Components Details

DIODES:-

Fig 3 A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current in only one direction, which is commonly known as semiconductor diode. The most common function of a diode, an electrical current to flow through it in one direction, the forward direction is called the blocking in the opposite direction and in reverse current. This behavior a unidirectional diode rectification called, and is used to convert AC voltage to DC voltage.

CAPACITORS
A capacitor is a passive electronic component, consisting of a pair of conductors separated by an insulator (a dielectric). When a potential difference across the conductors is provided, an electric field in the dielectric is produced. This electric field stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the conductors. The effect is greatest when the separations narrow between large surfaces of the conductor, so that they are often called plates.

Fig 4

The capacitance (single constant value) is the ratio of the electric charge on each plate, the potential difference between them. The capacitance in farads measured. The dielectric between the conductors extending a small amount of leakage current. Capacitors are used in many electronic circuits, in order to block the flow of direct current, while allowing ac pass filter out in order to smooth the output of the power supply, and is used for many other purposes. They are used in resonant circuits in radio frequency equipment.

RESISTORS

Fig 5 A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component, a potential across its terminals which is proportional to the electric current passing through it according to Ohm's law: V = IR Practical resistors of different compounds and a high-ohmic resistance wire alloy films, such as nickel / chromium. The main purpose of the resistance, block the excessive current, the damage to the other components could.

DC MOTORS:-

Fig 6
It is a machine that produces rotation. It is an arrangement of coils and magnets that converts electric current into mechanical rotation. Motors which work on dc current are called DC motors. In robotics applications, they are proffered over AC motors as the motor and the complete circuit requires same kind of supply.i.e DC supply. Easy to control speed. Easy to control torque. Motors having external gear arrangement attached with motor. It has a gear box that increases torque decreases speed. Most commonly used in robotics as they are having considerable torque The dc motor range is from 9-12 v. It requires 1 A current The maximum output it can provide is 100rpm The 100rpm output or full 100 % output is given at 12V

DPDT Switch:
Dual ON-ON Double Pole, Double Throw = DPDT

A pair of on-on switches die together in work A DPDT switch can become connected AS marking a switch engine, as shown in the diagram. A more specialized version of the DPDT switch IS, YOU know that a third shift position, die in the middle, turned IS hat. This can very useful for dying motor control, because man forward ways off and reverse positions. Momentary (ON)-OFF-(ON) are also available where the switch returns to the central off position to keep, if he is released.

Fig 7

IC L293D motor driver

fig 10 L293D is a dual H-bridge motor driver integrated circuit (IC). Motor drivers act as a current amplifier as they assume a low power control signal and a higher power signal. This higher

power

signal

is

used

to

drive

the

motors.

L293D contains two integrated H-bridge driver circuits. In their common operating mode, two DC motors are driven simultaneously, both in the forward and backward directions. The motorized operation of two motors can be controlled by logic input on pins 2 and 7, and 10 & 15th Input logic 00 or 11 stops the appropriate motor. Logic 01 and 10, it will rotate in the clockwise and counterclockwise, respectively.

Enable pins 1 and 9 run (corresponding to the two motors) must be high for motors operating system. If an enable input is high, the corresponding driver is activated. As a result, the outputs are active and working in phase with their inputs. Similarly, when the enable input is low, the driver disabled, and their outputs are off and in the high impedance state.

H-bridge

Fig 11

PIN DIAGRAM

Fig 12

The input minimum given to the pin is 100mA Output pi gets the 600Ma, which channels the motor a current of 1.2mA Pin description
Pin No Various Function Name

1 2 3 4 5 6

Enable pin for Motor 1; active high Input 1 for Motor 1 Output 1 for Motor 1 Ground (0V) Ground (0V) Output 2 for Motor 1

Enable 1,2 Input 1 Output 1 Ground Ground Output 2

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Input 2 for Motor 1 Supply voltage for Motors; 9-12V (up to 36V) Enable pin for Motor 2; active high Input 1 for Motor 1 Output 1 for Motor 1 Ground (0V) Ground (0V) Output 2 for Motor 1 Input2 for Motor 1 Supply voltage; 5V (up to 36V)
Fig 4

Input 2 Vcc 2 Enable 3,4 Input 3 Output 3 Ground Ground Output 4 Input 4 Vcc 1

ATMEGA 8 microcontroller

Fig 14 The input given to the pins is 500mA , which is for the vcc and ground pin The I/O pin is given 200mA PIN DIAGRAM

Fig 15
The low-power Atmel 8-bit AVR RISC-based microcontroller combines 8KB of the programmable flash memory, 1KB of SRAM, 512K EEPROM, along with a 6 or 8 channel 10bit A/D converter. The device supports throughput of 16 MIPS at 16 MHz along with operates involving 2.7-5.5 volts.

Key parameters Parameter Flash (Kbytes)

Value 8 Kbytes

Pin Count Max. Operating Frequency CPU # of Touch Channels Hardware Touch Acquisition Max I/O Pins Ext interrupts USB Speed USB interface

32 16 MHZ 8-bit AVR 12 No 23 2 No No Fig 5

The AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose working registers. All 32 registers are directly connected to the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), allowing two independent registers to be accessed in one single instruction executed in one clock cycle. The resulting architecture is more code efficient while achieving throughputs up to ten times faster than conventional CISC microcontrollers. The ATmega8 provides the following features: 8Kbyte work In-System Programmable Flash with Read-While-Write capabilities, 512 bytes EEPROM, 1 Kbyte SRAM, 23 general purpose I / O lines, 32 general purpose registers, three flexible Timer / counter compare modes, internal and external interrupts, a serious al programmable USART, a byte oriented two-wire serial interface, a 6-channel ADC (eight channels in TQFP and QFN / MLF packages) with 10-bit accuracy, a programmable Watchdog Timer with internal oscillator, an SPI serial port, and five software selectable power saving modes. The Idle mode stops the CPU while you work the SRAM, Timer / Counters, SPI port, and intern upt system further.

The power-down mode saves the register contents but freezes the Oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset. In power saving mode, the asynchronous timer goes to run, allowing the user to maintain a timer base while the rest of the device is in sleep-Ing. The ADC Noise Reduction mode stops the CPU and all I / O modules except asynchronous timer and ADC, to minimize switching noise during ADC conversions. In standby mode, the crystal / resonator Oscillator is running while the rest of the device is sleeping. This allows very fast start-up with low power consumption. The device is using Atmel's high-density nonvolatile memory technology.

The Flash program memory can be programmed in-system through an SPI serial interface, by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer, or by an on-chip boot program. On the AVR core

the boot program can use any interface to download the application program in the Application Flash memory. Software in the Boot Flash Sect ion will continue to run while the Application Flash section is updated, provide ng true Read-While-Write operation. By combining an 8-bit RISC CPU with In-System Self-Programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel ATmega8 is a powerful microcontroller that provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution to many embedded control applications.

The ATmega8 AVR is supported with a complete suite of e program and system development tools including C compilers, macro assemblers, program debugger / simulators, in-circuit emulators, and evaluation kits.

LCD 16 x 2 MATRIX

fig 16 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a wide range of applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is very commonly used in various devices and circuits. These modules are preferred over seven segments and other multi segment LEDs. The reasons being: LCDs are economical; easily programmable; have no limitation of displaying special & even custom characters (unlike in seven segments), Animations and so on.

A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are two such lines. This LCD displays each character in 5x7 pixel matrix. The LCD has two registers, namely Command and Data. The command register stores the instruction given instructions on the LCD. A command is given an instruction to LCD to do a pre-defined task such as initialization, clearing stores its screen, setting the cursor position, controlling the display, etc. The data register; the data are displayed

on the LCD. The data, the ASCII value of the character are displayed on the LCD. Click to learn more about the internal structure of an LCD.

PIN NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Function Ground (0v) Supply voltage 5v (4.7v 5.3v) Contrast adjustment: through a variable resistor Selects command register when low: and data register when high Low to write to the register, high to read from the register Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is given 8-bit data pins

Name Ground Vcc Vee Reviser select Read write Enable Db0 Db1 Db2 Db3 Db4 Db5 Db6 Db7 Led+ Led+

Backlight VCC (5v) Backlight Ground (0v)

Fig 6

Circuit Schematics
1. Proteus 7 It is software for microprocessor simulation, schematic capture and printed circuit board (PCB). It is developed by Lab center Electronics. It is a Virtual System Modeling (VSM), circuit simulation, animated components and microprocessor models to co-simulate the complete microcontroller based designs combined. This is a perfect tool for engineers to test the microcontroller designs before building a physical prototype in real time. This program allows users to interact with the design using on-screen displays and / or LED and LCD displays, and when the PC, switches and buttons mounted. A key component of Proteus 7.0 is the Circuit

Simulation - a product that uses a SPICE3F5 analogue simulator kernel with an event-driven digital simulator that allows users to use a SPICE model from each manufacturer combined. Proteus VSM has extensive debugging facilities including breakpoints, single stepping and variable display for a nice design before hardware prototyping. In summary, Proteus 7.0 is the program to use when you want to simulate the interaction between software on a microcontroller and any analog or digital electronic device connected.

Fig 18 Steps involved : 1. Open ISIS professional 2. Proteus window will open, for components selection click on Component Mode then P i.e. pick from library. 3. Library browser will open, in this type the component name it will appear automatically. One must have to ensure that it is the foot print of PCB, otherwise one have to make it them self double click it and it will be added to the library. 4. To place the component goes to the component mode, click on the component name and single click on drawing area. 5. To rotate the component it has options like anticlockwise and clockwise. 6. To move one has to right click on the component and then click on Drag the object. 7. To wire the component take the pin to one end and then click it at the other end.

8. After the design is completed save it. 9. To burn the program double click on the controller, a window will open click the Program file option and select the hex file and click ok. 10. The simulation is complete.

Transmitter

Fig 19 Receiver

Fig 20 2. Dip Trace It's EDA software for creating schematics and PCBs. The first version of Dip Trace was published in August 2004. The latest version from October 2012 is dip trace version 2.3. The interface and tutorials are multilingual (currently English, German, Czech, Russian, and Turkish). In January 2011, Parallax of Eagle Trace moved to dip for the development of printed circuit boards. To create a simple schematic and PCB's (printed circuit board) with dip trace program. This is a schematic that you will create with dip trace schematic capture module. Steps involved: 1. Open Dip Trace Schematic Capture module, I .e. go to Start then All Programs then click on Dip Trace Schematic.

Fig 50 2. A window will open after clicking on Schematic Capture.

Fig 21

3. Scroll library panel on the right side using arrows in the right side of him or show scroll - bar with small bottom-right arrow and scroll. Choose a library named "Atmel" for the selection of AtMega 8. In our project we are using ATMega8 -16PI (i.e. dip package). 4. Move the cursor to the schematic and left-click once then Atmega 8 is placed on the schematic. Use the right mouse button to disable a placement mode. You can place all other components similar to schematic.

Fig 22 5. For routing the ciruit one can either do it manually or can use Auto router.

Fig 23

Fig 24

AVR Studio 4
The AVR Studio 4 is an integrated development environment for debugging AVR software. The AVR Studio enables chip simulation and in-circuit emulation for AVRmicrocontroller family. The AVR uses the same interface for both simulation and emulation. The user interface is designed for easy to use and give all information to be at a glance.

Steps Involved: 1. The AVR Studio uses the COF object file for the simulation. This file is created by using the C compiler by the COF output file. 2. Launch the AVR Studio by it either by the start menu or by selecting the application icon. Both methods produce the IDE. 3. Once IDE is running, select file open the file either by pull- down open menu or by clicking on the file. 4. After the source file has been opened, the device and debug platform are given. 5. In simulation select the AVR simulator option and make sure that the correct target AVR device selected. Once the correct target selected and AVR microcontroller platform is selected. Click the finish button. 6. The programming is done in the source code window of IDE. The various other main windows of interest are workplace, output and watch windows. 7. The final step is to run the HEX file