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Construction and Building Materials 22 (2008) 434443

MATERIALS
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Review

Venetian churches of Lefkada, Greece Construction documentation and seismic behaviour Virgin Mary of the Strangers
Charis Apostolopoulos a, Panagiotis Sotiropoulos
a

b,*

Laboratory of Technology and Strength of Materials, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronauts, University of Patras, 26500 Patras, Greece b Laboratory of Architectural Technology and Urban Planning, School of Engineering, University of Patras, 26500 Patras, Greece Received 8 December 2005; received in revised form 25 October 2006; accepted 27 October 2006 Available online 2 January 2007

Abstract Lefkada suers from frequent and strong earthquakes. On August 14, 2003, an earthquake with a magnitude of 6.2 on the Richter scale, one of the strongest ever to occur in the Greek territory, resulted in serious damages of 40 churches. This paper presents certain important morphological features of the Virgin Mary of the Strangers church and the particular structural system of the monument. The peak response of the church during the August 14, 2003 earthquake in Lefkada is studied numerically through the nite elements method using a response spectrum analysis. Moreover, the ground acceleration record of the main earthquake in the centre of the town is considered in the present investigation. The numerical results obtained show very good agreement with the faults exhibited in the structures, and this leads to the determination of the vulnerable areas of the structures aected. 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Venetian churches of Lefkada; Morphological characteristics; Church pathology; Seismic behaviour; Dynamic analysis

Contents 1. 2. 3. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seismic risk in the area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Monument description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1. General information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Churchs structural data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Monument pathology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1. Perimeter masonry wooden bearing structure roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2. Humidity biological action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3. Church ooring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4. Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Numerical analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1. Finite element model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2. Modal analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3. Dynamic analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 435 436 436 436 437 437 439 439 439 440 440 441 441

4.

5.

Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 6947007179. E-mail addresses: charrisa@mech.upatras.gr (C. Apostolopoulos), psotiro@upatras.gr (P. Sotiropoulos).

0950-0618/$ - see front matter 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2006.10.016

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6.

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443

1. Introduction The historical churches on the island of Lefkada cover a period of 500 years. The most signicant buildings date back to the times of Venetian rule (16841797), and they have been classied as historical monuments. They are located in the historic centre of the town of Lefkada in Northwestern Greece, and they represent an important part of the Greek cultural heritage. The town of Lefkada is built on alluvial soil at an altitude slightly above the sea level. The town is protected by the Ionian Sea by a sandy stretch which surrounds the lagoon and plain of Lefkada. In 1300 AD when Lefkada was under the rule of the Franks and until the end of the 17th century [1], the castle of Aghia Mavra at the northeastern entrance to the town served as the Franks headquarters and became the centre of development for the northern most residential centre of the island. During the 1971 census [2], the churches of Lefkada, along with the Catholic monasteries and the countryside chapels, numbered approximately 105 [3,4]. These historic monuments have been renovated, and their current dimensions and exterior appearance are the result of such restoration works necessitated by either partial damage or collapse due to earthquakes [5]. The towns most signicant churches are made of lime conglomerate engraved stones in accordance with the ashlar system which uses average-sized stones. These stones are usually rectangular and are very carefully tooled. Sometimes, untanned lime stones are also used. In the earthquake of August 14, 2003, the churches of the Venetian period suered the most serious damage among medieval and recent monuments. As a result, over 40 churches were declared unt for use [6]. The aim of the present work is to make a short presentation of the restoration study of the church dedicated to Virgin Maria of the Strangers. It is the rst time that the typological and morphological characteristics of the monument are recorded and documented, faults are mapped, and analyses are carried out applying the nite element method in order to determine the sensitive areas of the structure. A dynamic spectral analysis of the structural system was also carried out in order to verify the response of

the structure to the seismic loads that developed as a result of the earthquake. This paper is part of a more comprehensive survey of seven important churches of the Venetian period. The investigations concerning restoration started after the 2003 earthquake aiming both at evaluating all data that might possibly assist in the morphological and structural documentation and restoration of signicant Venetian churches in Lefkada, and at developing the methodology to be used for the analysis of specic monuments. The main idea underlying the present work is to make integrated and documented interventions on the historic buildings and to formulate technical proposals which are worthy of implementation. These should be preceded by a comprehensive diagnostic procedure [79]. 2. Seismic risk in the area One of the strongest earthquakes ever recorded in the Greek territory took place o the west coast of Greece on August 14, 2003 with k = 20.60E, u = 38.76N, and had its epicentre 10 km o the town of Lefkada. The ground acceleration lasted approximately 18 s, and the peak ground accelerations (PGA) reached the values of 0.42 and 0.33 in horizontal directions, respectively. Unfortunately, seismic recordings of the ground movement for the vertical component are not available. The earthquake was caused by a seismogenic fault with conguration breaking, which has repeatedly caused strong earthquakes in the greater Ionian Island region [10]. The peak values of the ground motion parameters are listed in Table 1 [6]. According to a geological map issued by the Hellenic Institute of Geological and Mineralogical Explorations (IGME) [11], the town area is built on recent alluvial soil. In accordance with the Greek Seismic Code (EAK 2000) [12], the subsoil of the town of Lefkada is classied under category C, whereas in accordance with Eurocode 8 (CEN/TC250/SC8/N317, 2002), it is classied under category C or E. It can be said that the towns soil, together with its surface geology, topography and mechanical dynamic properties, played a signicant role during the earthquake of August 14, 2003 [13]. The concomitant

Table 1 Maximum ground acceleration, velocity and displacement values (Lefkadas Earthquake, of August 14th, 2003.) a/a Position Code Acceleration (cm/s2) L* 1. Lefkada LEF10302 333.4 L*, Longitudinal component. V*, Vertical component. T*, Transversal component. V* 185.6 T* 408.6 Velocity (cm/s) L 29.7 V 9.9 T 31.7 Displacement (cm) L 4.30 V 2.30 T 4.60

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appearance of faults was attributed to the case-by-case different roles of the soil. The earthquakes of 1704, 1769, 1825, 1869, 1914, 1948, 1953 and 1973 should also be considered [14]. Following the destructive earthquake in 1948 with a magnitude of 6.5 on the Richter scale, several churches were repaired. The subject church, however, was in use until August 14, 2003. 3. Monument description 3.1. General information The church is a typical single-nave, single-space Ionian Island basilica located in the north-western part of the town. The original structure was built in 1718 by Konstantinos Varvarigos as a private church, with the permission of the Venetian Government. In 1723, the church became collegial. The initial structure consisted of uncoursed stone masonry walls, lacking external decoration and embellishment. During the 1769 earthquake, the church suered serious damages, but it was subsequently reconstructed in 1785 from the ground up with the help of individual contributions. The western facade was restored in 1839 according to the commemorative inscription in the key of the facade niche. The nave structure was crowned with a wooden saddle-shaped roof. As shown in (Fig. 1), the northern and western facades are better preserved. The various baroque stone reliefs on the door frames and the lintels are also noteworthy. The wooden iconostasis shown in (Fig. 2a) is believed to be the rst work of Efstathios Proselantis [2], while the interior of the church (Fig. 2b) is the work of Lefkada icon painters.

3.2. Churchs structural data The churches of the Venetian period are made of stone masonry along the perimeter and have a rectangular oor plan and wooden roofs. The external load bearing walls have a single structure, which on the northern and western sides includes sand and limestone masonry, and ceramic fragments embedded in the joint mortar. They end up on the exterior at an ashlar structural system of conglomerate engraved stones. On the other facades, the sand and limestone masonry is plastered in the same structural manner, since it does not have an ashlar structure. The masonry of this church has a 65 cm cross-section along the perimeter and is approximately 5.10 m high. In most churches, the altar niche has an opening roughly equivalent to the opening of the western entrance, which gives the ground plan an almost absolute symmetry, thus reducing the development of yawing and, consequently, of faults. Lime mortar has been used as the joining material in the masonry. Porus stone is the main structural decorative material of the external walls. The interior of the church along its longitudinal sides (this is common in many churches) has been covered with wooden panelling which is mounted on wooden struts at a distance of approximately 510 cm from the internal face of the bare perimeter masonry (Fig. 3a). The roof and wooden canopy loads are directly transferred to the above mentioned 15 15 wooden trusses (Fig. 3c), through the horizontal perimeter wooden beam. The main structural element, the upper perimeter cornicing of the church is made of reinforced concrete which results in the strong inuence of the structures seismic

Fig. 1. Virgin Mary of the Strangers. The present condition of the facades.

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Fig. 2. (a) Wooden iconostasis. (b) View of the canopy and the wooden iconostasis (detail).

response. The continuous horizontal cornices reinforce the o-eld bending function of the masonry. This is due to the fact that they receive horizontal seismic loads vertically and parallel to the wall, resulting in the transmission of loads to the transversal bearing walls. A concrete tie beam was built at the western and eastern gables during previous interventions in 1948 and 1953. In addition to the gables, the revetment of the roof, the ooring, and the exterior plaster seem to have undergone reparations as well. 4. Monument pathology 4.1. Perimeter masonry wooden bearing structure roof The damages to the churches of Lefkada caused by the 1973 earthquake were aggravated by the earthquake of August 14, 2003, and the width and the length of the existing cracks were increased. This earthquake resulted in the collapse of the internal and external decorative non-bear-

ing elements of the churches, and in the development of severe cracks (Figs. 1 and 4). The bearing elements of the subject monument appear to have suered serious damage due to seismic activity, the natural fatigue of the building materials, physicochemical and biological factors, creeping deformations, and man-induced factors. It is certain that these deterioration mechanisms mentioned have acted synergistically rather than individually. Following restorative work under the supervision of the rst Antiquities Board [15], the cracks in the masonry were lled both in the altar area (east) and in the loft (west), and new mortar was applied. However, following the earthquake of August 14, 2003, the cracks reappeared at the same or neighbouring positions. The two longitudinal walls to the north and to the south bear diagonal cracks starting at the windows edges and extending towards all directions. Several of these cracks start at the base of the church, particularly at the door openings. Intense diagonal cracks were mainly recorded on the

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Fig. 3. The churchs interior covered by wooden panelling which is supported by wooden struts: (a) section A-A 0 , (b) section A-A 0 (detail) and (c) wooden rebband.

western fac ade but less so in the eastern part, specically in places where the altar niche shell is adjacent to the eastern

Fig. 4. Cracks sustained, in the northern masonry, due to Lefkadas earthquake of August 14, 2003.

gable. At the same locations on the internal surface of the masonry, the stone structure has become loose. Structural discontinuity and unevenness in the height of the horizontal cornice appeared on the crown where the junction of the longitudinal and of the transversal walls is located. The original church plans called for the roof to be mainly supported by the wooden struts of the internal wooden panelling along the perimeter. However, on the inside of the church, the strut bases of the interior wooden panelling show increased localised rotting and decay. Therefore, the load carried by the roof and the canopy is transferred to the perimeter walls that are already stressed because of additional loads which they are not designed to support. This resulted in the appearance of diagonal cracks and in the deviation of the masonries from the vertical plane. The deviations of the crown of the longitudinal masonries outwards (8 cm at the south-eastern corner) and the swelling (by 34 cm) of the ashlar engraved stones are typical features of the current status. The bearing structure of the roof displays signicant deterioration of certain wooden parts, although the sinking

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of the wooden truss is not obvious at rst sight. Several connectors have become loose and need to be replaced. In several areas, the connectors are supported on points. These factors play an important role in the seismic behaviour of the monument. 4.2. Humidity biological action The presence of eorescence on the masonry surface is indicative of physical, mechanical and chemical fatigue processes as a result of the reaction of three components: building materials, water, and contaminated compounds present in atmospheric water micro organisms may contribute as a fourth component). Soluble salts may additionally be formed as a result of the interaction of these three components. The presence of eorescence on the monument is manifested through extensive grey-black aking on the ashlar elements of engraved stone. The physicochemical and biological mapping of the church has shown that the phenomenon is mainly due to the rising dump from the ground and the unrestrained draining of rainwater o the roof. The situation is further aggravated by the accumulation of rainwater in the surrounding area. Improper interventions using strong cement mortars were made on several areas of the perimeter bearing masonry. The incompatibility of the mortars used is due to their dierences in microstructure and mechanical behaviour, as well as their increased content of sulphate salts. Moreover, the formation of biological crust, besides the aesthetic problem, has also caused the decay in the engraved stones and the water erosion of their components. The presence of micro organisms is the result of high humidity levels in the stone masonry. The composition of stone materials further favour the development of biological activity. 4.3. Church ooring The current ooring of the church was laid after the 1973 earthquake and is therefore more recent. The marble pieces used were symmetrically placed in plain patterns according to the geometry of the church. The marble ooring is placed over a 13 cm thick reinforced concrete slab. From the in situ observation carried out and the information given by the church board, it appears that the concrete extends over the entire interior surface of the church and is naturally under the support of the interior wooden panelling struts. This resulted in decay acceleration of the perimeter pillars, and overall or localized displacement. The loft ooring consists of wooden planks nailed onto strong wooden beams which are approximately 1 m apart and have a cross-section of approximately 20/25 cm. Beneath this oor, there is a ceiling which is also nailed on the lower part of the wooden beams. The loft ooring is tilted from west to east because of the way the bearing beams were positioned on the vertical bearing masonry ele-

ments to the west and east, as well as on the two inner columns. The achieved rigidity was not as high as expected mainly because of the loose connection. An additional cause was the partial wood decay. It is an established fact that the oor diaphragm is a signicant sti element which inuences the results of the static dynamic analysis of the structures bearing. The main characteristics of the loft ooring and the roof above the loft have decisively-inuenced the behaviour of the monument, primarily with respect to horizontal and, to a lesser degree, to vertical seismic loads. However, the alteration of the dual structural system has resulted in the homogenization of the static function of the wooden diaphragms (loft ooring and canopy), and this has adversely aected the seismic behaviour of the monument. 4.4. Foundations Poor soil quality, along with the high underground water level, was a signicant technical problem, faced during the erection of the churches, since water was found at a depth of 3035 cm during the exploratory investigation of the excavation sections. The implementation of the investigative excavation of the two sections, one outside (T1) and one inside the church (T2), aimed at verifying (a) the conditions of the monuments foundations and the underlying subsoil, and (b) the possibility of the presence of a wooden grating under the foundations. Data relating to such structures is available for younger stone buildings, but unfortunately, data pertinent to the Venetian churches is missing [16]. The interesting technical solution employed to tackle the poor soil quality used in certain constructions may be described as follows. A three-layer wooden grating is placed under the foundation of the ground oor stone masonries. The grating which is made of horizontal wooden beams is suitably processed in order to prevent water corrosion [17]. The foundations consist of rough or processed stones, ne sand, and pozzolana. In the event of an earthquake, the entire foundation could move uniformly under the superstructure, thus minimizing the risk for unforeseen behaviour. Buildings of this structural type are noteworthy because through traditional building techniques, they integrate the philosophy of the existence of a number of anti-seismic defence alternatives. Sections T1 and T2 revealed ndings of wooden beams measuring 10 10 cm cm (Fig. 5). However, the presence of a complete bearing system was not established, and the relevant works shall continue with new sections. Similar bearing systems were used in the past by the Venetians and the English in dierent areas. Similar foundation bearing systems using wood were also found in ancient Greek monuments, mainly temples, while it is known that a similar system consisting of vertically

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C. Apostolopoulos, P. Sotiropoulos / Construction and Building Materials 22 (2008) 434443 Table 2 Properties of the church materials used in the nite element model Material Stone masonry Property Density Youngs modulus (longitudinal) Poissons ratio Density Youngs modulus (longitudinal) Poissons ratio Density Youngs modulus (longitudinal) Youngs modulus (transversal) Poissons ratio Value 2000 kg/m3 2.75 GPa 0.20 1800 kg/m3 3.00 GPa 0.20 900 kg/m3 8.50 GPa 0.30 GPa 0.30

Solid brick masonry

Wood

Fig. 5. Wooden beams ndings: (a) Sectional plan, the location of the investigative sections T1 and T2, (b) outer investigative section T1. (b1) conglomerate engraved stone, (b2) wooden beam, (b3) water and (c) detail of a wooden beam.

masonry is used only in the gables. It is a recently constructed solid brick masonry with strong bonding mortar. Gables are reinforced by a perimeter tier. The geometrical complexity of the structure required the use of 6554 surfaces and 1498 volumes. The stone and the mixed masonry were modelled by eight node solid elements (BRICK 45) with three degrees of freedom (DOF) per node. Two node beam elements (BEAM 4) with six DOF per node were chosen to model the wooden roof beams, the supports, and the vertical struts for the interior wooden revetment (Fig. 3c). Finally, the interior wooden panelling of the church and the roof coating were modelled by four node shell elements (SHELL63) with six DOF per node. The nal model developed consisted of 11,290 nodes and 10,863 elements. The cross section of the church as seen from the altar towards the western door obtained with the full nite element model is presented in (Fig. 6). The model presented includes the perimeter of the walls marked black in the graphic, the inner wooden coated, colored in dark grey, the frieze in light grey and nally the womens prayer compartment in white.

crossing carved stones was used for soil regeneration or for laying foundations on rocky surfaces [18]. 5. Numerical analysis 5.1. Finite element model The ANSYS nite element software [19] was used to model and analyze the church under consideration. In modelling the simulacrum, the symmetry was taken into account without considering the deviations from the vertical plane of the church. The properties of the materials used in the nite element model are presented in Table 2. The Modulus of elasticity for the wood has been considered according to [20,21]. The adhesion at the interface of the churchs perimeter masonry walls is low and the presence of external conglomerate stone masonry further reduces its modulus of elasticity [22,23], also this type of

Fig. 6. Finite element model. In the present view a section of the church is showed as this appears from entrance to the altar to the western door of the church including the mixed perimetric masonry, the internal wooden paneling, the roof, the perimetric cornice and the loft bearing structure.

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5.2. Modal analysis The intrinsic behaviour of stone structures is known to be strongly non-linear. However, a linear analysis was attempted in order to obtain qualitative information on the possible modal shapes and the corresponding eigenfrequencies. The rst modal shapes appeared in the wooden roof, and the fact that the roof tiles of most churches fell o during the August 14, 2003 earthquake conrmed this observation. The main structural mass consists of the rst two modal shapes of the churchs stone masonry shown in Fig. 7a and b. 5.3. Dynamic analysis The dynamic analysis was carried out in order to check the peak response of the structure during the earthquake of August 14, 2003 [24]. The spectral analysis method was applied to calculate the seismic response. This method includes a full modal analysis of the structure, peak seismic response calculations for each modal shape, and a square sequence of peak modal shape responses. The modal analysis procedures and the eigen-frequencies calculated were presented in a previous section (Modal analysis). The sequence of peak modal shape responses was generated using the following equation:

exA

s XX eij Ai Aj
i j

This rule is known as the CQC-rule (Complete Quadratic Combination). In this equation, Aj are the natural form values of A, and eij is the correlation coecient for the two natural forms i and j. The forces exerted on the structure result from seismic action and the mass inertia of the structures. Seismic excitation at the base of the structure consists of two horizontal and one vertical component. The directions of the two horizontal components coincide with the longitudinal and transversal direction of the seismic waves, respectively, spreading from the earthquake epicentre towards the town of Lefkada. Uniform distribution of seismic action along the height of the structure was assumed. It is assumed that all points of the church make the same movement. Fig. 8a and b show the longitudinal and the traverse earthquake components, respectively, as a function of the period T. For the vertical component, no data is available. It is calculated according to the Greek Seismic Code EAK 2000 [12] from the following equation:

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Acceleration

(a)

0.5

1.5

2.5

Period (sec)

18 16 14

Acceleration

12 10 8 6 4 2 0

(b)
Fig. 7. (a and b) The rst two modal shapes of the stone walls.

0.5

1.5

2.5

Period (sec)

Fig. 8. Earthquake design spectrum: (a) horizontal components (longitudinal traversal) and (b) vertical component.

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Fig. 9. Characteristic results of the performed dynamic analysis: (a) normal stresses, (b) shear stresses in the longitudinal plane, (c) shear stresses the transversal plane and (d) Equivalent Von Mises stresses.

h  i 0 Ud T c1 Av 1 TT1 ghb 1 q
v 0 Ud T c1 Av ghb q v

0 6 T 6 T1 T1 6 T 6 T2 2

U d T c1 A v

ghb0 T 2=3
2

qv

T2 6 T

where Ud design value of spectral acceleration, T1, T2 characteristic values of periods, T1 = 0.20 s, T2 = 0.80 s, b0 spectral amplication factor 2.50, a seismic risk zone 0.36, A = a*g maximum ground acceleration 0.36*g, Av maximum vertical ground acceleration 0.252*g, g damping correction factor 1.00, c1 importance factor 1.30, qv behavior factor 1.50 and h foundation factor 1.00. For reasons of brevity, Fig. 9ad present a selection of graphical representations of certain typical results of this dynamic analysis. More specically, the plot of normal stress of the stone masonry in the vertical direction is shown in Fig. 9a. Fig. 9b and c show the shear stresses of the stone masonry in the longitudinal and in the transverse direction, respectively. Finally, the equivalent stresses determined by Von Mises are presented in Fig. 9d. The calculations showed that the peak displacements of the analyzed structure resulting from the concurrent action of the two horizontal earthquake components are quite limited. Intense localized oscillations of the walls both in their in-plane and out-of-plane directions appeared in most modal shapes. Fig. 9b and c show the shear stresses distri-

bution, as a result of the dynamic analysis on both longitudinal and transversal masonry walls of the church. The respective maximum shear stresses 0.45 MPa and 0.2 MPa on masonry walls are recorded in places and areas where diagonal cracks were developed. Fig. 9a and d show the distribution of both normal stresses and the equivalent Von Mises stresses. Similarly, the maximum stresses 1.8 MPa and 1.6 MPa are found in lower levels at church side entrances, where horizontal longitudinal cracks were actually recorded. The dynamic analysis results (Fig. 9ad), in combination with the graphical representation of the fractures on the bearing walls (Fig. 1ad) and taking into consideration the relative photographic documentation of the damages (Fig. 4), provide a retrospective picture of the present situation allowing for the identication of the susceptible areas of the monument.

6. Conclusion The greater Lefkada region has the highest seismic activity levels in Europe, and the August 14, 2003 earthquake was potentially a full-scale experiment, the results of which may provide valuable information on earthquakes and their respective impact on the specic structural systems of churches.

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The dual structural system of Lefkada has been internationally recognized as one of the most ecient traditional anti-seismic systems in Europe. The churches were designed so that both individual structural systems receive loads. Even in cases of masonry collapse, the system of the wooden pillar struts behind the perimeter walls inside the perimeter wooden panelling is activated, receiving and supporting all loads from the wooden roof and canopy. The cracks in the church investigated were mainly located in the perimeter walls and at the transversal walls corners. In many instances, increased earthquake acceleration has caused telltale crossed cracks due to the cuttingtensile failure of piers. Thanks to the superior quality of the building, though, the masonries were not disorganized, although they suered cracks and deviated from the vertical plane. Hence, restoration is still possible. The elastic analysis of the bearing structure using nite elements justies the cracks positioning, since it has been established that cracking occurs where the greatest tensions are applied. A large number of faults may be attributed to pre-existing poor conditions due to lack of maintenance, and to non normative church restoration and reinforcement works among other factors. Finally, particular attention was given to exploring the mechanisms that caused the faults. Thus, less evident conditions aecting the static adequacy and the aesthetic value of the structure were equally identied. Churches exposed to strong seismic action over several centuries have undergone a form of natural selection, and only those better designed and built have survived. For this reason, particular attention and diligence must be paid to strengthen the initial structural system of the Virgin Mary of the Strangers church by suitably reinforcing the monuments vulnerable areas.

Acknowledgement The technical study, supervision and stabilization of Virgin Mary of the Strangers Church was assigned to us by the following decision of the Holy Metropolis of Lefkada (Decree No. 815/11.9.2003). The survey was approved by the Directorate for Musea and Technical Services of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture (Decree No 862/8.7.2004). References
[1] Filippa Apostolou M. The architectural character of establishments in Lefkada, free research program. National Technical University of Athens - Architecture Department, Athens; 1992. p. 9 [in Greek].

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