Wolski 2 PDF

THE CERN ACCELERATOR SCHOOL
Theory of Electromagnetic Fields

Part II: Standing Waves
Andy Wolski
The Cockcroft Institute, and the University of Liverpool, UK
CAS Specialised Course on RF for Accelerators
Ebeltoft, Denmark, June 2010
Electromagnetic standing waves
In the previous lecture, we saw that:
Maxwells equations have wave-like solutions for the electric
and magnetic elds in free space.
Electromagnetic waves can be generated by oscillating
electric charges.
Expressions for the energy density and energy ow in an
electromagnetic eld may be obtained from Poyntings
theorem.
Theory of EM Fields 1 Part II: Standing Waves
Electromagnetic standing waves
In this lecture, we shall see how the
waves may be captured as standing
waves in a region of free space
bounded by conducting materials an
electromagnetic cavity.
By applying the boundary conditions
on the elds (which we derive in the
rst part of this lecture), we shall see
how the electromagnetic eld
patterns are determined by the
geometry of the cavity.
Fields on boundaries
So far, we have considered electromagnetic elds only in
materials that have innite extent in all directions.
In realistic electromagnetic systems, we have to consider the
behaviour of elds at the interfaces between materials with
dierent properties.
We can derive boundary conditions on the electric and
magnetic elds (i.e. relationships between the electric and
magnetic elds on either side of a boundary) from Maxwells
equations.
These boundary conditions are important for understanding the
behaviour of electromagnetic elds in accelerator components.
Boundary conditions: normal component of

D
Consider the electric displacement at
a boundary between two dierent
materials. We need make no
assumptions about the properties of
the materials.
To be completely general, we will
assume that there is some surface
charge density
s
(charge per unit
area) on the boundary.
We will apply Gauss theorem to the divergence of the electric
displacement, integrated over a pillbox crossing the boundary.
Boundary conditions: normal component of

D
Take Maxwells equation:

D = (1)
Integrate over the volume of the pillbox, and apply Gauss
theorem:
_
V

DdV =
_
S
D

dS =
_
V
dV (2)
Now we take the limit in which the height of the pillbox
becomes zero. If the at ends of the pillbox have (small) area
A, then:
D
1n
A+D
2n
A =
s
A (3)
Dividing by the area A, we arrive at:
D
2n
D
1n
=
s
(4)
Boundary conditions: tangential component of

H
Now consider the magnetic intensity
at a boundary between two dierent
materials.
We will assume that there is some
surface current density

J
s
(current per
unit length) on the boundary.
We will apply Stokes theorem to the
curl of the magnetic intensity,
integrated over a loop crossing the
boundary.
Boundary conditions: tangential component of

H
Take Maxwells equation:

H =

J +

D
t
(5)
Integrate over the surface bounded by the loop, and apply
Stokes theorem to obtain:
_
S

H

dS =
_
C
H

dl =
_
S
J

dS +

t
_
S
D

dS (6)
Now take the limit where the lengths of the narrow edges of
the loop become zero:
H
1t
l H
2t
l = J
s
l (7)
or:
H
1t
H
2t
= J
s
(8)
where J
s
represents a surface current density perpendicular to
the direction of the tangential component of

H that is being
matched.
Summary of boundary conditions
Boundary conditions on the normal component of the magnetic
eld

B, and on the tangential component of the electric eld

E
can be obtained using the same arguments.
The general conditions on electric and magnetic elds at the
boundary between two materials can be summarised as follows:
Boundary condition: Derived from... ...applied to:
D
2n
D
1n
=
s

D = pillbox
H
2t
H
1t
= J
s

H =

J +

D
t
loop
B
2n
= B
1n

B = 0 pillbox
E
2t
= E
1t

E =
B
t
loop
Boundary conditions on surfaces of conductors
Static electric elds cannot persist inside a conductor. This is
simply because the free charges within the conductor will
re-arrange themselves to cancel any electric eld; this can
result in a surface charge density,
s
.
We have seen that electromagnetic waves can pass into a
conductor, but the eld amplitudes fall exponentially with
decay length given by the skin depth, :

(9)
As the conductivity increases, the skin depth gets smaller.
Since both static and oscillating electric elds vanish within a
good conductor, we can write the boundary conditions at the
surface of a good conductor:
E
1t
0 E
2t
0
D
1n

s
D
2n
0
Lenzs law states that a changing magnetic eld will induce
currents in a conductor that will act to oppose the change. In
other words, currents are induced that will tend to cancel the
magnetic eld in the conductor.
This means that a good conductor will tend to exclude
magnetic elds. Thus the boundary conditions on oscillating
magnetic elds at the surface of a good conductor can be
written:
B
1n
0 B
2n
0
H
1t
J
s
H
2t
0
We can consider an ideal conductor as having innite
conductivity. In that case, we would expect the boundary
conditions to become:
B
1n
= 0 B
2n
= 0
E
1t
= 0 E
2t
= 0
D
1n
=
s
D
2n
= 0
H
1t
= J
s
H
2t
= 0
Strictly speaking, the boundary conditions on the magnetic
eld apply only to oscillating elds, and not to static elds.
But it turns out that for (some) superconductors, static
magnetic elds are excluded as well as oscillating magnetic
elds. This is not expected for classical ideal conductors.
Superconductors and the Meissner eect
Although superconductors have innite conductivity, they
cannot be understood in terms of classical theories in the limit
.
Superconductivity is a quantum phenomenon: one aspect of
this is the Meissner eect, which refers to the expulsion of all
magnetic elds (static as well as oscillating) from within a
superconductor.
In fact, even in a superconductor, the magnetic eld is not
completely excluded from the material but penetrates a small
distance (the London penetration depth, typically around
100 nm) into the material.
As long as the applied magnetic eld is not too large, a sample
of material cooled below its critical temperature will expel any
magnetic eld as it undergoes the phase transition to
superconductivity: when this happens, a magnet placed on top
of the sample will start to levitate.
The Meissner eect allows us to classify superconductors into
two distinct classes:
Type I superconductors: above a certain critical eld H
c
(which depends on the temperature), superconductivity is
abruptly destroyed.
Type II superconductors: above one critical eld value
H
c1
, the magnetic eld starts to penetrate, but the
electrical resistance remains zero. Above a second, higher
critical eld value H
c2
, superconductivity is abruptly
destroyed.
Critical elds in niobium (Type II Superconductor)
R.A. French, Intrinsic Type-2 Superconductivity in Pure Niobium,
Cryogenics, 8, 301 (1968). Note: t = T/T
c
. The critical temperature for
niobium is T
c
= 9.2 K.
Electromagnetic waves on boundaries
When an electromagnetic wave is
incident on a boundary between two
materials, part of the energy in the wave
will be transmitted across the boundary,
and some of the energy will be reected.
The relationships between the directions
and intensities of the incident,
transmitted and reected waves can be
derived from the boundary conditions on
the elds.
Applied to waves, the boundary conditions on the elds lead to
the familiar laws of reection and refraction, and describe
phenomena such as total internal reection, and polarisation by
reection.
Electromagnetic waves on boundaries: Fresnels equations
The relationships between the amplitudes of the incident,
transmitted and reected waves can be summed up in a set of
formulae, known as Fresnels equations.
We do not go through the derivations, but present the results
on the following slides. The equations depend on the
polarisation of the wave, i.e. the orientation of the electric eld
with respect to the plane of incidence.
Note the denitions of the refractive index, n, and impedance,
Z of a material:
n =
c
v
=
0
, and Z =
_
, (10)
where and are the absolute permeability and permittivity of
the material, c the speed of light in free space, and v the speed
of light in the material.
The angles of transmission,
T
,
and incidence,
I
, are related by
Snells law:
sin
I
sin
T
=
n
2
n
1
(11)
For a wave in which the electric
eld is normal to the plane of
incidence (i.e. parallel to the
boundary), Fresnels equations
are:
_
E
0R
E
0I
_
=
Z
2
cos
I
Z
1
cos
T
Z
2
cos
I
+Z
1
cos
T
(12)
_
E
0T
E
0I
_
=
2Z
2
cos
I
Z
2
cos
I
+Z
1
cos
T
(13)
For a wave in which the electric
eld is parallel to the plane of
incidence (i.e. normal to the
boundary), Fresnels equations
are:
_
E
0R
E
0I
_
=
Z
2
cos
T
Z
1
cos
I
Z
2
cos
T
+Z
1
cos
I
(14)
_
E
0T
E
0I
_
=
2Z
2
cos
I
Z
2
cos
T
+Z
1
cos
I
(15)
Fresnels equations have important consequences when applied
to conductors; but to understand this, we rst need to derive
the wave impedance of a conductor.
First, note that:

E =
B
t
, so for a wave:

k

E =
B. (16)
Hence, the wave impedance can be written:
Z =
E
0
H
0
=

k
. (17)
Recall that, for a conductor, the wave vector is complex (the
imaginary part describes the attenuation of the wave). In fact,
for a good conductor:
k (1 +i)
_
2
, . (18)
Thus, we nd:
Z (1 i)
_
2
, . (19)
If the permeability and permittivity of the conductor are close
to the permeability and permittivity of free space, then it
follows that:
|Z| Z
0
, . (20)
Finally, putting |Z
2
| Z
1
into Fresnels equations, we nd, for
a good conductor:
E
0R
E
0I
1, and
E
0T
E
0I
0. (21)
In other words, nearly all the energy in the wave is reected
from the surface of a good conductor, and very little is
transmitted into the material.
This simple phenomenon allows us to store electromagnetic
waves in metal boxes.
In the next half of this lecture, we will develop the formulae
used to describe electromagnetic waves in conducting cavities.
RF Cavities in PEP-II
EM elds in a rectangular cavity with perfectly conducting walls
We consider rst a rectangular cavity with perfectly conducting
walls, containing a perfect vacuum.
The wave equation for the electric eld inside the cavity is:
E
1
c
2
E = 0, (22)
where c is the speed of light in a vacuum. There is a similar
equation for the magnetic eld

B.
We are looking for solutions to the wave equations for

E and

B
that also satisfy Maxwells equations, and also satisfy the
boundary conditions for the elds at the walls of the cavity.
If the walls of the cavity are perfectly conducting, then the
boundary conditions are:
E
t
= 0, (23)
B
n
= 0, (24)
where E
t
is the component of the electric eld tangential to
the wall, and B
n
is the component of the magnetic eld normal
to the wall.
Plane wave solutions will not satisfy the boundary conditions.
However, we can look for solutions of the form:
E(x, y, z, t) =

E(x, y, z)e
it
. (25)
Substituting into the wave equation, we nd that the spatial
dependence satises:
E +

2
c
2
E = 0. (26)
The full solution can be derived using the method of separation
of variables: for details, see Appendix A.
However, it is sucient to quote the result: it is possible to
verify the solution simply by substitution into the wave
equation.
The electric eld in the rectangular cavity is given by:
E
x
= E
x0
cos k
x
x sink
y
y sink
z
z e
it
, (27)
E
y
= E
y0
sink
x
x cos k
y
y sink
z
z e
it
, (28)
E
z
= E
z0
sink
x
x sink
y
y cos k
z
z e
it
. (29)
To satisfy the wave equation, we require:
k
2
x
+k
2
y
+k
2
z
=

2
c
2
. (30)
To satisfy Maxwells equation

E = 0, we require:
k
x
E
x0
+k
y
E
y0
+k
z
E
z0
= 0. (31)
We also need to satisfy the boundary conditions, in particular
that the tangential component of the electric eld vanishes at
the walls of the cavity. This imposes additional constraints on
k
x
, k
y
and k
z
.
Consider:
E
y
= E
y0
sink
x
x cos k
y
y sink
z
z e
it
. (32)
The boundary conditions
require that E
y
= 0 at x = 0
and x = a
x
, for all y, z, and t.
These conditions are satised if
k
x
a
x
= m
x
, where m
x
is an
integer.
To satisfy all the boundary conditions, we require:
k
x
=
m
x
a
x
, k
y
=
m
y
a
y
, k
z
=
m
z
a
z
, (33)
where m
x
, m
y
and m
z
are integers.
The magnetic eld can be obtained from the electric eld,
using Maxwells equation:

E =
B
t
. (34)
This gives:
B
x
=
i
(E
y0
k
z
E
z0
k
y
) sink
x
x cos k
y
y cos k
z
z e
it
, (35)
B
y
=
i
(E
z0
k
x
E
x0
k
z
) cos k
x
x sink
y
y cos k
z
z e
it
, (36)
B
z
=
i
(E
x0
k
y
E
y0
k
x
) cos k
x
x cos k
y
y sink
z
z e
it
. (37)
It is left as an exercise for the student to show that these elds
satisfy the boundary condition on the magnetic eld at the
walls of the cavity, and also satisfy the remaining Maxwells
equations:

B = 0, and

B =
1
c
2
E
t
. (38)
Rectangular cavity mode (m
x
, m
y
, m
z
) = (1, 1, 0)
Rectangular cavity mode (m
x
, m
y
, m
z
) = (1, 1, 1)
Rectangular cavity modes
Mode frequencies in a rectangular cavity
Note that the frequency of oscillation of the wave in the cavity
is determined by the mode numbers m
x
, m
y
and m
z
:
= c
_
_
m
x
a
x
_
2
+
_
m
y
a
y
_
2
+
_
m
z
a
z
_
2
. (39)
For a cubic cavity (a
x
= a
y
= a
z
), there will be a high degree of
degeneracy, i.e. there will generally be several dierent sets of
mode numbers leading to dierent eld patterns, but all with
the same frequency of oscillation.
The degeneracy can be broken by making the side lengths
dierent...
Mode frequencies in a rectangular cavity
Top: all side lengths equal.
Middle: two side lengths equal.
Bottom: all side lengths dierent.
Note: we show all modes, including those with two (or three)
mode numbers equal to zero, even though such modes will
have zero amplitude.
Quality factor of a mode in a cavity
Note that the standing wave solution represents an oscillation
that will continue indenitely: there is no mechanism for
dissipating the energy.
In practice, the walls of the cavity will not be perfectly
conducting, and the boundary conditions will vary slightly from
those we have assumed.
The electric and (oscillating) magnetic elds on the walls will
induce currents, which will dissipate the energy.
However, if a eld is generated in the cavity corresponding to
one of the modes we have calculated, the elds on the wall will
be small, and the dissipation will be slow: such modes (with
integer values of m
x
, m
y
and m
z
) will have a high quality
factor, compared to other eld patterns inside the cavity.
A mode with a high quality factor is called a resonant mode.
Example: mode spectrum in a 714 MHz cavity
S. Sakanaka, F. Hinode, K. Kubo and J. Urakawa,
Construction of 714 MHz HOM-free accelerating cavities,
J. Synchrotron Rad. (1998) 5, 386-388.
Energy stored in a cavity
Let us calculate the energy stored in the elds in a resonant
mode.
The energy density in an electric eld is:
U
E
=
1
2
D

E. (40)
Therefore, the total energy stored in the electric eld in a
resonant mode is:
E
E
=
1
2
0
_

E
2
dV, (41)
where the volume integral extends over the entire volume of
the cavity.
In any resonant mode, we have:
_
a
x
0
cos
2
k
x
xdx =
_
a
x
0
sin
2
k
x
xdx =
1
2
, (42)
where k
x
= m
x
/a
x
, and m
x
is a non-zero integer.
We have similar results for the y and z directions, so we nd
(for m
x
, m
y
and m
z
all non-zero integers):
E
E
=
1
16
0
(E
2
x0
+E
2
y0
+E
2
z0
) cos
2
t. (43)
The energy varies as the square of the eld amplitude, and
oscillates sinusoidally in time.
Now let us calculate the energy in the magnetic eld. The
energy density is:
U
B
=
1
2
B

H. (44)
Using:
k
2
x
+k
2
y
+k
2
z
=

2
c
2
, and E
x0
k
x
+E
y0
k
y
+E
z0
k
z
= 0, (45)
we nd, after some algebraic manipulation (and noting that the
magnetic eld is 90
out of phase with the electric eld):

E
B
=
1
16
1
0
c
2
(E
2
x0
+E
2
y0
+E
2
z0
) sin
2
t. (46)
As in the case of the electric eld, the numerical factor is
correct if the mode numbers m
x
, m
y
and m
z
are non-zero
integers.
Finally, using 1/c
2
=
0
0
, we have (for m
x
, m
y
and m
z
non-zero integers):
E
E
+E
B
=
1
16
0
(E
2
x0
+E
2
y0
+E
2
z0
). (47)
The total energy in the cavity is constant over time, although
the energy oscillates between the electric eld and the
magnetic eld.
The power ux in the electromagnetic eld is given by the
Poynting vector:
S =

E

H. (48)
Since the electric and magnetic elds in the cavity are 90
out
of phase (if the electric eld varies as cos t, then the magnetic
eld varies as sint), averaging the Poynting vector over time
at any point in the cavity gives zero: this is again consistent
with conservation of energy.
Quality factor and shunt impedance
In practice, some of the energy stored in a cavity will be
dissipated in the walls. The rate of energy dissipation for a
given mode is measured by the quality factor, Q:
P
d
=
dE
dt
=

Q
E. (49)
For a mode with a longitudinal electric eld component
E
z0
= V
0
/L (where L is the length of the cavity), we dene the
shunt impedance, R
s
:
R
s
=
V
2
0
P
d
. (50)
Combining the above equations, we see that:
R
s
Q
=
V
2
0
P
d
P
d
E
=
V
2
0
E
. (51)
Consider a mode with B
z
= 0. Such modes have only transverse
components of the magnetic eld, and are called TM modes.
Using equation (37), we see that the electric eld in TM
modes obeys:
k
y
E
x0
= k
x
E
y0
. (52)
We also have, from (31):
k
x
E
x0
+k
y
E
y0
+k
z
E
z0
= 0. (53)
These relations allow us to write the energy stored in the cavity
purely in terms of the mode numbers and the peak longitudinal
electric eld:
E =

0
16
_
_
k
2
x
+k
2
y
+k
2
z
k
2
x
+k
2
y
_
_
E
2
z0
. (54)
Combining equations (51) and (54), we see that:
R
s
Q
=
16
0
_
_
k
2
x
+k
2
y
k
2
x
+k
2
y
+k
2
z
_
_
L
2
. (55)
For a TM mode in a rectangular cavity, the quantity R
s
/Q
depends only on the length of the cavity and the mode
numbers.
In fact, this result generalises: for TM modes, R
s
/Q depends
only on the geometry of the cavity, and the mode numbers.
This is of practical signicance since, to optimise the design of
a cavity for accelerating a beam, the goal is to maximise R
s
/Q
for the accelerating mode, and minimise this quantity for all
other modes.
EM elds in a cylindrical cavity
Most cavities in accelerators are closer to a cylindrical than a
rectangular geometry. It is worth looking at the solutions to
Maxwells equations, subject to the usual boundary conditions,
for a cylinder with perfectly conducting walls.
We can nd the modes in just the same way as we did for a
rectangular cavity: that is, we nd solutions to the wave
equations for the electric and magnetic elds using separation
of variables; then nd the allowed solutions by imposing the
boundary conditions.
The algebra is more complicated this time, because we have to
work in cylindrical polar coordinates. We will not go through
the derivation in detail: the solutions for the elds can be
checked by taking the appropriate derivatives.
TM modes in a cylindrical cavity
In cylindrical polar coordinates (r, , z) the TM modes can be
expressed as:
E
r
= E
0
k
z
k
r
J
n
(k
r
r) cos n sink
z
z e
it
(56)
E
= E
0
nk
z
k
2
r
r
J
n
(k
r
r) sinn sink
z
z e
it
(57)
E
z
= E
0
J
n
(k
r
r) cos n cos k
z
z e
it
(58)
B
r
= iE
0
n
c
2
k
2
r
r
J
n
(k
r
r) sinn cos k
z
z e
it
(59)
B
= iE
0
c
2
k
r
J
n
(k
r
r) cos n cos k
z
z e
it
(60)
B
z
= 0 (61)
Because of the longitudinal electric eld, TM modes are good
for acceleration.
The functions J
n
(x) are Bessel functions:
The fundamental accelerating mode in a cylindrical cavity is
the TM
010
(mode numbers refer to the azimuthal, radial, and
longitudinal coordinates, respectively):
For more information on modes in cylindrical cavities, including
TE modes, see Appendix B.
TM110
TM020
TE110 mode in a cylindrical (crab) cavity
Summary of Part II: Standing waves
We have shown that:
Maxwells equations lead to relationships on the electric and magnetic
elds on either side of a boundary between two materials.
Applied to the surface of a good conductor, the boundary conditions
imply that the normal component of the magnetic eld and the
tangential component of the electric eld both vanish.
The boundary conditions allow us to nd expressions for the reection
and transmission coecients for waves at a boundary.
Good conductors have a very low wave impedance: this means that
nearly all the energy in a wave striking the surface of a good conductor
is reected.
Applied to electromagnetic elds in cavities, the boundary conditions
impose constraints on the patterns and oscillation frequencies of
electric and magnetic elds that can exist as waves within the cavity.
Summary of Part II: Standing waves
A Mathematica 5.2 Notebook for generating plots of eld
modes in cavities and waveguides can be downloaded from:
pcwww.liv.ac.uk/awolski/CAS2010/CavityModes.nb
Animations showing the eld modes in particular cases can be
downloaded from:
pcwww.liv.ac.uk/awolski/CAS2010/RectangularCavityModes.zip
pcwww.liv.ac.uk/awolski/CAS2010/CylindricalCavityModes.zip
pcwww.liv.ac.uk/awolski/CAS2010/RectangularWaveguideModes.zip
Appendix A: Wave equation in a rectangular cavity
Consider the x component E
x
, and look for solutions of the
form:
E
x
= X(x)Y (y)Z(z)e
it
(62)
Substitute into the wave equation (26):
Y Z
2
X
x
2
+XZ
2
Y
y
2
+XY

2
Z
z
2
+

2
c
2
XY Z = 0 (63)
and divide by XY Z:
1
X
2
X
x
2
+
1
Y
2
Y
y
2
+
1
Z
2
Z
z
2
=
2
v
2
(64)
This must be true for all x, y and z.
Each term on the l.h.s. is independent of the other terms, and
must therefore be constant. Therefore, we write:
1
X
2
X
x
2
= k
2
x
,
1
Y
2
Y
y
2
= k
2
y
,
1
Z
2
Z
z
2
= k
2
z
. (65)
Consider the equation for Z(z):
1
Z
2
Z
z
2
= k
2
z
. (66)
The general solution is:
Z(z) = Z
C
cos k
z
z +Z
S
sink
z
z. (67)
However, to satisfy the boundary condition E
x
= 0 at z = 0, we
must have:
Z
C
= 0. (68)
Also, to satisfy the boundary conditon E
x
= 0 at z = a
z
, we
must have:
k
z
=
m
z
a
z
, (69)
where m
z
is an integer.
Solving the wave equation for E
x
= X(x)Y (y)Z(z)e
it
with the
boundary conditions E
x
= 0 at z = 0 and at z = a
z
gives:
Z(z) = Z
S
sink
z
z, where k
z
=
m
z
a
z
. (70)
Similarly, we nd:
Y (y) = Y
S
sink
y
y, where k
y
=
m
y
a
y
. (71)
where m
y
is an integer.
Hence, we can write:
E
x
= (X
C
cos k
x
x +X
S
sink
x
x) sink
y
y sink
z
z e
it
, (72)
and following the same procedure, we nd:
E
y
= sink
x
x(Y
C
cos k
y
y +Y
S
sink
y
y) sink
z
z e
it
, (73)
E
z
= sink
x
x sink
y
y (Z
C
cos k
z
z +Z
S
sink
z
z) e
it
. (74)
Now, as well as satisfying the wave equation, the electric eld
must satisfy Maxwells equations, thus we require that

E = 0.
Applying this condition to the above expressions for the eld
components, we nd that we must have:
k
x
= k
x
= k
x
, (75)
and similarly for the y and z directions.
Also, we must have:
X
S
= Y
S
= Z
S
= 0. (76)
Appendix B: Cylindrical cavities
One set of modes (not the most general solution) we can write
down is as follows:
E
r
= iB
0
n
k
2
r
r
J
n
(k
r
r) sinn sink
z
z e
it
(77)
E
= iB
0
k
r
J
n
(k
r
r) cos n sink
z
z e
it
(78)
E
z
= 0 (79)
B
r
= B
0
k
z
k
r
J
n
(k
r
r) cos n cos k
z
z e
it
(80)
B
= B
0
nk
z
k
2
r
r
J
n
(k
r
r) sinn cos k
z
z e
it
(81)
B
z
= B
0
J
n
(k
r
r) cos n sink
z
z e
it
(82)
Note that J
n
(x) is a Bessel function of order n, and J
n
(x) is the
derivative of J
n
(x).
The Bessel functions are solutions of the dierential equation:
y
+
y
x
+
_
1
n
2
x
2
_
y = 0. (83)
This equation appears when we separate variables in nding a
solution to the wave equation.
Because of the dependence of the elds on the azimuthal angle
, we require that n is an integer: n provides an azimuthal
index in specifying a mode.
Bessel functions:
From the boundary conditions, E
and B
r
must both vanish on
the curved wall of the cavity, i.e. when r = a, where a is the
radius of the cylinder.
Therefore, we have a constraint on k
r
:
J
n
(k
r
a) = 0, (84)
or:
k
r
=
p
n,m
a
, (85)
where p
nm
is the mth zero of the derivative of the nth order
Bessel function.
This equation is analogous to the conditions we had for the
rectangular cavity, e.g. k
x
= m
x
/a
x
.
We can use the integer m as a radial index in specifying a
mode.
We also need to have B
z
= E
r
= E
= 0 on the at ends of the

cavity.
Assuming the at ends of the cavity are at z = 0 and z = L,
these boundary conditions are satised if:
sink
z
L = 0, therefore k
z
=

L
, (86)
where is an integer.
provides a longitudinal index in specifying a mode.
Also, we nd that:
E = (k
2
r
+k
2
z
)
E, (87)
so from the wave equation:
E
1
c
2
E
t
2
= 0, (88)
we must have:
k
2
r
+k
2
z
=

2
c
2
. (89)
Similar equations hold for the magnetic eld,

B.
In the modes that we are considering, the longitudinal
component of the electric eld E
z
= 0, i.e. the electric eld is
purely transverse.
These modes are known as TE modes. A specic mode of
this type, with indices n (azimuthal), m (radial), and
(longitudinal) is commonly written as TE
nm
.
The frequency of mode TE
mn
depends on the dimensions of
the cavity, and is given by:
mn
= c
_
k
2
r
+k
2
z
= c
_
_
p
nm
a
_
2
+
_
L
_
2
. (90)
Cylindrical cavity mode TE
110
:
Cylindrical cavity mode TE
110
:
TE modes are useful for giving a transverse deection to a
beam in an accelerator, but are not much use for providing
acceleration.
Fortunately, cylindrical cavities allow another set of modes that
have non-zero longitudinal electric eld:
E
r
= E
0
k
z
k
r
J
n
(k
r
r) cos n sink
z
z e
it
(91)
E
= E
0
nk
z
k
2
r
r
J
n
(k
r
r) sinn sink
z
z e
it
(92)
E
z
= E
0
J
n
(k
r
r) cos n cos k
z
z e
it
(93)
B
r
= iE
0
n
c
2
k
2
r
r
J
n
(k
r
r) sinn cos k
z
z e
it
(94)
B
= iE
0
c
2
k
r
J
n
(k
r
r) cos n cos k
z
z e
it
(95)
B
z
= 0 (96)
In these modes, the magnetic eld is purely transverse (zero
longitudinal component); therefore, they are referred to as
TM modes.
As before, for physical elds, n must be an integer.
The boundary conditions on the elds give:
k
r
=
p
nm
a
, and k
z
=

L
, (97)
where p
nm
is the mth zero of the nth order Bessel function
J
n
(x).
The frequency of a mode TM
mn
is given by:
mn
= c
_
k
2
r
+k
2
z
= c
_
p
nm
a
_
2
+
_
L
_
2
. (98)
The lowest frequency accelerating mode in a cylindrical cavity
is the TM
010
mode (n = 0, m = 1, = 0).
The elds in the TM
010
mode are given by:
E
r
= 0 (99)
E
= 0 (100)
E
z
= E
0
J
0
_
p
01
r
a
_
e
it
(101)
B
r
= 0 (102)
B
= i
E
0
c
J
1
_
p
01
r
a
_
e
it
(103)
B
z
= 0 (104)
Cylindrical cavity mode TM
010
:
The frequency of the TM
010
mode is determined by the radius
of the cavity, not by its length:
010
= c
_
k
2
r
+k
2
z
= p
01
c
a
. (105)
Note that:
p
01
2.40483. (106)
However, to get the maximum acceleration from the cavity, the
time taken for a particle to pass through the cavity should be
one half of the rf period, i.e. /.
Therefore, for best eciency, the length of the cavity should be
c/ = /2, where is the wavelength of an electromagnetic
wave with angular frequency in free space.
110
:
020
:
Appendix C: Exercises for the student
1. By considering the boundary conditions on the electric and magnetic
elds at a boundary between two dierent materials, show that, for an
electromagnetic plane wave striking the boundary at normal incidence,
the amplitudes of the transmitted and reected waves are given
(relative to the amplitude of the incident wave) by:
E
0R
E
0I
=
Z
2
Z
1
Z
2
+Z
1
, and
E
0T
E
0I
=
2Z
2
Z
2
+Z
1
,
where Z
1
is the impedance of the material on the incident side, and Z
2
is the impedance of the material on the transmitted side.
Show that the energy in the wave is conserved at the boundary.
2. Calculate the radius of a cylindrical cavity for which the frequency of
the fundamental accelerating mode TM
010
is 500 MHz. What is the
optimal length of the cavity for accelerating an ultra-relativistic beam?
If the peak electric eld in the cavity is 5 MV/m, what is the energy
stored in the cavity?
You are given that:
_
1
0
rJ
0
(p
01
r)
2
dr =
_
1
0
rJ
1
(p
01
r)
2
dr 0.1348.

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THE CERN ACCELERATOR SCHOOL

Theory of Electromagnetic Fields

out of phase with the electric eld):

= 0 on the at ends of the

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