw some of these foreign materials into the cylinder past the w iper and dynamic seals, and the contaminant materials are then dispersed in the hydraulic uid. Contaminants may also enter the hydraulic uid during maintenance w hen tubing, hoses, ttings, and components are disconnected or replaced. It is therefore important that all exposed uid ports be sealed w ith approved protective closures to minimiz e such contamination.

Fluid contamination
Air, w ater, solvent, and other foreign uids are in the class of uid contaminants. Air Hydraulic uids are adversely affected by dissolved, entrained, or free air. Air may be introduced through improper maintenance or because of system design. Any maintenance operation that involves break ing into the hydraulic system, such as disconnecting or removing a line or component, w ill invariably result in some air being introduced into the system. This source of air can and must be minimiz ed by pre-lling replacement components w ith new ltered uid prior to their installation. Failing to pre-ll a lter-element bow l w ith uid is a good example of how air can be introduced into the system. Although pre-lling w ill minimiz e introduction of air, it is still important to vent the system w here venting is possible. Most hydraulic systems have built-in sources of air. Leak y seals in gas-pressuriz ed accumulators and reservoirs can feed gas into a system faster than it can be removed, even w ith the best of maintenance. Another lesser-k now n but major source of air is air that is suck ed into the system past actuator piston rod seals. This occurs w hen the piston rod that is strok ed by some external means w hile the actuator itself is not pressuriz ed. W ater W ater is a serious contaminant of hydraulic systems. Hydraulic uids are adversely affected by dissolved, emulsied, or free w ater. W ater contamination may result in the formation of ice, w hich impedes the operation of valves, actuators, and other moving parts. W ater can also cause the formation of oxidation products and corrosion of metallic surfaces. Solvents Solvent contamination is a special form of foreign uid contamination in w hich the original contaminating substance is a chlorinated solvent. Chlorinated solvents or their residues may, w hen introduced into a hydraulic system, react w ith any w ater present to form highly corrosive acids. Chlorinated solvents, w hen allow ed to combine w ith minute amounts of w ater often found in operating hydraulic systems, change chemically into hydrochloric acids. These acids then attack internal metallic surfaces in the system, particularly those that are ferrous, and produce a severe rust-lik e corrosion. Foreign-uids Foreign uids other than w ater and chlorinated solvents can seriously contaminate hydraulic systems. This type of contamination is generally a result of lube oil, engine fuel, or incorrect hydraulic uid being introduced inadvertently into the system during servicing. The effects of such contamination depend on the contaminant, the amount in the system, and how long it has been present. N ote: It is extremely important that the different types of hydraulic uids are not mixed in one system. If different types hydraulic uids are mixed, the characteristics of the uid required for a specic purpose are lost. Mixing the different types of uids usually results in a heavy,

40/6 6 2 H y draulic Fundamentals

gummy deposit that w ill clog passages and require a major cleaning. In addition, seals and pack ing installed for use w ith one uid are usually not compatible w ith other uids and damage to the seals w ill result.

40.5.4 C ontamination control

Maintaining hydraulic uid w ithin allow able contamination limits for both w ater and particulate matter is crucial to the care and protection of hydraulic equipment. Filters w ill provide adequate control of the particular contamination problem during all normal hydraulic system operations if the ltration system is installed properly and lter maintenance is performed properly. Filter maintenance includes changing elements at proper intervals. Control of the siz e and amount of contamination entering the system from any other source is the responsibility of the personnel w ho service and maintain the equipment. During installation, maintenance, and repair of hydraulic equipment, the retention of cleanliness of the system is of paramount importance for subsequent satisfactory performance. The follow ing maintenance and servicing procedures should be adhered to at all times to provide proper contamination control: 1. All tools and the w ork area (w ork benches and test equipment) should be k ept in a clean, dirt-free condition. 2. A suitable container should alw ays be provided to receive the hydraulic liquid that is spilled during component removal or disassembly. N ote: The reuse of drained hydraulic liquid is prohibited in most hydraulic systems. In some large-capacity systems the reuse of uid is permitted. W hen liquid is drained from these systems for reuse, it must be stored in a clean and suitable container. The liquid must be strained and/or ltered w hen it is returned to the system reservoir. 3. Before hydraulic lines or ttings are disconnected, the affected area should be cleaned w ith an approved drycleaning solvent. 4. All hydraulic lines and ttings should be capped or plugged immediately after disconnection. 5. Before any hydraulic components are assembled, their parts should be w ashed w ith an approved dry-cleaning solvent. 6. After the parts have been cleaned in dry-cleaning solvent, they should be dried thoroughly w ith clean, low -lint cloths and lubricated w ith the recommended preservative or hydraulic liquid before assembly. N ote: Only clean, low -lint type II or I cloths as appropriate should be used to w ipe or dry component parts. 7. All pack ing and gask ets should be replaced during the assembly procedures. 8. All parts should be connected w ith care to avoid stripping metal slivers from threaded areas. All ttings and lines should be installed and torqued according to applicable technical instructions. 9. All hydraulic servicing equipment should be k ept clean and in good operating condition.

Some hydraulic uid specications contain particle contamination limits that are so low that the products are pack aged under clean room conditions. Very slight amounts of dirt, rust, and metal particles w ill cause them to fail the specication limit for contamination. Since these uids are usually all pack aged in hermetically sealed containers, the act of opening a container may allow more contaminants into the uid than the specication allow s. Therefore, extreme care should be tak en in the handling of these uids. In opening the container for use, observation, or tests, it is extremely important that the container be opened and handled in a clean environment. The area of the container to be opened should be ushed w ith ltered solvent (petroleum ether or isopropyl alcohol), and the device used for opening the container should be thoroughly rinsed w ith ltered solvent. After the container is opened, a small amount of the material should be poured from the container and disposed of prior to pouring the sample for analysis. Once a container is opened, if the contents are not totally used, the unused portion should be discarded. Since the level of contamination of a system containing these uids must be k ept low , maintenance on the systems components must be performed in a clean environment commonly k now n as a controlled environment w ork center.

40.5.5 H ydraulic uid sampling

The condition of a hydraulic system, as w ell as its probable future performance, can best be determined by analyz ing the operating uid. Of particular interest are any changes in the physical and chemical properties of the uid and excessive particulate or w ater contamination, either of w hich indicates impending trouble. E xcessive particulate contamination of the uid indicates that the lters are not k eeping the system clean. This can result from improper lter maintenance, inadequate lters, or excessive ongoing corrosion and w ear. 1. All samples should be tak en from circulating systems, or immediately upon shutdow n, w hile the hydraulic uid is w ithin 5 C 9 F of normal system operating temperature. Systems not up to temperature may provide non-representative samples of system dirt and w ater content, and such samples should either be avoided or so indicated on the analysis report. The rst oil coming from the sampling point should be discarded, since it can be very dirty and does not represent the system. As a rule, a volume of oil equivalent to one to tw o times the volume of oil contained in the sampling line and valve should be drained before the sample is tak en. 2. Ideally, the sample should be tak en from a valve installed specically for sampling. W hen sampling valves are not installed the tak ing of samples from locations w here sediment or w ater can collect, such as dead ends of piping, tank drains, and low points of large pipes and lter bow ls, should be avoided if possible. If samples are tak en from pipe drains, sufcient uid should be drained before the sample is tak en to ensure that the sample actually represents the system. Samples are not to be tak en from the tops of

R es erv oirs , s trainers , lters and accumulators 40/6 6 3

reservoirs or other locations w here the contamination levels are normally low . 3. Unless otherw ise specied, a minimum of one sample should be tak en for each system located w holly w ithin one compartment. For ships systems extending into tw o or more compartments, a second sample is required. An exception to this requirement is submarine external hydraulic systems, w hich require only one sample. Original sample points should be labeled and the same sample points used for successive sampling. If possible, the follow ing sampling locations should be selected: (a) A location that provides a sample representative of uid being supplied to system components; (b) A return line as close to the supply tank as practical but upstream of any return line lter; (c) For systems requiring a second sample, a location as far from the pump as practical. Operation of the sampling point should not introduce any signicant amount of external contaminants into the collected uid.

efciently. This chapter covers: hydraulic reservoirs; various types of strainers and lters; and accumulators that are typically installed in uid pow er systems.

40.6 .1 R eservoirs
A hydraulic system must have a reserve of uid in addition to that contained in the pumps, actuators, pipes and other components of the system. This reserve uid must be readily available to mak e up losses of uid from the system, to mak e up for compression of uid under pressure, and to compensate for the loss of volume as the uid cools. This extra uid is contained in a tank usually called a reservoir. A reservoir may sometimes be referred to as a sump tank , service tank , operating tank , supply tank or base tank . In addition to providing storage for the reserve uid needed for the system, the reservoir acts as a radiator for dissipating heat from the uid. It also acts as a settling tank w here heavy particles of contamination may settle out of the uid and remain harmlessly on the bottom until removed by cleaning or ushing the reservoir. Also, the reservoir allow s entrained air to separate from the uid. Most reservoirs have a capped opening for lling, an air vent, an oil level indicator or dipstick , a return line connection, a pump inlet or suction line connection, a drain line connection, and a drain plug (see Figure 40.19).
Mounting plate for electric motor and pump

40.6 R e s e r v o ir s , s t r a in e r s , lt e r s a n d a c c u m u la t o r s
Fluid pow er systems must have a sufcient and continuous supply of uncontaminated uid to operate

Drain return Return line Pump inlet line

Air breather and filler

Sealed flange

Sight glass

Clean-out plate both ends

F ig u r e 40.1 9 N on-pres s uriz ed res erv oir

Strainer

Drain plug

Baffle plate

40/6 6 4 H y draulic Fundamentals

The inside of the reservoir generally w ill have bafes to prevent excessive sloshing of the uid and to put a partition betw een the uid return line and the pump suction or inlet line. The partition forces the returning uid to travel farther around the tank before being draw n back into the active system through the pump inlet line. This aids in settling the contamination and separating air entrained in the uid. Large reservoirs are desirable for cooling. A large reservoir also reduces re-circulation, w hich helps settle contamination, and separates entrained air. As a rule of thumb, the ideal reservoir should be tw o to three times the pump outlet per minute. How ever, due to space limitations in mobile and aerospace systems, the benets of a large reservoir may have to be sacriced. But they must be large enough to accommodate thermal expansion of the uid and changes in uid level due to system operation.

40.6 .2 A ccumulators
An accumulator is a pressure storage reservoir in w hich hydraulic uid is stored under pressure from an external source. The storage of uid under pressure serves several purposes in hydraulic systems. In some hydraulic systems, it is necessary to maintain the system pressure w ithin a specic pressure range for long periods. It is very difcult to maintain a closed system w ithout some leak age, either external or internal. E ven a small leak can cause a decrease in pressure. By using an accumulator, leak age can be compensated for and the system pressure can be maintained w ithin acceptable range for extended periods. Accumulators also compensate for thermal expansion and contraction of the liquid due to variations in temperature or generated heat. A liquid ow ing at a high velocity in a pipe w ill create a back w ard surge w hen stopped suddenly. This sudden stoppage causes an instantaneous pressure 2 to 3 times the operating pressure of the system. These pressures or shock s produce objectionable noise and vibrations, w hich can cause considerable damage to piping, ttings and components. The incorporation of an accumulator enables such shock s and surges to be absorbed or cushioned by the entrapped gas, thereby reducing their effects. The accumulator also dampens pressure surges caused by pulsing delivery from the pump. There are times w hen hydraulic systems require large volumes of liquid for short periods. This is due to either the operation of a large cylinder or the necessity of operating tw o or more circuits simultaneously. It is not economical to install a pump of such large capacity in the system for only intermittent usage, particularly if there is sufcient time during the w ork ing cycle for an accumulator to store enough liquid to aid the pump during these peak demands. The energy stored in accumulators may be also used to actuate hydraulically operated units if normal hydraulic system failure occurs.

of most accumulators and w ill give the maximum effect for the least cost. Also, 3000 psi is the maximum rating for most hydraulic valves. A rule of thumb for the nitrogen pre-charged level is one-half the maximum oil pressure. This is acceptable for most applications. The pre-charge should be replenished w hen it falls to one-third the maximum hydraulic oil pressure. On a 3000-psi hydraulic system, initial precharge should be 1500 psi and replenishment level of 1000 psi. Most applications w ill tolerate a w ide variation in pre-charge pressure. Accumulators are catalog-rated by gas volume w hen all oil is discharged and usually rated in quarts or gallons (i.e. 1 US gallon D 231 in3 ). The amount of oil w hich can be stored is approximately half the gas volume. Only a part of the stored oil can be used each cycle because the oil pressure decreases as oil is discharged. The problem in selecting accumulator siz e is to have sufcient capacity so system pressure, at the end of the discharge, does not fall below a value w hich w ill do the job. For illustration, w e are using an application on w hich accumulator oil w ill be used on the extension strok e of a cylinder to supplement the oil delivery from a pump, to increase speed. Retraction w ill be by pump volume alone. A fully charged accumulator system pressure of 3000 psi is assumed. First, select cylinder bore for sufcient force not only at 3000 psi but also at some selected low er pressure to w hich it w ill be allow ed to fall during discharge. N ext, calculate the number of cubic inches of oil required to ll the cylinder cavity during its extension strok e. Using the time, in seconds, allow ed for the full extension strok e, calculate the cubic inches of oil w hich can be obtained for the pump alone. Subtract the calculated pump volume from the cylinder volume to nd the volume of oil required from the accumulator. Use Table 40.2 to nd how many cubic inches of oil w ould be supplied from a 1-gallon siz e accumulator before its terminal pressure dropped below the minimum acceptable pressure level. A 5-gallon accumulator w ould supply 5 times this volume. Finally, divide this gure into the total cubic inches needed for the application. This is the minimum rated gallon siz e of accumulator capacity. Select at least the next larger standard siz e for your application. To solve for oil recovery from any siz e accumulator, under any system pressure and any pre-charge level, use the formula:
D D 0.95 P1 V1 P2 0.95 P1 V1 P3

Accumulator siz ing

Most accumulator systems should be designed to operate at a maximum oil pressure of 3000 psi. This is the rating

W here D is cubic inches of oil discharge; P1 is pre-charge pressure in psi; P2 is system pressure after Volume D has been discharged; P3 is maximum system pressure at full accumulator charge; V1 is catalog rated gas volume, in cubic inches; and 0.95 is assumed accumulator efciency. As oil is pumped into the accumulator, compressing the nitrogen, the nitrogen temperature increases (Charles law ). Therefore, the amount of oil stored w ill not be quite as much as calculated w ith Boyles law unless sufcient time is allow ed for the accumulator to cool to atmospheric temperature. Lik ew ise, w hen oil is discharged, the expanding nitrogen is cooled. So, the discharge volume

R es erv oirs , s trainers , lters and accumulators 40/6 6 5 T a b le 40.2 A ccumulator s election table

M inimum acceptable system P SI 2700 2600 2500 2400 2300 2200 2100 2000 1900 1800 1700 1600 1500

C ubic inch discharge

maintenance is frequently neglected. W hen heavy dirt and sludge accumulate on the suction strainer, the pump soon begins to cavitate. Pump failure follow s quick ly.

12 17 22 27 33 40 46 55 63 73 84 96 109

Filters
The most common device installed in hydraulic systems to prevent foreign particles and contaminations from remaining in the system are referred to as lters. They may be located in the reservoir, in the return line, in the pressure line, or in any other location in the system w here the designer of the system decides they are needed to safeguard the system against impurities. Filters are classied as full-ow or proportional ow . In full-ow types of lters, all of the uid that enters the lter passes through the ltering element, w hile in proportional types only a portion of the uid passes through the element.

w ill not be quite as high as calculated w ith Boyles law . In Table 40.2 and the formula above, an allow ance of 5 per cent has been included as a safety factor. After mak ing a siz e calculation from the table, allow enough extra capacity for contingencies.

Filter elements
Filter elements may be divided into tw o classes: surface and depth. Surface lters are made of closely w oven fabric or treated paper w ith a uniform pore siz e. Fluid ow s through the pores of the lter material and contaminants are stropped on the lters surface. This type of lter element is designed to prevent the passage of a high percentage of solids of a specic siz e. Depth lters on the other hand are composed of layers of fabric or bers, w hich provide many tortuous paths for the uid to ow through. The pores or passages must be larger than the rated siz e of the lter if particles are to be retained in the depth of the media rather than on the surface. Filter elements may be of the 5-micron, w oven mesh, micronic, porous metal, or magnetic type. The micronic and 5-micron elements have non-cleanable lter media and are disposed of w hen they are removed. Porous metal, w oven mesh and magnetic lter elements are usually designed to be cleaned and reused.

40.6 .3 F iltration
Clean hydraulic uid is essential for proper operation and acceptable component life in all hydraulic systems. W hile every effort must be made to prevent contaminants from entering the system, contaminants that do nd their w ay into the system must be removed. Filtration devices are installed at k ey points in uid pow er systems to remove the contaminants that enter the system along w ith those that are generated during normal operations of the system. The ltering devices used in hydraulic systems are commonly referred to as strainers and lters. Since they share a common function, the terms are often used interchangeably. G enerally, devices used to remove large particles of foreign matter from hydraulic systems are referred to as strainers, w hile those used to remove the smallest particles are called lters.

40.6 .4 H eat ex chang ers

The conversion of hydraulic force to mechanical w ork generates excessive heat. This heat must be removed from the hydraulic uid to prevent degradation of the uid and possible damage to system components. Heat goes into the hydraulic oil at every point in the system w here there is a pressure loss due to oil ow w ithout mechanical w ork being produced. E xamples are pressure relief and reducing valves, ow control valves, and ow resistance in plumbing lines and through components. Hydraulic pumps and motors also produce heat at about 15 per cent of their w ork ing horsepow er. Pow er loss and heat generation due to the above causes can be calculated w ith one of the follow ing formulae:
Horsepow er heat D PSI G PM 1714

Strainers
Strainers are used primarily to catch only very large particles and w ill be found in applications w here this type of protection is required. Most hydraulic systems have a strainer in the reservoir at the inlet to the suction line of the pump. A strainer is used in lieu of a lter to reduce its chance of being clogged and starving the pump. How ever, since this strainer is located in the reservoir, its
T a b le 40.3 H eat and pow er eq uiv alents

1 Horsepow er (HP) 1 Horsepow er (HP) 1 British thermal unit per hour (BTU/hr) 1 British thermal unit per minute (BTU/min)

2545 BTU per hour 42.4 BTU per minute 0.000393 HP or 0.293 w atts 0.0167 BTU/hr or 17.6 w atts

or HP D PSI G PM .000583 BTU/Hr of heat generation D 1.5 PSI G PM

40/6 6 6 H y draulic Fundamentals

The pressure (PSI) for calculating heat generation in a ow control valve, for example, is the inlet minus the outlet pressure, or the pressure drop across the valve. Sometimes pow er loss and heat generation occur intermittently and to nd the average amount of heat that w ill go into the oil, the average pow er loss should be calculated. Usually, tak ing an average over a 1hour period should be sufcient. Therefore, hydraulic systems should include a positive means of heat removal. N ormally, a heat exchanger is used for this purpose. The exact siz e of a heat exchanger needed on a new system cannot be accurately calculated because of too many unk now n factors. On existing systems, by mak ing tank measurements and measuring air and oil temperatures, a rather accurate calculation can be made of the heat exchanger capacity needed to reduce the maximum oil temperature. The theoretical maximum cooling capacity of a heat exchanger for a hydraulic system w ill never have to be greater than the input horsepow er to the system. Usually its capacity can be considerably less, based on the calculated input horsepow er. A rule of thumb is to provide a heat exchanger removal capacity of about 25 per cent of the input horsepow er. Rarely, even on inefcient systems, w ould a capacity of more than 50 per cent be required. W hen ordering a heat exchanger the information furnished to your supplier must include the maximum rate of oil ow , in G PM, through the heat exchanger, and the horsepow er or BTU per hour of heat to be removed. On w ater-cooled models, state the maximum rate of w ater ow that w ill be available. For best w ater usage, the w ater ow should be approximately one-half of the oil ow . Specify the temperature of the cooling w ater.

40.7.1 H ydraulic cylinders

An actuating cylinder is a device that converts uid pow er into linear, or straight-line, force and motion. Since linear motion is back -and-forth motion along a straight line, this type of actuator is sometimes referred to as a reciprocating, or linear motor. The cylinder consists of a ram, or piston, operating w ithin a cylindrical bore. Actuating cylinders may be installed so that the cylinder is anchored to a stationary structure and the ram or piston is attached to the mechanism to be operated, or the piston can be anchored and the cylinder attached to the movable mechanism.

P iston rod column strength

Long, slim piston rods may buck le if subjected to too heavy a push load. Table 40.4 suggests the minimum diameter piston rod to use under various conditions of load and unsupported rod length. It should be used in accordance w ith the instructions in the next paragraph. There must be no side load or bending stress at any point along the piston rod. E xposed rod length is show n along the top of the table. This is usually somew hat longer than the actual strok e of the cylinder. The vertical scale, Column 1, show s the load on the cylinder, and is expressed in E nglish tons, i.e. 1 ton equals 2,000 pounds. If both the end of the rod and the front end of the cylinder barrel are rigidly supported a smaller rod may have sufcient column strength and you may use as ex posed length of piston rod that is one-half of the actual total rod length. For example, if the actual rod length is 80 inches, and if the cylinder barrel and rod end are supported as described, you could enter the table in the column mark ed 40. On the other hand, if hinge mounting is used on both cylinder and rod, you may not be safe in using actual exposed rod length. Instead, you should use about tw ice the actual rod length. For example, if the actual rod length is 20 inches, you should enter the table in the 40-inch column. W hen mounted horiz ontally or at any angle other than vertical, hinge mounted cylinders create a bending stress on the rod w hen extended. In part, this bending stress is created by the cylinders w eight. On large bore and/or long strok e hinge-mounted cylinders, a trunnion mount should be used in instead of tang or clevis mounts. In addition, the trunnion should be positioned so that the cylinders w eight is balanced w hen the rod is fully extended.

H eat load
Heat load on the w aterside of a shell and tube heat exchanger can be calculated as:
BTU per hour D G PM 500 Temperature differential

The temperature differential is the difference betw een the inlet and outlet oil temperature in degrees Fahrenheit. Heat load on the shell side of the exchanger can also be calculated by:
BTU per hour D G PM 210 Temperature differential

40.7 A c t u a t o r s
One of the outstanding features of uid pow er systems is that force, generated by the pow er supply, controlled and directed by suitable valving, and transported by lines, can be converted w ith ease to almost any k ind of mechanical motion. E ither linear or rotary motion can be obtained by using a suitable actuating device. An actuator is a device that converts uid pow er into mechanical force and motion. Cylinders, hydraulic motors, and turbines are the most common types of actuating devices used in uid pow er systems. This chapter describes various types of actuating devices and their applications.

H ydraulic cylinder forces

Tables 40.5 and 40.6 provide the mechanical forces, both extension and retraction, that can be generated by hydraulic cylinders. The tables are divided into the tw o principal operating pressure ranges associated w ith hydraulic applications. Values in bold type show the extension forces, using the full piston area. Values in italic type are for the retraction force for various piston rod diameters. Remember that force values are theoretical, derived by calculation. E xperience has show n that probably 5 per cent but

A ctuators 40/6 6 7 T a b le 40.4 M inimum recommended pis ton rod diameter

L oad in tons 10
1 2 3 4

E x posed length of piston rod, inches 20 40

3 4 13 16 7 8 15 16

60 1 1 1 16 11 8 3 1 16 3 1 16 13 8 11 2 9 1 16 13 4 17 8 21 8 23 8 23 4 3 33 8 4 41 2 51 2

70

80

10 0

12 0

1 11 2 2 3 4 5 71 2 10 15 20 30 40 50 75 100 150

13 16 15 16

5 8 11 16 3 4 7 8

1 3 1 16 13 8 1 11 16 2 23 8 23 4 31 8 33 4 43 8 53 8

1 11 8 11 4 7 1 16 13 4 2 7 2 16 23 4 31 8 33 4 43 8 53 8

1 11 8 3 1 16 5 1 16 7 1 16 15 8 17 8 21 8 21 2 27 8 31 4 37 8 43 8 53 8

11 4 13 8 7 1 16 9 1 16 15 8 13 4 17 8 2 21 4 21 2 23 4 3 31 2 4 43 4 51 2

13 8 11 2 9 1 16 15 8 13 4 17 8 2 21 8 23 8 25 8 27 8 31 4 31 2 41 8 43 4 51 2

1 13 16 17 8 2 21 8 21 4 7 2 16 2 11 16 27 8 31 4 31 2 33 4 43 8 47 8 53 4

21 4 23 8 21 2 23 4 3 31 4 31 2 33 4 4 41 2 5 6

certainly no more than 10 per cent additional pressure w ill be required to mak e up cylinder losses. For pressures not show n, the effective piston areas in the third column can be used as pow er factors. Multiply effective area by pressure to obtain cylinder force produced. Values in tw o or more columns can be added for a pressure not listed, or, force values can be obtained by interpolating betw een the next higher and the next low er pressure columns. Pressure values along the top of each table are differential pressures across the tw o cylinder ports. This is the pressure to just balance the load and not the pressure that must be produced by the system pump. There w ill be circuit ow losses in pressure and return lines due to oil ow and these w ill require additional pressure. W hen designing a system, be sure to allow sufcient pump pressure, about 25 per cent to 30 per cent, to supply both the cylinder and to satisfy system ow losses.

H ydraulic motors
A uid pow er motor is a device that converts uid pow er energy into rotary motion and force. The function of a motor is opposite that of a pump. How ever, the design and operation of uid pow er motors are very similar to pumps. Therefore a thorough k now ledge of pumps w ill help you understand the operation of uid pow er motors. Motors have many uses in uid pow er systems. In hydraulic pow er drives, pumps and motors are combined w ith suitable lines and valves to form hydraulic transmissions. The pump commonly referred to as the A-end is driven by some outside source, such as an

electric motor. The pump delivers pressuriz ed uid to the hydraulic motor, referred to as the B-end. The hydraulic motor is actuated by this ow and through mechanical link age conveys rotary motion and force to do w ork . Fluid motors may be either xed or variable displacement. Fixed-displacement motors provide constant torque and variable speed. Controlling the amount of input ow varies the speed. Variable-displacement motors are constructed so that the w ork ing relationship of the internal parts can be varied to change displacement. The majority of the motors used in uid pow er systems are the xed-displacement type. Although most uid pow er motors are capable of providing rotary motion in either direction, some applications require rotation in only one direction. In these applications, one port of the motor is connected to the system pressure line and the other port to the return line. The ow of uid to the motor is controlled by a ow control valve, a tw o-w ay directional control valve or by starting and stopping the pow er supply. Varying the rate of uid ow to the motor may control the speed of the motor. In most uid pow er systems, the motor is required to provide actuating pow er in either direction. In these applications, the ports are referred to as w ork ing ports, alternating as inlet and outlet ports. E ither a four-w ay directional control valve or a variable-displacement pump usually controls the ow to the motor. Fluid motors are usually classied according to the type of internal element w hich is directly actuated by the pressuriz ed ow . The most common types of elements are gears, vanes and pistons. All three of these types are

40/6 6 8 H y draulic Fundamentals T a b le 40.5 H y draulic cy linder force, low pres s ure rang e 5 0 0 to 1 5 0 0 ps i

B ore diameter (in) 11 2

R od diameter (in)

E ffective area in 2

P ressure differential across cylinder ports 500 psi 884 730 491 1571 117 8 828 2454 2062 17 12 12 5 2 3534 3 14 2 2792 2332 4148 3405 2945 2577 6 28 4 5081 4 7 13 3829 9 8 18 8247 7363 6283 5007 14,137 11,6 8 3 10 ,6 0 3 9326 7854 19 ,243 15 ,7 0 8 14 ,4 3 2 12 ,9 6 0 11,2 9 1 9425 25,133 2 0 ,3 2 2 18 ,8 5 0 17 ,18 1 15 ,3 15 13 ,2 5 4 39 ,270 3 1,3 18 2 9 ,4 5 3 2 7 ,3 9 1 2 0 ,0 2 8 56 ,550 4 4 ,6 7 1 76 ,9 70 5 7 ,7 2 8 750 psi 1325 10 9 5 736 2356 17 6 7 12 4 3 36 8 2 3092 2568 18 7 8 5301 4 7 12 4 18 8 3497 6 222 5 10 8 4 4 18 3866 9 425 7621 7069 5744 14,726 12 ,3 7 0 11,0 4 5 9425 7 5 10 21,206 17 ,5 2 4 15 ,0 9 4 13 ,9 9 0 11,7 8 1 28 ,8 6 4 2 3 ,5 6 2 2 1,6 4 8 19 ,4 3 9 16 ,9 3 6 14 ,13 8 37,6 9 9 3 0 ,4 8 3 2 8 ,2 7 4 2 5 ,7 7 1 2 2 ,9 7 3 19 ,8 8 0 58 ,9 05 4 6 ,9 7 7 4 4 ,17 9 4 1,0 8 7 3 0 ,0 4 1 8 4,8 25 6 7 ,0 0 7 115,455 8 6 ,5 9 1 10 0 0 psi 176 7 14 6 0 982 3142 2356 16 5 7 49 09 4 12 3 3424 2503 706 9 6283 5584 4663 8 29 8 6 8 11 5891 5 15 4 12,56 7 10 ,16 2 9425 7658 19 ,6 35 16 ,4 9 3 14 ,7 2 6 12 ,5 6 6 10 ,0 14 28 ,274 2 3 ,3 6 5 2 1,2 0 5 18 ,6 5 3 15 ,7 0 8 38 ,48 5 3 1,4 16 2 8 ,8 6 4 2 5 ,9 10 2 2 ,5 8 1 18 ,8 5 0 50,26 5 4 0 ,6 4 4 3 7 ,6 9 9 3 4 ,3 6 1 3 0 ,6 3 0 2 6 ,5 0 7 78 ,540 6 2 ,6 3 6 5 8 ,9 0 5 5 4 ,7 8 2 4 0 ,0 5 5 113,100 8 9 ,3 4 2 153,9 40 115 ,4 5 5 12 5 0 psi 2209 18 2 5 12 2 7 39 27 2945 2071 6 136 5 15 4 4280 3 12 9 8 8 36 7854 6980 5829 10,370 8 5 14 7363 6443 15,709 12 ,7 0 2 11,7 8 2 9573 24,544 2 0 ,6 17 18 ,4 0 8 15 ,7 0 8 12 ,5 17 35,343 2 9 ,2 0 7 2 6 ,5 0 7 2 3 ,3 16 19 ,6 3 5 48 ,106 3 9 ,2 7 1 3 6 ,0 8 0 3 2 ,3 9 9 2 8 ,2 2 6 2 3 ,5 6 3 6 2,8 31 5 0 ,8 0 5 4 7 ,12 4 4 2 ,9 5 1 3 8 ,2 8 8 3 3 ,13 4 9 8 ,175 7 8 ,2 9 5 7 3 ,6 3 1 6 8 ,4 7 8 5 0 ,0 6 9 141,375 111,6 7 8 19 2,425 14 4 ,3 19 15 0 0 psi 26 51 2 19 0 14 7 3 4712 3534 2485 736 3 6 18 8 5 13 6 3755 10,6 03 9425 8376 6995 12,444 10 ,2 16 8836 7731 18 ,8 51 15 ,2 4 3 14 ,13 8 11,4 8 7 29 ,453 2 4 ,7 4 0 2 2 ,0 8 9 18 ,8 5 0 15 ,0 2 1 42,411 3 5 ,0 4 8 3 1,8 0 8 2 7 ,9 7 9 2 3 ,5 6 2 57,728 4 7 ,12 5 4 3 ,2 9 6 3 8 ,8 7 9 3 3 ,8 7 2 2 8 ,2 7 5 75,39 8 6 0 ,9 6 6 5 6 ,5 4 9 5 1,5 4 2 4 4 ,9 4 5 3 9 ,7 6 1 117,8 10 9 3 ,9 5 4 8 8 ,3 5 8 8 2 ,17 2 6 0 ,0 8 3 16 9 ,6 50 13 4 ,0 13 230,9 10 17 3 ,18 3

N one
5 8

2 21 2

31 4

10

12 14

1 N one 1 13 8 N one 1 13 8 13 4 N one 1 13 8 13 4 N one 13 8 13 4 2 N one 13 4 2 21 2 N one 2 21 2 3 31 2 N one 21 2 3 31 2 4 N one 3 31 2 4 41 2 5 N one 31 2 4 41 2 5 51 2 N one 41 2 5 51 2 7 N one 51 2 N one 7

1.77 1.4 6 0 .9 8 2 3.14 2 .3 6 1.6 6 4.9 1 4 .12 3 .4 2 2 .5 0 7.07 6 .2 8 5 .5 8 4 .6 6 8 .30 6 .8 1 5 .8 9 5 .15 12.57 10 .16 9 .4 3 7 .6 6 19 .6 4 16 .4 9 14 .7 3 12 .5 7 10 .0 1 28 .27 2 3 .3 7 2 1.2 1 18 .6 5 15 .7 1 38 .49 3 1.4 2 2 8 .8 7 2 5 .9 2 2 2 .5 8 18 .8 5 50.27 4 0 .6 4 3 7 .7 0 3 4 .3 6 3 0 .6 3 2 6 .5 1 78 .54 6 2 .6 4 5 8 .9 1 5 4 .7 8 4 0 .0 6 113.1 8 9 .3 4 153.9 115 .5

A ctuators 40/6 6 9 T a b le 40.6 H y draulic cy linder force, hig h pres s ure rang e 2 0 0 0 to 5 0 0 0 ps i

B ore diameter (in) 11 2

R od diameter (in)

E ffective area in 2

P ressure differential across cylinder ports 2000 psi 3534 2921 19 6 3 6 28 3 4 7 12 3 3 13 9 8 17 8247 6848 5007 14,137 12 ,5 6 7 11,16 7 9327 16 ,59 2 13 ,6 2 2 11,7 8 1 10 ,3 0 8 25,134 2 0 ,3 2 3 18 ,8 5 1 15 ,3 17 39 ,270 3 2 ,9 8 7 2 9 ,4 5 3 2 5 ,13 3 2 0 ,0 2 8 56 ,548 4 6 ,7 3 1 4 2 ,4 11 3 7 ,3 0 6 3 1,4 16 76 ,9 70 6 2 ,8 3 3 5 7 ,7 2 8 5 1,8 3 8 4 5 ,16 2 3 7 ,7 0 0 100,530 8 1,2 8 8 7 5 ,3 9 8 6 8 ,7 2 2 6 1,2 6 0 5 3 ,0 14 157,08 0 12 5 ,2 7 2 117 ,8 10 10 9 ,5 6 4 8 0 ,110 226 ,200 17 8 ,6 8 4 307,8 8 0 2 3 0 ,9 10 2500 psi 4418 3651 2454 78 54 5890 4 14 2 12,271 10 ,3 0 8 8560 6259 17,6 72 15 ,7 0 8 13 ,9 5 9 11,6 5 8 20,740 17 ,0 2 7 14 ,7 2 6 12 ,8 8 6 31,418 2 5 ,4 0 4 2 3 ,5 6 4 19 ,14 6 49 ,08 8 4 1,2 3 4 3 6 ,8 16 3 1,4 16 2 5 ,0 3 5 70,6 8 5 5 8 ,4 13 5 3 ,0 14 4 6 ,6 3 2 3 9 ,2 7 0 9 6 ,213 7 8 ,5 4 1 7 2 ,16 0 6 4 ,7 9 8 5 6 ,4 5 3 4 7 ,12 5 125,6 6 3 10 1,6 10 9 4 ,2 4 8 8 5 ,9 0 3 7 6 ,5 7 5 6 6 ,2 6 8 19 6 ,350 15 6 ,5 9 0 14 7 ,2 6 3 13 6 ,9 5 5 10 0 ,13 8 28 2,750 2 2 3 ,3 5 5 38 4,8 50 2 8 8 ,6 3 8 3000 psi 5301 4381 2945 9 425 7069 4970 14,726 12 ,3 7 0 10 ,2 7 1 7 5 10 21,206 18 ,8 5 0 16 ,7 5 1 13 ,9 9 0 24,8 37 2 0 ,4 3 3 17 ,6 7 2 15 ,4 6 3 37,701 3 0 ,4 8 5 2 8 ,2 7 6 2 2 ,9 7 5 58 ,9 05 4 9 ,4 8 0 4 4 ,17 9 3 7 ,6 9 9 3 0 ,0 4 2 8 4,8 22 7 0 ,0 9 6 6 3 ,6 16 5 5 ,9 5 9 4 7 ,12 4 115,455 9 4 ,2 4 9 8 6 ,5 9 2 7 7 ,7 5 7 6 7 ,7 4 3 5 6 ,5 5 0 150,79 5 12 1,9 3 2 13 1,0 9 7 10 3 ,0 8 3 9 1,8 9 0 7 9 ,5 2 1 235,6 20 18 7 ,9 0 8 17 6 ,7 15 16 4 ,3 4 6 12 0 ,16 5 339 ,300 2 6 8 ,0 2 6 46 1,8 20 3 4 6 ,3 6 5 4000 psi 706 8 5841 3927 12,56 6 9425 6627 19 ,6 35 16 ,4 9 3 13 ,6 9 5 10 ,0 14 28 ,274 2 5 ,13 3 2 2 ,3 3 5 18 ,6 5 3 33,18 3 2 7 ,2 4 4 2 3 ,5 6 2 2 0 ,6 17 50,26 8 4 0 ,6 4 7 3 7 ,7 0 2 3 0 ,6 3 3 78 ,540 6 5 ,9 7 4 5 8 ,9 0 5 5 0 ,2 6 6 4 0 ,0 5 6 113,09 0 9 3 ,4 6 1 8 4 ,8 2 2 7 4 ,6 12 6 2 ,8 3 2 153,9 40 12 5 ,6 6 6 115 ,4 5 6 10 3 ,6 7 6 9 0 ,3 2 4 7 5 ,4 0 0 201,06 0 16 2 ,5 7 6 15 0 ,7 9 6 13 7 ,4 4 4 12 5 ,5 2 0 10 6 ,0 2 8 314,16 0 2 5 0 ,5 4 4 2 3 5 ,6 2 0 2 19 ,12 8 16 0 ,2 2 0 452,400 3 5 7 ,3 6 8 6 15,76 0 4 6 1,8 2 0 5000 psi 8 8 36 7302 4909 15,708 11,7 8 1 8283 24,544 2 0 ,6 17 17 ,119 12 ,5 17 35,343 3 1,4 16 2 7 ,9 19 2 3 ,3 17 41,479 3 4 ,0 5 5 2 9 ,4 5 3 2 5 ,7 7 1 6 2,8 35 5 0 ,8 0 9 4 7 ,12 7 3 8 ,2 9 2 9 8 ,175 8 2 ,4 6 7 7 3 ,6 3 2 6 2 ,8 3 2 5 0 ,0 7 0 141,370 116 ,8 2 7 10 6 ,0 2 7 9 3 ,2 6 5 7 8 ,5 4 0 19 2,425 15 7 ,0 8 2 14 4 ,3 2 0 12 9 ,5 9 5 112 ,9 0 5 9 4 ,2 5 0 251,325 2 0 3 ,2 2 0 18 8 ,4 9 5 17 1,8 0 5 15 3 ,15 0 13 2 ,5 3 5 39 2,700 3 13 ,18 0 2 9 4 ,5 2 5 2 7 3 ,9 10 2 0 0 ,2 7 5 56 5,500 4 4 6 ,7 10 76 9 ,700 5 7 7 ,2 7 5

N one
5 8

21 2

31 4

10

12 14

1 N one 1 13 8 N one 1 13 8 13 4 N one 1 13 8 13 4 N one 13 8 13 4 2 N one 13 4 2 21 2 N one 2 21 2 3 31 2 N one 21 2 3 31 2 4 N one 3 31 2 4 41 2 5 N one 31 2 4 41 2 5 51 2 N one 41 2 5 51 2 7 N one 51 2 N one 7

1.77 1.4 6 0 .9 8 2 3.14 2 .3 6 1.6 6 4.9 1 4 .12 3 .4 2 2 .5 0 7.07 6 .2 8 5 .5 8 4 .6 6 8 .30 6 .8 1 5 .8 9 5 .15 12.57 10 .16 9 .4 3 7 .6 6 19 .6 4 16 .4 9 14 .7 3 12 .5 7 10 .0 1 28 .27 2 3 .3 7 2 1.2 1 18 .6 5 15 .7 1 38 .49 3 1.4 2 2 8 .8 7 2 5 .9 2 2 2 .5 8 18 .8 5 50.27 4 0 .6 4 3 7 .7 0 3 4 .3 6 3 0 .6 3 2 6 .5 1 78 .54 6 2 .6 4 5 8 .9 1 5 4 .7 8 4 0 .0 6 113.1 8 9 .3 4 153.9 115 .5

40/6 7 0 H y draulic Fundamentals

adaptable for hydraulic systems, but only the vane-type is used on pneumatic systems.

4.8 C o n t r o l v a lv e s
It is impossible to design a practical uid pow er system w ithout some means of controlling the volume and pressure of the uid, and directing that ow to the proper operating units. This is accomplished by the inclusion of control valves in the hydraulic circuit. A valve is dened as any device by w hich the ow of uid may be started, stopped, regulated or directed by a movable part that opens or obstructs passage of the uid. Valves must be able to accurately control uid ow , system pressure and to sequence the operation of all actuators w ithin a hydraulic system. Hydraulic control values can utiliz e a variety of actuators that activate their function. N ormally these actuators use manual, electrical, mechanical or pneumatic pow er sources.

4.8 .1 V alve classi cation

Valves are classied by their intended use: ow control, pressure control, and direction control. Some valves have multiple functions that fall into more than one classication.

of the valve is also critical. If the valve w ere installed dow nstream from the system isolator valve, the pump could be deadheaded w hen the system w as shutdow n. Smaller relief valves are often used in isolated parts of the system w here a check valve or directional control valve prevents pressure from being relieved through the main system relief valve or w here pressures must be relieved at a specic set point low er than the main system pressure. These small relief valves are also used to relieve pressures caused by thermal expansion of uids. Figure 40.20 show s a typical relief valve. System pressure simply acts under the valve disk at the inlet of the valve. W hen the system pressure exceeds the pre-load force exerted by the valve spring, the valve disk w ill lift off of its seat. This w ill allow some of the system uid to escape through the valve outlet. Flow w ill continue until the system pressure is reduced to a level below the spring force. All relief valves have an adjustment for increasing or decreasing the set relief pressure. Some relief valves are equipped w ith an adjusting screw for this purpose. This adjusting screw is usually covered w ith a cap, w hich must be removed before an adjustment can be made.

P ressure regulators
Pressure regulators, often referred to as unloading valves, are used in uid pow er systems to regulate pressure. In hydraulic systems, the pressure regulator is used to unload the pump and to maintain or regulate system pressure at the desired values. All hydraulic systems do not require pressure regulators. The open-center system does not require a pressure regulator. Many systems are equipped w ith variable-displacement pumps, w hich contain a pressureregulating device. Pressure regulators are made in a variety of types. How ever, the basic operating principles of all regulators are similar to the one illustrated in Figure 40.21.
Cap

Flow control valves

Flow control valves are used to regulate the ow of uids. Control of ow in hydraulic systems is critical because the rate of movement of uid-pow ered machines or actuators depends on the rate of ow of the pressuriz ed uid.

P ressure control
The safe and efcient operation of uid pow er systems, system components and related equipment requires a means to control pressure w ithin the system. There are many types of automatic pressure control valves. Some of them merely provide an escape for excess pressures; some only reduce the pressure; and some k eep the pressure w ithin a pre-set range. Some uid pow er systems, even w hen operated normally, may temporarily develop excessive pressure. For example, w hen an unusually strong w ork resistance is encountered, system pressure may exceed design limits. Relief valves are used to control this excess pressure. R elief valves are automatic valves, used on system lines and equipment to prevent over-pressuriz ation. Most relief valves simply open at a preset pressure and shut w hen the pressure returns to normal limits. They do not maintain ow or pressure at a given amount, but prevent pressure from rising above a specied level. Main system relief valves are generally installed betw een the pump or pressure source and the rst system isolation valve. The valve must be large enough to allow the full output of the hydraulic pump to be delivered back to the reservoir. This design feature, called a full-ow bypass, is essential for all hydraulic systems. The location

G ag screw U pper spring step Retaining ring Spring Body L ower spring step

Compression screw Bonnet

Stem Disk L ev er Y ok e Shaft

F ig u r e 40.2 0 C utaw ay of relief v alv e

C ontrol v alv es 40/6 7 1

(a) Pilot v alv e spring Ball Pilot v alv e Adjusting screw

Stem passage V alv e chamber Piston passage

Main v alv e spring Piston

H igh-pressure line Stem T o reserv oir (b)

(c)

into the return line and back to the reservoir. To prevent constant opening and closing (chatter), the regulator is designed to open at pressure somew hat low er than the closing pressure. This difference is k now n as differential or operating range. For example, assume that a pressure regulator is set to open w hen the system pressure drops below 600 psi and close w hen the pressure rises above 800 psi. The differential or operating range is 200 psi. Referring to Figure 40.21, assume that the piston has an area of 1 in2 , the pilot valve has a cross-sectional area of 1 in2 and the piston spring provides 600 pounds of force 4 that pushes the piston against its seat. W hen the system pressure is less than 600 psi, uid from the pump w ill enter the inlet port, ow to the top of the regulator and then to the pilot valve. W hen the system pressure at the valve inlet increases to the point w here the force it creates against the front of the check valve exceeds the force created against the back of the check valve, the check valve opens. This allow s uid to ow into the system and to the bottom of the regulator against the piston. W hen the system force exceeds the force exerted by the spring, the piston moves up, causing the pilot valve to unseat. Since the uid w ill tak e the path of least resistance, it w ill pass through the regulator and back to the reservoir through the bypass line. W hen the uid from the pump is suddenly allow ed a free path to return, the pressure on the input side of the check valve drops and the check valve closes. The uid in the system is then pressuriz ed until a pow er unit is actuated or until pressure is slow ly lost through normal internal leak age w ithin the system. W hen the system pressure decreases to a point slightly below 600 psi, the spring forces the piston dow n and closes the pilot valve. W hen the pilot valve is closed, the uid cannot ow directly to the return line. This causes the pressure to increase in the line betw een the pump and the regulator. This pressure opens the check valve, causing uid to enter the system. In summary, w hen the system pressure decreases, the pressure regulator w ill open, sending uid to the system. W hen the system pressure increases, the regulator w ill close, allow ing the uid from the pump to ow through the regulator and back to the reservoir. The pressure regulator tak es the load off of the pump and regulates system pressure.

Seq uence valves

Sequence valves control the sequence of operation betw een tw o branches in a hydraulic circuit. In other w ords, they enable one component w ithin the system to automatically set another component into motion. An example of the use of a sequence valve is in an aircraft landing gear actuating system. In a landing gear actuating system, the landing gear doors must open before the landing gear starts to extend. Conversely, the landing gear must be completely retracted before the doors close. A sequence valve installed in each landing gear actuating line performs this function. A sequence valve is somew hat similar to a relief valve except that, after the set pressure has been reached, the

F ig u r e 40.2 1 H y draulic pres s ure reg ulator

A regulator is open w hen it is directing uid under pressure into the system, Figure 40.21, view (a). In the closed position, Figure 40.21, view (b), the uid in the part of the system beyond the regulator is trapped at the desired pressure and the uid from the pump is bypassed

40/6 7 2 H y draulic Fundamentals

sequence valve diverts the uid to a second actuator or motor to do w ork in another part of the system. Figure 40.22 show s an installation of tw o sequence valves that control the sequence of operation of three actuating cylinders. Fluid is free to ow into cylinder A. The rst sequence valve (1) block s the passage of uid until the piston in cylinder A moves to the end of its strok e. At this time, sequence valve 1 opens, allow ing uid to enter cylinder B. This action continues until all three pistons complete their strok es.

There are various designs and types of pressureregulating valves. The spring-loaded reducer and the pilotcontrolled valve are the most common.

D irectional control valves

Directional control valves are designed to direct the ow of uid, at the desired time, to the point in a uid pow er system w here it w ill do w ork . The driving of a ram back and forth in its cylinder is an example of w hen a directional control valve is used. Various other terms are used to identify directional valves, such as selector valve, transfer valve, and control valve. This manual w ill use the term directional control valve to identify these valves. Directional control valves for hydraulic and pneumatic systems are similar in design and operation. How ever, there is one major difference. The return port of a hydraulic valve is ported through a return line to the reservoir. Any other differences are pointed out in the discussion of these valves. Directional control valves may be operated by differences in pressure acting on opposite sides of the valve elements or may be positioned manually, mechanically, or electrically. Often tw o or more methods of operating the same valve w ill be used in different phases of its action. Directional control valves may be classied in several w ays. Some of the different w ays are by the type of control, the number of ports in the valve housing, and the specic function that the valve performs. The most common method is by the type of valving element used in the construction of the valve. The most common types of valving elements are the ball, cone, sleeve, poppet, rotary spool, and sliding spool. The basic operating principles of the poppet, rotary spool, and sliding spool types are discussed in this text. The poppet ts into the center bore of the seat, Figure 40.23. The seating surfaces of the poppet and the seat are lapped or closely machined so that the center bore w ill be sealed w hen the poppet is seated (shut). The action of the poppet is similar to that of the valves in an
Pilot pressuriz ed

P ressure reducing valves

Pressure reducing valves provide a steady pressure into a part of the system that operates at a pressure low er that normal system pressure. A reducing valve can normally be set for any desired dow nstream pressure w ithin its design limits. Once the valve is set, the reduced pressure w ill be maintained regardless of changes in the supply pressure and system load variations.
Cy linder C

Cy linder B 2 Seq uence v alv es Cy linder A 1

To return F luid supply

F ig u r e 40.2 2 Ins tallation of s eq uence v alv e

E x haust open Cy linder Supply closed Cy linder

E x haust closed Supply Open to cy linder

Closed
F ig u r e 40.2 3 O peration of a s imple poppet v alv e

Open

L ines , tting s and s eals 40/6 7 3

automobile engine. In most valves, the poppet is held in the seated position by a spring. The valve consists primarily of a movable poppet, w hich closes against the valve seat. In the closed position, uid pressure on the inlet side tends to hold the valve tightly closed. A small amount of movement from a force applied to the top of the poppet stem opens the poppet and allow s uid to ow through the valve. The rotary spool directional control valve, Figure 40.24, has a round core w ith one or more passages or recesses in it. The core is mounted w ithin a stationary sleeve. As the core is rotated w ithin the stationary sleeve, the passages or recesses connect or block the ports in the sleeve. The ports in the sleeve are connected to the appropriate lines of the uid system. The operation of a simple sliding spool directional control valve is show n in Figure 40.25. The valve is so named because of the shape of the valving element that slides back and forth to block or open ports in the valve housing. The sliding element is referred to as the spool or piston. The inner piston areas, or lands, are equal. Thus, uid under pressure, w hich enters the valve from the inlet ports, acts equally on both inner piston areas, regardless of the position of the spool. Sealing is usually accomplished by a very closely machined t betw een the spool and the valve body or sleeve. For valves w ith more ports, the spool is designed w ith more pistons or lands on a common shaft. The sliding spool is the most common type of directional control valves.

Out

Open Reserv oir In Reserv oir

Out

Closed Reserv oir In Reserv oir

F ig u r e 40.2 5 Tw o-w ay s liding s pool v alv e

4.9 .1 T ypes of lines

Three types of lines are used in uid pow er systems: pipe (rigid), tubing (semi-rigid), and hoses (exible). A number of factors are considered w hen the type of line is selected for a particular application. These factors include the type of uid, the required system pressure, and the location of the system. For example, heavy pipe might be used for a large, stationary system, but comparatively lightw eight tubing must be used in mobile applications. Flexible hose is required in installations w here units must be free to move relative to each other.

4.9 L in e s , t t in g s a n d s e a ls
The control and application of uid pow er w ould be impossible w ithout suitable means of transferring the hydraulic uid betw een the reservoir, the pow er source, and the points of application. Fluid lines are used to transfer the hydraulic uid, ttings are used to connect lines to system components, and seals are used in all components to prevent leak age. This chapter is devoted to these critical system components.

P ipe and tubing

There are three important dimensions of any tubular product: outside diameter (OD), inside diameter (ID) and w all thick ness. Siz es of pipe are listed by the nominal, or approximate, ID and the w all thick ness. The actual OD and the w all thick ness list siz es of tubing.

F ix ed sleev e Core

Selection
The material, inside diameter (ID) and w all thick ness are the three primary considerations in the selection of lines for a particular uid pow er system. The ID of the line is important because it determines how much uid can pass through the line w ithout loss of pow er due to excessive friction and heat. The velocity of a given ow is less through a large opening than through a small opening. If the ID of the line is too small for ow , excessive turbulence and friction w ill cause unnecessary pow er loss and overheat the hydraulic uid.
Ports

Passages

Siz ing
Pipes are available in three different w eights: Standard (STD), or Schedule 40; E xtra Strong (X S), or Schedule

F ig u r e 40.2 4 Parts of a rotary s pool v alv e

40/6 7 4 H y draulic Fundamentals

80; and Double E xtra Strong (X X S). The schedule number range from 10 to 160 and cover 10 distinct sets of w all thick ness, see Table 40.7. Schedule 160 w all thick ness is slightly thinner than the double extra strong. As mentioned earlier, the nominal inside diameter (ID) determines the siz e of pipes. For example, the ID for a 1 -inch Schedule 40 pipe is 0.364 inch, and the ID for a 4 1 -inch Schedule 40 pipe is 0.622 inch. 2 It is important to note that the IDs of all pipes of the same nominal siz e are not equal. This is because the OD remains constant and the w all thick ness increases as the schedule number increases. For example, a nominal 1inch Schedule 40 pipe has a 1.049-inch ID. The same siz e Schedule 80 pipe has a 0.957-inch ID, w hile Schedule 160 pipe has 0.815-inch ID. In each case, the OD is 1.315-inch and the w all thick ness varies. The actual w all thick ness is the difference betw een the OD and ID divided by 2. Tubing differs from pipe in its siz e classication. Its actual outside diameter (i.e. OD) designates tubing. 5 Thus, 5 8 -inch tubing has an OD of 8 -inch. As indicated in Table 40.7, tubing is available in a variety of w all thick ness. The diameter of tubing is often measured and 1 ths. Thus, N o. 6 tubing is 6 or 3 -inch OD, indicated in 16 16 8 8 or 1 -inch, and so forth. N o. 8 tubing is 16 2 The w all thick ness, material used, and ID determines the bursting pressure of a line or tting. The greater the w all thick ness in relation to the ID and the stronger the metal, the higher the bursting pressure. How ever, the greater the ID for a given w all thick ness, the low er the bursting pressure. This is because force is the product of area and pressure.

temperatures. Its chief disadvantage is its comparatively low resistance to corrosion. Copper pipe and tubing are sometimes used for uid pow er lines. Copper has high resistance to corrosion and is easily draw n or bent. How ever, it is unsatisfactory for high temperatures and has a tendency to harden and break due to stress and vibration. Aluminum has many of the characteristics and qualities required for uid pow er lines. Is has high resistance to corrosion and is easily draw n or bent. In addition, it has the outstanding characteristic of lightw eight. Since w eight elimination is a vital factor in the design of aircraft, aluminum alloy tubing is used in the majority of aircraft uid pow er systems. An improperly piped system can lead to serious pow er loss and possible harmful uid contamination. Therefore, in maintenance and repair of uid pow er system lines, the basic design requirements must be k ept in mind. Tw o primary requirements are as follow s: 1. The lines must have the correct ID to provide the required volume and velocity of ow w ith the least amount of turbulence during all demands on the system. 2. The lines must be made of the proper material and have the w all thick ness to provide sufcient strength to both contain the uid at the required pressure and w ithstand the surges of pressure that may develop in the system.

P reparation
Fluid pow er systems are designed as compactly as possible, to k eep the connecting lines short. E very section of line should be anchored securely in one or more places so that neither the w eight of the line nor the effects of vibration are carried on the joints. The aim is to minimiz e stress throughout the system. Lines should normally be k ept as short and free of bends as possible. How ever, tubing should not be assembled in a straight line, because a bend tends to eliminate strain by absorbing vibration and compensates for thermal expansion and contraction. Bends are preferred to elbow s, because bends cause less loss of pow er. Some of the correct and incorrect methods of installing tubing are illustrated in Figure 40.26. Bends are described by their radius measurements. The ideal bend radius is 2 1 2 to 3 times the ID, as show n in Figure 40.27. For example, if the ID of a line is 2 inches, the radius of the bend should be betw een 5 and 6 inches. W hile friction increases mark edly for sharper curves than this, it also tends to increase up to a certain point for gentler curves. The increases in friction in a bend w ith a radius of more than 3 pipe diameters result from increased turbulence near the outside edges of the ow . Particles of uid must travel a longer distance in mak ing the change in direction. W hen the radius of the bend is less than 21 2 pipe diameters, the increased pressure loss is due to the abrupt change in the direction of ow , especially for particles near the inside edge of the ow .

M aterials
The pipe and tubing used in uid pow er systems are commonly made from steel, copper, brass, aluminum, and stainless steel. E ach of these metals has its distinct advantages and disadvantages in certain applications. Steel pipe and tubing are relatively inexpensive and are used in many hydraulic and pneumatic applications. Steel is used because of its strength, suitability for bending and anging and adaptability to high pressures and
T a b le 40.7 W all thick nes s s chedule des ig nation for pipe

N ominal Siz e

P ipe O D

Inside diameter (ID ) Schedule 40 Schedule 80 0.215 0.302 0.423 0.546 0.742 0.957 1.278 1.500 1.939 Schedule 16 0

1 8 1 4 3 8 1 2 3 4

1 11 4 11 2 2

0.405 0.540 0.675 0.840 1.050 1.315 1.660 1.900 2.375

0.269 0.364 0.493 0.622 0.824 1.049 1.380 1.610 2.067

0.466 0.815 0.815 1.160 1.338 1.689

L ines , tting s and s eals 40/6 7 5

Right

Right

Right

W rong
F ig u r e 40.2 6 C orrect and incorrect methods of ins tallation

W rong

W rong

T ube cutting and deburring

D

The objective of cutting tubing is to produce a square end that is free from burrs. Tubing may be cut using a standard tube cutter, Figure 40.28, or a ne-toothed hack saw . W hen you use the standard tube cutter, place the tube in the cutter w ith the cutting w heel at the point w here the cut is to be made. Apply light pressure on the tube by tightening the adjusting k nob. Too much pressure applied to the cutting w heel at one time may deform the tubing or cause excessive burrs. Rotate the cutter, adjust the tightening k nob after each complete rotation. After the tubing is cut, remove all burrs and sharp edges from the inside and outside of the tube w ith a deburring tool, Figure 40.29. Clean out the tubing. Mak e sure no foreign particles remain.

F ig u r e 40.2 7 Ideal bend radius

2
1 2

to 3 D

Cutting a tube

Rotate tow ar d

ope ns ide

ter cut of

Cut T ube

Clean cut

F ig u r e 40.2 8 Tube cutting

40/6 7 6 H y draulic Fundamentals

T ube bending
The objective in tube bending is to obtain a smooth bend w ithout attening the tube. Tube bending is usually done w ith either a hand tube bender or a mechanically operated bender. The hand tube bender show n in Figure 40.30, consists of a handle, a radius block , a clip, and a slide bar. The handle and slide bars are used as levers to provide the mechanical advantage necessary to bend the tubing. The radius block is mark ed in degrees or bend ranging from 0 to 180 . The slide bar has a mark w hich is lined up w ith the z ero mark on the radius block . The tube is inserted in the tube bender and after the mark s are lined up, the slide bar is moved around until the mark on the slide bar reaches the desired degree of bend on the radius block .

w ill slide over it. Close the die block and secure the tool w ith the w ing nut. Use the handle of the yok e to tighten the w ing nut. Then place the yok e over the end of the tubing and tighten the handle to force the cone into the end of the tubing. The completed are should be slightly visible above the face of the die block s.

Flex ible hose

Shock -resistant, exible hose (Figure 40.32) assemblies are required to absorb the movements of mounted equipment under both normal operating conditions and extreme conditions. They are also used for their noiseattenuating properties and to connect moving parts of certain equipment. The tw o basic hose types are synthetic rubber and polytetrauoroethylene (PTFE ), such as DuPonts Teon uorocarbon resin. Rubber hoses are designed for specic uid, temperature, and pressure ranges and are provided in various specications. Rubber hoses consist of a minimum of three layers: a seamless synthetic rubber tube reinforced w ith one or more layers of braided or spiraled cotton, w ire, or synthetic ber; and an outer cover. The inner tube is designed to w ithstand the attack of the uid that passes through it. The braided or spiraled layers determine the strength of the hose. The greater the number of layers, the greater is the pressure rating. Hoses are provided in three pressure ranges: low , medium and high. The outer cover is designed to w ithstand external abuse and contains identication mark ings.

T ube aring
Tube aring is a method of forming the end of a tube into a funnel shape so a threaded tting can hold it. W hen a ared tube is prepared, a are nut is slipped onto the tube and the end of the tube is ared. During tube installation, the are is seated to a tting w ith the inside of the are against the cone-shaped end of the tting, pulling the inside of the are against the seating surface of the tting. E ither of tw o aring tools in Figure 40.31 may be used. One gives a single are and the other gives a double are. The aring tool consists of a split die block that has holes for various siz es of tubing. It also has a clamp to lock the end of the tubing inside the die block and a yok e w ith a compressor screw and cone that slips over the die block and forms the 45 are on the end of the tube. A double aring tube has adapters that turn in the edge of the tube before a regular 45 double are is made. To use the single aring tool, rst check to see that the end of the tubing has been cut off squarely and has had the burrs removed for both the inside and outside. Slip the are nut onto the tubing before you mak e the are. Then, open the die block . Insert the end of the tubing into the hole corresponding to the OD of the tubing so that the end protrudes slightly above the top face of the die block s. The amount by w hich the tubing extends above the block s determines the nished diameter of the are. The are must be large enough to seat properly against the tting, but small enough that the threads of the are nut

Siz ing
The siz e of a exible hose is identied by the dash ( ) number, w hich is the ID of the hose expressed in 16ths of an inch. For example, the ID of a 64 hose is 4 inches. For a few hose styles this is the nominal and not the true ID.

C ure date
Synthetic rubber hoses w ill deteriorate from aging. A cure date is used to ensure that they do not deteriorate beyond material and performance specications. The cure date is the quarter and year the hose w as manufactured. For 1 means the hose w as made during example, 1Q 89 or 89

Section A A

F ig u r e 40.2 9 Properly burred tubing

L ines , tting s and s eals 40/6 7 7

Raise slide-bar upward.

Slide-bar

2 Place tubing in block .

0

T ubing

Clip 3 Prepare to raise clip ov er tubing.

45 9 0 135

Radius block

18 0

H andle

4 Drop clip ov er tubing. Z ero mark coincides with mark on block

90
135 18 0

45

5 Bend tubing to desired angle.

6 Remov e bent tubing by lifting slide bar and raising clip.

45

9 0 Mark

9 0 135 18 0

A bend of 9 0 done as shown in abov e steps.

F ig u r e 40.30 B ending tubing w ith hand-operated tube bender

40/6 7 8 H y draulic Fundamentals

T -handle
1 Inches 2 3 4 5 6

Screw

Die block Clamp H andle Y ok e Cone Cone Die block

Single flaring tool Adaptors Double flaring tool

F ig u r e 40.31 Flaring tools

Y ok e

the rst quarter of 1989. The cure date limits the length of time a rubber hose can be safely used in uid pow er applications. The normal shelf life of rubber hose is 4 years.

Application
As mentioned earlier, exible hose is available in three pressure ranges: low , medium and high. W hen replacing hoses, it is important to ensure that the replacement hose is a duplicate of the one removed in length, OD, material, type and contour. In selecting hose, several precautions must be observed. The selected hose must: 1. Be compatible w ith the system uid, 2. Have a rated pressure greater than the design pressure of the system, 3. Be designed to give adequate performance and service for infrequent transient pressure peak s up to 150 per cent of the w ork ing pressure of the hose, and 4. Have a safety factor w ith a burst pressure at a minimum of 4 times the rated w ork ing pressure. There are temperature restrictions applied to the use of hoses. Rubber hose must not be used w here the operating temperature exceeds 200 F. PTFE hoses in high-pressure air systems must not be used w here the temperature exceeds 350 F.

hose should be protected from chang by using a chaferesistant covering w herever necessary. The minimum bend radius for exible hose varies according to the siz e and construction of the hose and the pressure under w hich the system operates. Current applicable technical publications contain tables and graphs show ing the minimum bend radii for the different types of installations. Bends that are too sharp w ill reduce the bursting pressure of exible hose considerably below its rated valve. Flexible hose should be installed so that it w ill be subjected to a minimum of exing during operation. Support clamps are not necessary w ith short installations; but for hose of considerable length (48 inches for example), clamps should be placed not more than 24 inches apart. Closer supports are desirable and in some cases may be required. A exible hose must never be stretched tightly betw een tw o ttings. About 5 to 8 per cent of the total length must be allow ed as slack to provide freedom of movement under pressure. W hen under pressure, exible hose contracts in length and expands in diameter. E xamples of correct and incorrect installations of exible hose are illustrated in Figure 40.33.

40.9 .2 T ypes of tting s and connectors

Some type of connector or tting must be provided to attach the lines to the components of the system and to connect sections of line to each other. There are many different types of connectors and ttings provided for this purpose. The type of connector or tting required for a specic system depends on several factors. One determining factor is the type of uid line (pipe, tubing or exible hose) used in the system. Other determing factors are the type of uid medium and maximum operating

Installation
Flexible hose must not be tw isted during installation. This w ill reduce the life of the hose and may cause the ttings to loosen. Y ou can determine w hether a hose is tw isted by look ing at the layline that runs along the length of the hose. If the layline does not spiral around the hose, the hose is not tw isted. If the layline does spiral around the hose, the hose is tw isted and must be untw isted. Flexible

L ines , tting s and s eals 40/6 7 9

W ire braid

Cotton cord braid

SAE 100R1 rubber hose. W ire braid Cotton cord

F iber braid SAE 100R2. T y pe A. rubber hose. F iber braid Spiral wire

F riction lay er SAE 100R2. T y pe B. rubber hose.

W ire braid

SAE 100R3 rubber hose.

Spiral braid

SAE 100R4 rubber hose.

F riction lay er SAE 100R9 rubber hose.

SAE 100R7 and 100R8 thermoplastic hoses. N y lon-cov ered single-fiber braid (left). F our-spiral ply (right).

F ig u r e 40.32 Ty pes of ex ible hos e

40/6 8 0 H y draulic Fundamentals

Right (a)

W rong

Right

W rong

(b)

Right

W rong

(c)
F ig u r e 40.33 C orrect and incorrect ins tallation of ex ible hos e

1. T he tapered male thread on the section of pipe...

2. Screws into the female thread in the fitting or hy draulic component. T his thread also is tapered.

3. As the joint is tightened, an interference occurs between the threads, sealing the joints. 4. In standard pipe threads, the flank s come in contact first.

5. T here can be a spiral clearance around the threads.

F ig u r e 40.34 Threaded connectors

6. In dry -seal threads, the roots and crests engage first, eliminating spiral clearance.

L ines , tting s and s eals 40/6 8 1

pressure of the system. Some of the most common types of ttings and connectors are described in the follow ing:

P ipes and tubing

High-pressure pipe or tubing can also be used for hydraulic circuits. In these applications, special threading or ttings are required to connect circuit components. T hreaded connectors There are several different types of threaded connectors. In the type discussed in this section, both the connector and the end of the uid line are threaded. These connectors are used in some low -pressure uid pow er systems and are usually made of steel, copper, and brass is available in a variety of designs. Threaded connectors (Figure 40.34) are made w ith standard pipe threads cut on the inside surface (female). The end of the pipe is threaded w ith outside threads (male). Standard pipe threads are tapered slightly to ensure tight connections. The amount of taper inch in diameter per foot of is approximately 3 4 thread. Metal is removed w hen pipe is threaded, thinning the pipe and exposing new and rough surfaces. Corrosion

agents w ork more quick ly at such points than elsew here. If pipes are assembled w ith no protective compounds on the threads, corrosion sets in at once and the tw o sections stick together so that the threads seiz e w hen disassembly is attempted. The result is damaged threads and pipes. To prevent seiz ing, a suitable pipe thread compound is sometimes applied to the threads. The tw o end threads must be k ept free of compound so that it w ill not contaminate the hydraulic uid. Pipe compound, w hen improperly applied, may get inside the lines and damage pumps, control equipment and other components of the system. Another material used on pipe threads is sealant tape. This tape, w hich is made of Teon, provides an effective means of sealing pipe connections and eliminates the necessity of torquing connections to excessively high values in order to prevent leak s. It also provides for ease of maintenance w henever it is necessary to disconnect pipe joints. The tape is applied over the male threads, leaving the rst thread exposed. After the tape is pressed rmly against the threads, the joint is connected. Flanged Bolted ange connectors, Figure 40.35, are suitable for most pressures now in use. The anges are attached to the piping by w elding, braz ing, tapered threads
L ock washer

Screw

W eld

O ring

Pipe

F lange Sock et weld pipe connections straight ty pe L ock washer Screw

O ring

F lange
F ig u r e 40.35 Four ty pes of bolted ang e connectors

40/6 8 2 H y draulic Fundamentals

or rolling and bending into recesses. Those illustrated are the most common types of ange joints used. The same types of standard tting shapes, i.e. tee, cross, elbow and so forth, are manufactured for ange joints. Suitable gask et material must be used betw een the anges. W elded W elded joints connect the subassemblies of some uid pow er systems, especially in high-pressure systems that use pipe for uid lines. The w elding is done according to standard specications that dene the materials and techniques. B raz ed Silver-braz ed connectors are commonly used for joining non-ferrous piping in the pressure and temperature range w here their use is practical. Use of this type of connector is limited to installations in w hich the piping temperature w ill not exceed 425 F and the pressure in cold lines w ill not exceed 3000 psi. Heating the joint w ith an oxyacetylene torch melts the alloy. This causes the alloy insert to melt and ll the few thousandths of an inch annular space betw een the pipe and tting.

Flared connectors are commonly used in uid pow er systems containing lines made of tubing. These connectors provide safe, strong, dependable connections w ithout the need for threading, w elding or soldering the tubing. The connector consists of a tting, a sleeve, and a nut, Figure 40.36. The ttings are made of steel, aluminum alloy, or bronz e. The tting used in a connection should be made of the same material as that of the sleeve, the nut and the tubing. For example, use steel connectors w ith steel tubing and aluminum alloy connectors w ith aluminum alloy tubing. Fittings are made in union, 45 and 90 elbow s, tee, and various other shapes, Figure 40.37. Tees, crosses, and elbow s are self-explanatory. Universal and bulk head ttings can be mounted solidly w ith one outlet of the tting extending through a bulk head and the other outlet(s) positioned at any angle. Universal means the tting can assume the angle required for the specic installation. Bulk head means the tting is long enough to pass through a bulk head and is designed so it can be secured solidly to the bulk head. For connecting to tubing, the ends of the ttings are threaded w ith straight machine threads to correspond w ith

Standard

Inv erted

(a) 37 F lare fitting

(b) 45 F lare fitting

(c) Straight thread O ring connector

(d) F errule compression fitting

(e) O ring compression fitting

F ig u r e 40.36 Flared tube tting

(f) Sleev e compression fitting

L ines , tting s and s eals 40/6 8 3

E lbow

E lbow

E lbow

F lared tube and pipe thread 9 0

F lared tube and pipe thread 45

F lared tube 9 0

T ee

T ee

T ee

F lared tube

F lared tube pipe thread on side U nion

F lared tube pipe thread on run N ipple

Cross

F lared tube

F lared tube

F lared tube and pipe thread T ee

U nion

E lbow

F lared tube bulk head and univ ersal

F lared tube bulk head univ ersal 9 0

F lared tube bulk head and univ ersal

F ig u r e 40.37 Flared tube tting s

the female threads of the nut. In some cases, how ever, one end of the tting may be threaded w ith tapered pipe threads to t threaded ports in pumps, valves, and other components. Several of these thread combinations are show n in Figure 40.37.

Tubing used w ith are connectors must be ared prior to assembly. The nut ts over the sleeve and, w hen tightened, it draw s the sleeve and tubing are tightly against the male tting to form a positive seal.

40/6 8 4 H y draulic Fundamentals

The male tting has a cone-shaped surface w ith the same angle as the inside of the are. The sleeve supports the tube so vibration does not concentrate at the edge of the are and distributes the shearing action over a w ider area for added strength. Correct and incorrect methods of installing ared-tube connectors are illustrated in Figure 40.38. Tubing nuts should be tightened w ith a torque w rench to the values specied in applicable technical publications. If an aluminum alloy ared connector leak s after being tightened to the required torque, it must not be tightened further. Over-tightening may severely damage or completely cut off the tubing are or may result in damage to the sleeve or nut. The leak ing connection must be disassembled and the fault corrected. 1 If steel tube connection leak s, it may be tightened 16 turn beyond the specied torque in an attempt to stop the leak age. If the connection continues to leak , it must be disassembled and the problem corrected.

Q uick -disconnect couplings

Self-sealing, quick -disconnect couplings, Figure 40.40, are used at various points in many uid pow er systems. These couplings are installed at locations w here frequent uncoupling of the lines is required for inspection, test, and maintenance. Q uick -disconnect couplings are also commonly used in pneumatic systems to connect sections of air hose and to connect tools to the air pressure lines. This provides a convenient method of attaching and detaching tools and sections of lines w ithout losing pressure. Q uick -disconnect couplings provide a means for quick ly disconnecting a line w ithout the loss of uid from the system or the entrance of foreign matter into the system. Several types of quick -disconnect couplings have been designed for use in uid pow er systems. Figure 40.40 illustrates a coupling that is used w ith portable pneumatic tools. The male section is connected to the tool or to the line leading from the tool. The female section, w hich contains the shutoff valve, is installed in the line leading from the pressure source. These connectors can be separated or connected by very little effort on the part of the operator. The most common quick -disconnect coupling for hydraulic systems consists of tw o parts, held together by a

C onnectors for ex ible hose

There are various types of end ttings for both piping connection side and hose connection side of hose ttings. Figure 40.39 show s commonly used ttings.

Do not deflect into place; replace tube assembly

Incorrect will damage flare or threads, or cause sleev e to crack under v ibration if tightened

Incorrect may pull off or distort flare if tightened

Correctly fitted and tightened

0.025 clearance between flare and shoulder before tightening

F ig u r e 40.38 C orrect and incorrect method of ins talling ared tting s

L ines , tting s and s eals 40/6 8 5

H ose H ose (a) Solid sock et (a) Solid sock et N ipple H ose N ipple threads (b) Bolt-together sock et O-ring seal union H ose H ose (c) Ring and band sock et E nd fitting O-ring seal union to (a), (b) or (c) T ail piece for split clamp Split clamp (a) Solid sock et 37 H ose N ipple threads J .I.C. 37 flare H ose H ose (c) Ring and band sock et H ose (a) Solid sock et H ose (c) Ring and band sock et E nd fitting flange (a), (b) or (c) H ose F lange (b) Bolt-together sock et H ose

(b) Bolt-together sock et H ose nipple split clamp

(b) Bolt-together sock et

(c) Ring and band sock et

F ig u r e 40.39 E nd tting s and hos e tting s

union nut. E ach part contains a valve w hich is held open w hen the coupling is connected, allow ing uid to ow in either direction. W hen the coupling is disconnected, a spring in each part closes the valves, preventing the loss of uid and entrance of foreign matter.

M anifolds
Some uid pow er systems are equipped w ith manifolds in the pressure supply and/or return lines. A manifold is a uid conductor that provides multiple connection ports. Manifolds eliminate piping, reduce joints, w hich are often a source of leak age and conserve space. For example, manifolds may be used in systems that contain several

F ig u r e 40.40 Q uick -dis connect coupling

subsystems. One common line connects the pump to the manifold. There are outlet ports in the manifold to provide connections to each subsystem. A similar manifold may be used in the return system. Lines from the control valves of the subsystem connect to the inlet ports of the manifold, w here the uid combines into one outlet line to the reservoir. Some manifolds are equipped w ith check valves, relief valves, lters and so on, required for the system. In some cases, the control valves are mounted on the manifold in such a manner that ports of the valves are connected directly to the manifold. Manifolds are usually one of three types: sandw ich, cast, or drilled. The sandw ich type is constructed of three or more at plates. The center plate, or plates, is machined for passages and the required inlet and outlet ports are drilled into the outer plates. The plates are then bonded together to provide a leak -proof assembly. The cast type of manifold is designed w ith cast passages and drilled ports. The casting may be iron, steel, bronz e or aluminum, depending on the type of system and uid medium. In the

40/6 8 6 H y draulic Fundamentals

Outlet ports

Relief v alv e return port

P
Pressure inlet port
F ig u r e 40.41 Fluid manifold

Outlet ports

Pressure out port

Pressure out port

Check v alv e Return in port Relief v alv e Return out port Return in port

Pressure in port

Pressure out port

Return in port Return in port Return in port

Pressure out port Pressure in port (plugged on-1 assy ) Pressure in port
F ig u r e 40.42 Fluid manifold ow diag ram

Pressure Return

drilled type manifold, all ports and passages are drilled in a block of metal. A simple manifold is illustrated in Figure 40.41. This manifold contains one pressure inlet port and several pressure outlet ports that can be block ed off w ith threaded plugs. This type of manifold can be adapted to systems containing various numbers of subsystems. A thermal relief valve may be incorporated in this manifold. In this case, the port labeled T is connected to the return line to provide a passage for the relieved uid to ow to the reservoir.

Figure 40.42 show s a ow diagram in a manifold that provides both pressure and return passages. One common line provides pressuriz ed uid to the manifold, w hich distributes the uid to any one of ve outlet ports. The return side of the manifold is similar in design. This manifold is provided w ith a relief valve, w hich is connected to the pressure and return passages. In the event of excessive pressure, the relief valve opens and allow s the uid to ow from the pressure side of the manifold to the return side.