KARLMARXANDMARXISM

Theinfluenceof KarlMarx(18181883)hasbeenprodigious.Duringthe1980s, peoplewhocalledthemselvesMarxistsorwholivedunderMarxistgovernments numberedaboutonehalfoftheplanet'sinhabitants.TheChinesealoneaccountforone billionalthough,untilthecollapseofCommunism,theRussianclaimedtobetheleading Marxists.Thereareorratherwere,moreMarxistsintheworldthanChristians.We shouldrememberthattheSovietversionofCommunismwasbutoneaspectofMarxism. ThehistorianWalterLaquerjokedthatbythe1980s,therewereprobablymorebelieving MarxistsinAmericanuniversitiesthanintheentireSovietUnion.Byanyobjective reckoning,KarlMarxwasthemostinfluentialmodernthinker.Hewascertainlythe greatestsocialscientistofthelasttwocenturies.Marxmostbenumberedamongthe foundersofthemodernstudyofhistory,sociology,andeconomics.Butheismostoften rememberedastheprophetofproletarianrevolution.

Biography:Marx theMan
KarlMarxwasnotofworkingclassstock,butthesonofawellofflawyerinthe RhinelandcityofTrier.Hislifestorycanbetoldinbroadstrokes,sinceforourpurposes, Marxwasamanofthoughtnotaction.Hebeganhiscareerasauniversitystudent aimingatalawdegreeandlateraimingataprofessorshipinphilosophy.If thesituation inGermanyhadbeendifferent,ifthePrussiangovernmentwouldhaveallowedit,he mostprobably wouldhavebeenaprofessor.Instead,hebecameanintellectualoutsider andcritic,aprofessorofrevolution. Hebecameateacherofrevolutionariesratherthana revolutionaryhimself. GraduatingwithaPh.D.fromtheprestigiousUniversityofBerlinin1836,Karl Marxbegantowriteforaliberalweeklynewspaper, RheinischeZeitung, andhisarticles begantogainhimwidespreadattention.ThePrussiancensorscloseddownthejournalin March,1843andKarlMarxfoundhimselfunemployed.Fortherestofhislife,Marx madealivingasafreelancewriter.FormanyyearshewastheEuropeancorrespondent forHoraceGreeley'snewspaper,theNewYorkTribune.Allinall,Marxwroteabout500 articlesfortheTribune.Hedeprecatedhisnewspaperwriting: Thecontinual newspapermuckannoysme.Ittakesalotoftime,dispersesmyeffortsandinthefinal analysisisnothing. HewasexiledfromGermanyforradicalactivitiesin1849,afewmonthslaterhe wasaskedtoleaveFrance.AfterabrieftimeinBrussels,hesettledinLondonin1851. Fortherestofhislife,MarxandhisgrowingfamilylivedinLondon,ofteninextreme povertyandisolation.TherewasconsiderablerevolutionaryunrestthroughoutEuropein 1848,buttheeraofrevolutionwasover.Marxneveracceptedthis.Fortherestofhislife helookedforsignsoftheinevitableoverthrowofcapitalism.Fortherestofhislife,he workedinisolationwritingdraftsofhisbook DasKapital.AlthoughhelivedinLondon foralmostfortyyears,heneverfeltathomethereorevenlearnedtheEnglishlanguage. HewouldgotothereadingroomoftheBritishmuseumeverydayandreadandmake notesforhisresearchesintoeconomicmatters.

2 InhisearlyLondonyears,thefamilywasverypoor.Hiswifehadtopawnher jewelrytopaytherent.SometimesMarxcouldnotevenleavehislodgingsbecausehis suitwasatthepawnbrokers.Hiswife,JennyvonWestphalen,acharmingaristocratic womanwholivedwithKarlthroughthickandthin,sufferedthroughgrindingpoverty becauseherhusbandwasnotmuchofaprovider. MarxwrotetoEngelsabouthiswifes floodsoftearsthewholenightlongwhichtiremypatienceandmakemeangry.Ifeel pityformywife. (Mazlish,p.55) KarlMarxwrotetohisfriendFriedrichEngelsin 1852: Myhouseisahospitalandthecrisisissodisruptingthatitrequiresallmy attention.Mywifeisill,JennychenisillandLenchenhasakindofnervousfever. Icouldntandcantcallthedoctor,becauseIhavenomoneyforthemedicine. FortendaysIhavemanagedtofeedthefamilyonbreadandpotatoes,butitis doubtfulwhetherIcangetholdofanytoday.HowcanIdealwithallthisdevilish filth? (Rius,p.96) Lateron,asMarxpublishedmoreandashisfamilyfriendandcollaborator FriedrichEngelssetupapension,theMarxswerebetteroff.Althoughhecertainly lovedhiswife,Marxwasnotthesortofmantoputhisfamilyaheadofhiswriting.He laterremarkedthathehadbutoneregret,ifhehadthechoicetomakeagain,hewould nothavemarried. AsonebiographerofMarx,DavidMcClellanwrote, thepriceof Marxsvocationwashigh:ofhissevenchildren(onediedatbirth)onlytwosurvived him,andbothofthesecommittedsuicide. (Mazlish,p.64) Hisfamilycertainlydidnot qualifyasamodelmarriage:MarxwasanavidcollectorofFrenchPostcardsandhe fatheredatleastoneillegitimatechild. FewdoubtedMarx'sintellectualgifts,butmanyfoundhimtobeamostdifficult personality.Marxwasafiercehaterandhewasamangiventosarcasticverbalattackson allwhodisagreedwithhim.CarlSchurz,aGermanAmericanpoliticianandpersonal friendofPresidentAbrahamLincolncommented: Everyonewhocontradictedhimhetreatedwithabjectcontempteveryargument thathedidnotlikeheansweredeitherwithbitingscornattheunfathomable ignorancethathadpromptedit,orwithopprobriousaspersionsuponthemotives ofhimwhohadadvancedit.Ihaveneverseenamanwhosebearingwasso provokingandintolerable.Everyonewhocontradictedhimhetreatedwithabject contempt. (Mazlish,p.69) Marxdirectedhisangerevenmoretowardshisfellow revolutionaries.MikhailBakunin, hisRussianrivalandthefounderofanarchist,said:Hecalledmeasentimentalidealist andhewasright.Icalledhimvain,treacherous,andmoroseandItoowasright.

HistoricalMaterialism
WedonotstudyKarlMarxforhisbiography,butratherforhisideas.Letsbegin withthebasics.WhatisMarxism?Marxismisaphilosophy ofhistory.Itisalsoan economicdoctrine.Marxismisalsoatheoryofrevolutionandthebasicexplanationfor

3 howsocietiesgothroughtheprocessofchange.Marxistsbelievethattheyandtheyalone havetheanalyticaltoolstounderstandtheprocessofhistoricalchange,aswellthekeyto predictingthefuture.AsMarxputit, Communismistheriddleofhistorysolved. Marxistsalsobelievethattheyandtheyalonehaveanempirical,scientificapproachto humanhistoryandsociety: JustasDarwindiscoveredthelawofdevelopmentof organicnature,soMarxdiscoveredthelawofdevelopmentofhumanhistory. (Engels, 1884) TherearetwobasicideasinMarxism:

1. Materialism 2.ClassStruggle
Bymaterialism,Marxmeantthattheenginethatdrivessocietyistheeconomy. EconomicforcesaremorecomplexandpervasivethanwethinkaccordingtoMarx,they evendetermineshowwethink:Consciousnessisfromtheverybeginningasocial product. (Mazlish,p.94) TheModeofProductioninmateriallifedeterminesthegeneralcharacterofthe social,political,andspiritualprocessesoflife.Itisnottheconsciousnessofmen thatdeterminestheirexistence,butonthecontrarytheirsocialexistencethat determinestheirconsciousness. (Berlin)

TheRoleofIdeas
Marxextendedthisargumenttosuggestthatindividualsreallydonotthink independentlyatallrather,thegreatmajorityofpeoplesimplyrepeatthedominantideas oftheirtimeinplaceofthinking.Doanyofusreallythinkonourown,ordowesimply repeattheideasandattitudesweheareveryday?Sincethepeoplewhocontrolthe economyalsocontrolthepoliticalarena,itisnotsurprisingthatmostsimply(onceagain, accordingtoKarlMarx,merelyparrottherhetoricoftherulingclass.Asheputitina famousquote: Theideasoftherulingclassareineveryepochtherulingideas:i.e.the classwhichistherulingmaterialforceofsociety,isatthesametimeitsruling intellectualforce. (Mazlish,p.98) Inotherwords,everythingyouknowiswrong!AccordingtoMarx,wethinkand believethewaywedobecauseweareproductsofthemodeofproduction(i.e.weareall productsofcapitalism).Meneatbeforetheyreason.Ononelevel,thisisprettysimple. Marxusedonehistoricaleventasanexample:In1846,afailureofthepotatocropin IrelandledtowidespreadfaminethepopulationofIrelandwasreducedby 20%the Irishpotatofaminekilledamillionpeople,butitkilledpoordevilsonly.Tothewealthyit didnothavetheslightesteffect. ItmadenodifferenceifthevictimswereCatholicor protestant,orliberalorconservative,manorwoman.Inotherwords,ideasplayednorole herewhatsoever:thosewhocouldaffordfoodlived.Ideasdonotmovetheworldrather, itistheotherwayaround.InanotherfamoussentenceMarxdeclared,Thephilosophers haveonlyinterpretedtheworld,invariouswaysthepoint,however,istochangeit.

4 (Mazlish,p.91)Onceagain,thetaskofhistorywillbetoestablishthetruthofthis world. (p.78) Therefore:"Thehistoryofhumanitymustalwaysbetreatedinrelationtothe historyofindustryandexchange,independentoftheexistenceofanypoliticalor religiousnonsense. (Mazlish,p.93). PleasenotethatMarxisdismissingpolitical historyandpoliticallifeasnonsense.TheMarxisttermforsuchthingsis Superstructure. Althoughpoliticsandreligionareobjectivelymeredistortionsofreality thereisnoSocialContractanymorethanthereisaGod(onceagain,accordingto Marx),toworryabout.Butthatdoesnotmeanthatideasorevenreligion,forthatmatter, areunimportant.Botharetoolsofthedominantclassinsocietybotharemeansof controllingthemasses.Hence,Marxsfamousdictum: Religionistheopiateofthe masses.

ClassStruggle
ThesecondbasicruleofMarxistanalysistakeshistoricalmaterialismastep further.Allofhumanhistorycanbeexplainedandpredictedbythecompetitionbetween antagonisticeconomicclassesorasMarxputit, Thehistoryofallhithertoexisting societyisthehistoryofclassstruggles. Inpoliticalterms,thismeansthatthesocialclassesarecompetinginessencefor controlofthestateor,asMarxistswouldputit:theclassthatcontrolstheModeof ProductionalsocontrolstheState.Ingeneral,Marxdidnotspendmuchtimeexamining thestateorpoliticalinstitutions.Politicallifeisanillusionordistortionofreality,so whystudythatdistortion?Itisbettertoconcentrateontherealitybehindtheveilof politics:theeconomicstructureofsociety. Thustheancientstateaboveallwastheslaveowner'sstateforholdingdownthe slaves,asthefeudalstatewastheorganofthenoblesforholdingdowntheserfs, andthemodernstateistheinstrumentoftheexploitationofwagelaborby capitalism. Marxarguedthatthestateexistsprimarilyasaninstrumentofcoercionortoputit anotherway,nofundamental changecanoccurinthepoliticalspherewithoutasocial andeconomicrevolution.ForMarx,politicallifeisanillusion,and: itfollowsfromthisthatallstruggleswithintheState,thestrugglebetween democracy,aristocracy,andmonarchy,thestruggleforthefranchise,etc.,etc., aremerelytheillusoryformsinwhichtherealstrugglesofthedifferentclasses arefoughtoutamongoneanother. (Mazlish,p.97) Politicallifeisonlyveilfortherealstruggle: Capital versusLabor. Democracyisa shamworkerscanexpectnosignificanthelpfromthestate. Marxismisthenacom binationofthesetwobasicideas:everythingisaproductoftheModeofProduction(in thiscase,Capitalism)andthewholeprocessofhistoryischaracterizedbyendless competitionbetweenantagonisticeconomicclasses.

5 ToMarx,thefundamentaldivisionineverysocietyisthatbetweentheexploiters andtheexploited,betweentheownersofthemeansofproductionthosewhohavetosell theirlabortotheownerstoearnaliving.Butthelandscapeofexploitationwasentirely newasaresultoftheIndustrialRevolution: Ourepochthebourgeoisepoch,hassimplifiedtheclassantagonisms.Societyis moreandmoresplittingupintotwohostilecamps,directlyfacingeachother: bourgeoisieandProletariat. Let'sdefinetermsherebriefly: 1.Bourgeoisie: ThistermintheMarxistvocabulary,simplymeanscapitalist,or management.Thosewhocontrolthemeansofproduction. 2.Proletariat: Theindustrialworkingclasswagelabor.ButMarxistslookvery carefullyatwhobelongsherenoartisans,nopeasants,nofarmlaborers.The Proletariatisthefactoryworkers,"Thosewhohavenothingbuttheirhands." Marxismisanoptimisticcreed.IftheIndustrialRevolutionhascausedmass miseryandexploitationintheshortruninthelongrun,itiscreatingavastincreasein wealthandproductivecapacity.Thekeyistoseizecontroloftheproductiveprocessand tomakeitworkinfavoroftheexploitedmassesinsteadofenrichingatinyminorityof capitalists.ThegoodnewswasthatMarxanalyzedthesocialsituationandconvinced himselfthatafundamentalsocialrevolutionwasnotonlydesirablebutalsoinevitable. Let'slookbrieflyattheclassicalMarxisttheoryofRevolution.

TheInevitableRevolution
Capitalismappearstriumphant,butappearancesaredeceiving.Therapid expansionoftheeconomyandofthefactorysystemisthemostimportantthingthathas everhappenedinhumanhistoryanditsconsequencescannotbeavoided.Themorethat productionisconcentratedintofactories,themoretherevolutionaryworkingclassis strengthenedthemoreacutebecomesthecompetitionandantagonismbetween bourgeoisieandProletariat,capitalandlabor.Thereisnoescapefromthisinevitable socialstruggle.Whatthebourgeoisieproducesaboveall,isitsowngravediggers. Rememberaswellthateventheideologyofcapitalismitselftendstoaidthe comingrevolution.Capitalistspretendtobelieveincompetition.Underthecutthroat competitionofthemarketplace,thebourgeoisiewillsimplybegintodevouritself. Ownershipofcapitalwillbecomeconcentratedinhands.Manyformercapitalistswillfail andsinkdownintotheproletarianmass.Intheend,thereinevitablywillbeafewsuper richcapitalistsexploitingthelaborofagreatmassofmiserablyexploitedproletarians: Theexpropriationisbroughtaboutbytheoperationofthelawsofcapitalist production.Thecentralizationofthemeansofproductionandsocializationof laborreachapointwheretheyproveincompatiblewiththeircapitalisthusk.The

6 huskburstsasunder.Theknellofcapitalistprivatepropertysounds.The expropriatorsareexpropriated. Thisishowtherevolutionwillcomeitwillcomewhethertheworkerswantitor not.Withtheproletarianrevolutionthedialecticofclassstrugglewillendbecausethere willbenomoreexploitersandnomoreexploited.TheStatetoowilldisappear,or "wither away" thestateissimplyaninstrumentofcoercionandcoercionwillnolongerbe necessary.Organizedreligionandbourgeoismoralitywillalsobesweptaway,their functionastoolsofmanipulationandexploitationrevealedatlast.Inasense,thewhole prehistoryofhumanitywillendandtrulyhumanhistorywillbegin: Inplaceoftheoldbourgeoissociety,withclassesandclassantagonisms,weshall haveanassociation,inwhichthefreedevelopmentofeachistheconditionforthe freedevelopmentofall.(Mazlish,p.105) Theseideaswereallexpressedinoneofthegreatliterarydocumentsofthe nineteenthcentury,theCommunistManifesto of1848.Itistheseideasthatserveashis legacyforMarxwasalwaysawriter,notamanofaction.Allofhislife,hehadcontempt forthekindofrevolutionarythatmakeshomemadebombsinsomecellar.Itwasthrough hiswritingthatKarlMarxcametodominatetherevolutionarymovement.Marxtriedhis handatorganizinganinternationalworkerspartybutmetlimitedsuccess.Butbythe timeofhisdeathin1884,Marxleftamovementwiththousandsoffollowersinmost EuropeancountriesknownastheSocialDemocraticParty,whichwasavigorousand growingfactorinFrenchandGermanpolitics. TheCommunistPartyofRussiawasasubsequentoffshootofthismovement. OthersfollowingintheroadlaidoutbyKarlMarxwouldusehisthoughttojustifythe irondictatorshipoftheSovietUnion,theliquidationofsocialclassesasJosefStalindid duringthe1930sorappallingatrocitiessuchasthe"KillingFields"ofCambodia. Towardstheendofhislife,MarxreadapamphletpurportingtoexplainMarxismaghast atwhatwassaidinhisname,hebrokeoutlaughingandexclaimed,Thankheaven,Iam notaMarxist!

Errors
IsitevennecessarytopointoutthatMarxwaswrong?Fromthepointofviewof anhistorian,itshouldbementionedthatMarxmadethebasicerrorofassumingthat conditionsheobservedduringtheeconomicallytroubleddecadeofthe1840swouldnot, couldnotbealteredinanyfundamentalwaywithoutarevolution.In1867,forexample theyearthatMarxpublishedthefirstvolumeof Capital, theBritishParliamentextended thevotetotheBritishworkingclass.Ifhedidnotforeseethecourseofpoliticalreform, neitherdidheforeseetheconsumersocietyheassumedthatcapitalistswouldbehavein rapaciouswaysatalltimesandinallsituations.InMarxismthereisnoaccountingforan industrialistlikeHenryFord,whograntedhisworkerstheunheardofwageof$5.00per day,because,IfIdontpaythemenoughtobuymycars,whoisgoingtobuythem? (Mazlish,p.117)Infactnosocialistrevolutionofthe20thcenturyhasoccurred accordingtotheMarxistmodelallsuccessfulRevolutionshaveoccurredinrelatively backward,nonindustrializednations.

7 Marxsconceptofclassstruggleishistoricallysuspect,tosaytheleast.Once again,thebasicproblemwithclassstruggleistheuseofananalytictoolappropriatetoa certaintimeperiodasanhistoricaluniversalconcept.Asatheoreticalinsight,Class Struggleislessanacutehistoricalgeneralizationthanaperceptivedescriptionofa contemporarysituation. (Mazlish,p.133) Itisalsoobviousthathedidnottake psychologyintoaccountafterall,therewasnoacademicdisciplineofpsychologyduring hislifetime.Itisnotsurprisingthatsocialpsychologistshavebeenamongthemost determinedcriticsofMarx.AsSigmundFreudputit: [Marxarguesthevery questionablepositionthat]economicmotivesaretheonlyonesthatdeterminethe behaviourofhumanbeingsinsociety. (Mazlish,p.134) Marxwas,inthefamous phraseofJakobBurckhardt,thefirstoftheterriblesimplifiers.Buthisinsights increasinglyseemanachronisticinpostindustrialsociety.Hisanalysisofbourgeoisieand proletariatbearslittlesemblancetomodernsociety.Therearefarmoreyoungpeoplein collegethanworkingforgeneralmotors,theworld'slargestindustrialconcern.Inanage ofcomputers,whatcouldbemorequaintanddatedthanthesymbolofthehammerand sickle? Inthelongrun,theinfluenceofKarlMarxhasbeentocreatesomething resemblingasecularreligion.Generationsofscholarshavechurnedoutthousandsof booksandarticlessubjectingMarxtothemosthairsplittinganalysis.Inthewakeofthe politicalupheavalsofthe1980s,newschoolsofthoughtandnewprophetsseemtobe emergingtoreplaceKarlMarx.PerhapswewillsoonbeabletoletMarxcomedown fromhispedestal.Heshouldberememberedasaremarkablesocialscientistperhapshe shouldbeseenasthemostoriginalandsubtlehistorianofnineteenthcenturysociety.