Python Tutorial Slides 3

Scientic Python Tutorial
Scientic Python Yann Tambouret

Scientic Computing and Visualization Information Services & Technology Boston University 111 Cummington St. yannpaul@bu.edu
October, 2012
Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)
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This Tutorial
This tutorial is for someone with basic python experience. First I begin with a few intermediate items not covered in basic tutorials. Then Ill provide a brief survey of the scientic packages available, including
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matplotlib - plotting library, like Matlab numpy - fast arrays manipulation scipy - math methods galore. ipython - better interactive python
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Beyond the Basics
Super Scripting
pass pass
is pythons way of saying Keep moving, nothing to see here....
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Beyond the Basics
Super Scripting
pass pass
is pythons way of saying Keep moving, nothing to see here.... Its used for yet unwritten function. If you try to call a function that doesnt exist, you get an error.
Scientic Python
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Beyond the Basics
Super Scripting
pass pass
is pythons way of saying Keep moving, nothing to see here.... Its used for yet unwritten function. If you try to call a function that doesnt exist, you get an error. pass just creates a function that does nothing. Great for planning work!
1 def step1 (): 2 pass 3 step1 () # no error ! 4 step2 () # error , darn !

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV) Scientic Python October 2012 3 / 59
Beyond the Basics
Super Scripting
None
is Pythons formal value for nothing Use this as a default value for a variable, or as a return value when things dont work, and you dont want a catastrophic error.
None
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Beyond the Basics
Super Scripting
None
is Pythons formal value for nothing Use this as a default value for a variable, or as a return value when things dont work, and you dont want a catastrophic error. Test if something is None, to see if you need to handle these special cases
None 1 name = None 2 if name is None : 3 name = Johnny
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Beyond the Basics
Super Scripting
"__main__"
Every module has a name, which is stored in __name__ The script/console that you are running is called "__main__".
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Beyond the Basics
Super Scripting
"__main__"
Every module has a name, which is stored in __name__ The script/console that you are running is called "__main__". Use this to make a le both a module and a script.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 # module greeting . py def hey_there ( name ): print " Hi ! " , name , " ... How s it going ? " hey_there ( Joey ) if __name__ == " __main__ " : hey_there ( Timmy )
python greeting.py
Hi! Timmy ... Hows it going?

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Beyond the Basics
Super Scripting
The Docstring
This is an un-assigned string that is used for documentation. It can be at the top of a le, documenting a script or module or the rst thing inside a function, documenting it.
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Beyond the Basics
Super Scripting
The Docstring
This is an un-assigned string that is used for documentation. It can be at the top of a le, documenting a script or module or the rst thing inside a function, documenting it. This is what help() uses...
1 def dot_product ( v1 , v2 ): 2 """ Perform the dot product of v1 and v2 . 3 4 v1 is a three element vector . 5 v2 is a three element vector . 6 """ 7 sum = 0 # ....
Beyond the Basics
More on Functions
Keyword Arguments
Arguments that have default values. In the function signature, keyword=default_value None is a good default if you want to make a decision
1 def hello ( name = Joe , repeat = None ): 2 if repeat is None : 3 repeat = len ( name ) 4 print Hi ! , name * repeat
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Beyond the Basics
More on Functions
Returning Values
A function can return multiple values. Formally this creates a Tuple - an immutable list
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Beyond the Basics
More on Functions
Returning Values
A function can return multiple values. Formally this creates a Tuple - an immutable list You can collect the returned values as a Tuple, or as individual values.
1 2 3 4 5 def pows ( val ): return val , val * val , val * val * val two , four , eight = pows (2) ones = pows (1) print ones [0] , ones [1] , ones [2] # 1 1 1
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Beyond the Basics
String Formatting
string.format()
Strings can be paired with values to control printing.

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>>> " Hi there {}! " . format ( Yann ) Hi there Yann ! >>> " Coords : {} , {}; " . format ( -1 , 2) Coords : -1 , 2; >>> " {1} , the cost is {0:.2 f } " . format (1125.747025 , Y Yann , the cost is 1125.75
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Beyond the Basics
String Formatting
Keyword arguments to format

Its sometimes tricky to format many values You can name some of the format targets
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 email = """ Subject : { subject } Date : { mon :2 d }/{ day :2 d }/{ year :2 d } Message : { msg } """ print email . format ( mon =10 , year =12 , day =31 , subject = Happy Halloween , msg = Booh )
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Beyond the Basics
String Formatting
Keyword arguments to format result

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 >>> ... ... ... ... >>> ... ... email = " " " Subject : { subject } Date : { mon :2 d }/{ day :2 d }/{ year :2 d } Message : { msg } """ print email . format ( mon =10 , year =12 , day =31 , subject = Happy Halloween , msg = Booh )
Subject : Happy Halloween Date : 10/31/12 Message : Booh
More features at: http://docs.python.org/library/string.html

Beyond the Basics
Files
Basic File Manipulation

You create a le object with open(filename, r for reading, w for writing read() for single string readlines() for a list of lines close() when youre done.
1 outfile = open ( story . txt , w ) 2 outfile . write ( Once upon a time ...\ n ) 3 outfile . close () r)
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Beyond the Basics
Files
csv reader and writer

For reading and writing comma-separated-values csv.reader for reading, csv.writer for writing Dialects option correspond to predened formats excel for excel output without needing to know the separator and quote characters
1 2 3 4 5 reader = csv . reader ( file ) for row in reader : # row is a list writer = csv . writer ( file ) writer . writerow ([1 ,2 ,3])
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Beyond the Basics
Command line arguments
argparse
easy command line arguments
module is the easiest way. You rst create a ArgumentParser object You dene the allowable arguments with the add_argument function You can add required or optional arguments sys.argv is a list of arguments passed to the program/script. Pass this list to parse_args function to process and get an object with your parameters dened.
argparse
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Beyond the Basics
Command line arguments
argparse
example
examples\argparse_ex.py
Look over
1 import sys 2 import argparse 3 p a r s e r = a r g p a r s e . A r g u m e n t P a r s e r ( d e s c r i p t i o n= P l o t z o m b i e s t a t i s t i 4 p a r s e r . a d d a r g u m e n t ( p r e f i x , h e l p= t h e p r e f i x f o r t h e p l o t f i l e n a 5 p a r s e r . a d d a r g u m e n t ( p , d e s t= pop , d e f a u l t =500 , t y p e=i n t , 6 h e l p= S e t t h e s t a r t r i n g p o p u l a t i o n ) 7 p a r s e r . a d d a r g u m e n t ( s , d e s t= show , 8 h e l p= Show t h e f i g u r e , a c t i o n= s t o r e t r u e ) 9 p a r s e r . a d d a r g u m e n t ( c i t y , h e l p= P l o t i n f o r m a t i o n f o r a s p e c i f i c 10 n a r g s= ? , d e f a u l t=None ) 11 12 a r g s = s y s . a r g v [ 1 : ] 13 params = p a r s e r . p a r s e a r g s ( a r g s ) 14 15 p r i n t p r e f i x = , params . p r e f i x 16 p r i n t pop = , params . pop 17 i f params . c i t y i s n o t None : 18 p r i n t c i t y = , params . c i t y 19 p r i n t show ? 20 i f params . show : Yann (SCV) Scientic Python October 2012 15 / 59 21 - yannpaul@bu.edu print y es !
Beyond the Basics
External Programs
subprocess
running external programs
1 import subprocess 2 output = subprocess . call ([ ls , -1 ]) 3 print " output = " , output
provides many tools The most basic is the call function. It takes a list that is joined and executed. output just holds the exit code (0 if successful) check_output is like call but 1) returns output and 2) causes an error if program fails
subprocess
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Scientic Python
matplotlib
Plotting in scripts
is a package that has many modules, pyplot is the main driver. matplotlib is designed for both interactive and script-based use. a Figure can contain many Axess which contain many plots. pyplot allows you to access a default Figure and Axes.
matplotlib
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Scientic Python
matplotlib
Basic Example
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 from matplotlib import pyplot pyplot . plot ([0 , 2 , 4 , 8 , 16 , 32] , " o " ) pyplot . ylabel ( " Value " ) pyplot . xlabel ( " Time " ) pyplot . title ( " Test plot " ) pyplot . show ()
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Scientic Python
matplotlib
Basic Plot - Results
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Scientic Python
matplotlib
World Population - Practice 1

practice/world_population.py
3 def get_data (): 4 data = file ( " w o r l d _ p o p u l a t i o n . txt " , " r " ). readlines () 5 dates = [] 6 populations = [] 7 for point in data : 8 date , population = point . split () 9 dates . append ( date ) 10 populations . append ( population ) 11 return dates , populations
We read in the data
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Scientic Python
matplotlib

1 2
We read in the data For each line (point) we need to separate the date from population
Scientic Python
matplotlib

1 2
We read in the data For each line (point) we need to separate the date from population split() splits text at any whitespace, by default.
Scientic Python
matplotlib

13 14 15 16 17 18 def plot_world_pop ( dates , populations ): pass dates , populations = get_data () plot_world_pop ( dates , populations ) pyplot . show ()
Finish this method: 1 Make a plot of population (y) vs dates (x) 2 Title: World population over time 3 Y-axis: World population in millions 4 X-axis: Year 5 Set the plot type to a Magenta, downward-triangle
Scientic Python
matplotlib
World Population - Getting Help

http://matplotlib.sourceforge.net/ Quick Search for pyplot.plot matplotlib.pyplot.plot http://matplotlib.sourceforge.net/api/pyplot_api.html#matplotlib.pyplot.plot
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Scientic Python
matplotlib
World Population - Final
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Scientic Python
matplotlib
Life Expectancy - Practice 1

practice/life_expectacies_usa.py
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 from matplotlib import pyplot def get_data (): # each line : year , men , women data = file ( " l i f e _ e x p e c t a n c i e s _ u s a . txt " , " r " ). readlines () dates = [] men = [] women = [] # finish me ! return dates , men , women def p l o t _ e x p e c t a n c i e s ( dates , men , women ): pass dates , men , women = get_data () p l o t _ e x p e c t a n c i e s ( dates , men , women ) pyplot . show ()
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Scientic Python
matplotlib
Life Expectancy - Practice 2

1 2 3 4 5
Use split(,) to split strings at commas Add a label to each plot (look at documentation) Label Axes and give a title. Call plot 2x to plot two lines Add a legend: pyplot.legend http://matplotlib.sourceforge.net search for pyplot.legend
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Scientic Python
matplotlib
Life Expectancy - Results
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Scientic Python
matplotlib
Plotting Interactively
1
Home - Backward Foward - Control edit history
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Scientic Python
matplotlib
1
Home - Backward Foward - Control edit history Pan - Zoom - Left click + drag shifts center, right click + drag changes zoom
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Scientic Python
matplotlib
1
Home - Backward Foward - Control edit history Pan - Zoom - Left click + drag shifts center, right click + drag changes zoom Zoom - Select zoom region
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Scientic Python
matplotlib
1
3 4
Home - Backward Foward - Control edit history Pan - Zoom - Left click + drag shifts center, right click + drag changes zoom Zoom - Select zoom region Save
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Scientic Python
matplotlib
1
3 4
Home - Backward Foward - Control edit history Pan - Zoom - Left click + drag shifts center, right click + drag changes zoom Zoom - Select zoom region Save
pyplot.savefig(filename)
is an alternative to pyplot.show() when you are using pyplot non-interactively.
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Scientic Python
matplotlib
Matplotlib Resources
Possibilities: matplotlib.sourceforge.net/gallery.html http://matplotlib.org/basemap/users/ examples.html Guide/Tutorial: matplotlib.sourceforge.net/users/index. html Questions: stackoverflow.com Or contact us: scv@bu.edu Source for tutorial: openhatch.org/wiki/Matplotlib
Scientic Python
numpy
Array Creation
By convention:
import numpy as np
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Scientic Python
numpy
Array Creation
By convention:
import numpy as np x = np.array([1,2,3], int);
x is a Numpy array x is like a list, but certain operations are much faster
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Scientic Python
numpy
Array Creation
By convention:
x is a Numpy array x is like a list, but certain operations are much faster A = np.array(((1,0,0), (0, 0, -1), (0, 1, 0))) is a 2D array
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Scientic Python
numpy
Array Creation
By convention:
x is a Numpy array x is like a list, but certain operations are much faster A = np.array(((1,0,0), (0, 0, -1), (0, 1, 0))) is a 2D array np.ones(5) makes array([ 1., 1., 1., 1., 1.]) np.zeros or np.arange, what do they do?
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Scientic Python
numpy
Array Creation
By convention:
x is a Numpy array x is like a list, but certain operations are much faster A = np.array(((1,0,0), (0, 0, -1), (0, 1, 0))) is a 2D array np.ones(5) makes array([ 1., 1., 1., 1., 1.]) np.zeros or np.arange, what do they do? np.linspace is similar to np.arange but pass number of elements, not step size
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Scientic Python
numpy
Array Basics
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 import numpy as np x = np . array (((1 , 2 , 3) , (4 , 5 , 6))) x . size # total number of elements x . ndim # number of dimensions x . shape # number of elements in each dimension x [1 ,2] # first index is the rows , then the column x [1] # give me 1 row x [1][2] x . dtype
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Scientic Python
numpy
Array Basics - Results

4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 >>> import numpy as np >>> x = np . array (((1 , 2 , 3) , (4 , 5 , 6))) >>> x . size # total number of elements 6 >>> x . ndim # number of dimensions 2 >>> x . shape # number of elements in each dimension (2 L , 3 L ) >>> x [1 ,2] # first index is the rows , then the column 6 >>> x [1] # give me 1 row array ([4 , 5 , 6]) >>> x [1][2] 6 >>> x . dtype dtype ( int32 )
Scientic Python
numpy
Basic Operations
14 x = np . array ([0 , np . pi /4 , np . pi /2]) 15 np . sin ( x ) 16 np . dot ([2 , 2 , 2] , [2 , 2 , 2])
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Scientic Python
numpy
Basic Operations
14 x = np . array ([0 , np . pi /4 , np . pi /2]) 15 np . sin ( x ) 16 np . dot ([2 , 2 , 2] , [2 , 2 , 2]) 22 23 24 25 26 >>> x = np . array ([0 , np . pi /4 , np . pi /2]) >>> np . sin ( x ) array ([ 0. , 0.70710678 , 1. >>> np . dot ([2 , 2 , 2] , [2 , 2 , 2]) 12
])
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Scientic Python
numpy
Solve Laplaces Equation 1a

Solve 2 u = 0
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Scientic Python
numpy

Solve 2 u = 0 Solve iteratively, each time changing u with following equation: n+1 n+1 n n ujn,+1 l = 1/4(uj +1,l + uj 1,l + uj ,l +1 + uj ,l 1 ) Just an averages of the neighboring points.
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Scientic Python
numpy

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Scientic Python
numpy
Solve Laplaces Equation 1b

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Scientic Python
numpy
Solve Laplaces Equation 1c

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Scientic Python
numpy
Solve Laplaces Equation 1d

Solve 2 u = 0 Solve iteratively, each time changing u with following equation: n+1 n+1 n n ujn,+1 l = 1/4(uj +1,l + uj 1,l + uj ,l +1 + uj ,l 1 ) Just an average of the neighboring points. Repeat this calculation until rms (u n+1 u n ) < , some threshold Set some limit on total number of iterations practice/laplace.py
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Scientic Python
numpy
Solve Laplaces Equation 2

First task:
19 def pu r e _ p y t h o n _ s t e p ( u ): 20 Pure python imple mentati on of Gauss - Siedel method . Performs 21 iteration . 22 rms_err = 0 23 # use for loop to loop through each element in u 24 # temporarily store old value to later calculate rms_err 25 # update current u using 4 point averaging 26 # update running value of rms_err 27 # when done looping complete rms_err calculation and return it 28 return rms_err
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Scientic Python
numpy
Slicing - 1
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 x = np . array ((1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6)) x [2] x [2:5] x [2: -1] x [:5] x [:5:2] = 10 x
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Scientic Python
numpy
Slicing - 2
29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 >>> x = np . array ((1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6)) >>> x [2] 3 >>> x [2:5] array ([3 , 4 , 5]) >>> x [2: -1] array ([3 , 4 , 5]) >>> x [:5] array ([1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5]) >>> x [:5:2] = 10 >>> x array ([10 , 2 , 10 , 4 , 10 , 6])
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Scientic Python
numpy
Array Copying
43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 >>> a = np . array ((1 ,2 ,3 ,4)) >>> b = a >>> b is a True >>> c = a . view () >>> c . shape = 2 ,2 >>> c [1 ,1]=10 >>> c array ([[ 1 , 2] , [ 3 , 10]]) >>> a array ([ 1 , 2 , 3 , 10]) >>> d = a . copy ()
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Scientic Python
numpy
Scientic Python
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Scientic Python
numpy
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Scientic Python
numpy
Solve Laplaces Equation 3c
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Scientic Python
numpy
Solve Laplaces Equation 3d

Second task:
35 def numpy_step ( u ): 36 Numpy based Jacobi s method . Performs one iteration . 37 # make a copy so that you can calculate the error 38 u_old = u . copy () 39 # use slicing to shift array 40 # utmp = u [1: -1 , 1: -1] makes a new array , so that utmp [0 ,0] is 41 # as u [1 ,1] 42 # then 43 # utmp = u [0: -2 , 1: -1] makes a new array that leads to a shift 44 # because utmp [0 ,0] is the same as u [0 , 1] 45 # use this concept to solve this equation in on line 46 # u = 1/4*( u_ {j -1 , i } + u_ { j +1 , i } + u_ {j , i -1} + u_ {j , i +1}) 47 return calc_err (u , u_old )
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Scientic Python
numpy

Third task:
4 def laplace _driver (u , stepper , maxit =100 , err =1 e3 ): 5 Repeatedly call stepper ( u ) to solve nabla ^2 u = 0 until 6 rms error < err or maxit number of iterations is reached . 7 8 u - a numpy array 9 stepper - a function whose sole argument is u 10 11 rms_err = 0 12 # take one step with stepper , to define initial rms_err 13 # loop until rms_err < err 14 # check to see that number of iterations is less than maxi 15 # perform single iteration using stepper method 16 # return rms_error 17 return rms_err
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Scientic Python
numpy
59 def time_method ( stepper ): 60 Time how long a particular stepper takes to solve an ideal 61 u = set_bc ( np . zeros ((100 ,100))) 62 start = time . time () 63 err = la place_dr iver (u , stepper ) 64 return time . time () - start 65 66 if __name__ == " __main__ " : 67 p u r e _ p y t h o n _ t i m e = time_method ( p u r e _ p y t h o n _ s t e p ) 68 numpy_time = time_method ( numpy_step ) 69 print " Pure python method takes {:.3 f } seconds " . format ( p u r e _ p y 70 print " Numpy method takes {.3 f } seconds " . format ( numpy_time )
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Scientic Python
numpy
Solve Laplaces Results

1 Pure python method takes 3.624 seconds 2 Numpy method takes 0.016 seconds
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Scientic Python
numpy
Plenty More
www.scipy.org/Tentative_NumPy_Tutorial Universal Functions section PyTrieste Numpy Tutorial
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Scientic Python
scipy
scipy: Many Useful Scientic Tools

http://docs.scipy.org/doc/scipy/reference/ tutorial/index.html Numpy Integration Optimization Interpolation FFT Linear Algebra Statistics And much more....
Scientic Python
scipy
Constants
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 >>> from scipy import constants >>> constants . c # speed of light 299792458.0 >>> # physical constants : value , units , uncertainty >>> constants . p hy si ca l_ co ns ta nt s [ " electron mass " ] (9.10938291 e -31 , kg , 4e -38) >>> # look - up constants , only first 3 ! >>> masses = constants . find ( " mass " )[:3] >>> for val in masses : ... print " {} is available " . format ( val ) ... Planck mass is available Planck mass energy equivalent in GeV is available alpha particle mass is available
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Scientic Python
scipy
Zombie Apocalypse - ODEINT

http://www.scipy.org/Cookbook/Zombie_ Apocalypse_ODEINT
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Scientic Python
scipy
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Scientic Python
scipy

Look at
examples\zombie.py 5 def calc_rate ( P =0 , d =0.0001 , B =0.0095 , G =0.0001 , A =0. 6 def f (y , t ): 7 Si = y [0] 8 Zi = y [1] 9 Ri = y [2] 10 # the model equations ( see Munz et al . 2009) 11 f0 = P - B * Si * Zi - d * Si 12 f1 = B * Si * Zi + G * Ri - A * Si * Zi 13 f2 = d * Si + A * Si * Zi - G * Ri 14 return [ f0 , f1 , f2 ] 15 Z0 = 0 # initial zombie populati 16 R0 = 0 # initial death populatio 17 y0 = [ S0 , Z0 , R0 ] # initial condition vecto 18 t = np . linspace (0 , 5. , 1000) # time grid 19 # solve the DEs 20 soln = odeint (f , y0 , t )
Scientic Python
ipython
ipython (1) - plotting

Amazing interactive python. Using the -pylab ag, you can get plotting for free
1 % ipython - pylab 2 ... 3 In [1]: plot ( range (10))
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Scientic Python
ipython
ipython (2) - Magic Functions

Amazing interactive python. It provids Magic functions: cd - like unix change directory ls - list directory timeit - time execution of statement and so on ...
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Scientic Python
ipython
ipython (3) - Logging

Amazing interactive python. You can log an interactive session:
1 In [1]: logstart mylogfile . py
Everything you type will be recorded to mylogle.py To re-run it in ipython, us the run command:
1 In [1]: run -i mylogfile . py
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Scientic Python
ipython
ipython (4) - Misc.

Amazing interactive python. You can use ? instead of help(). In [1]: len? and Enter will print help In fact you get even more information than the standard help() Tab-completion Start typing a mtehod, and pop-up help is shown You need a newer version than Katanas, and you need to type ipython qtconsole
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Conclusion
Resources
SCV help site Numpy Tutorial Scipy tutorial Scientic Python Tutorial Another Scientic Python Tutorial iPython Tutorial
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Conclusion
What I Didnt Cover

Exception Handling Duck Typing Virtualenv Pandas mpi4py And many other useful things
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Scientic Python Tutorial

Scientic Python Yann Tambouret

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

Beyond the Basics

is pythons way of saying Keep moving, nothing to see here....

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

Beyond the Basics

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

Beyond the Basics

1 def step1 (): 2 pass 3 step1 () # no error ! 4 step2 () # error , darn !

Beyond the Basics

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

Beyond the Basics

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

Beyond the Basics

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

Beyond the Basics

Hi! Timmy ... Hows it going?

Beyond the Basics

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

Beyond the Basics

Beyond the Basics

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

Beyond the Basics

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

Beyond the Basics

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

Beyond the Basics

Strings can be paired with values to control printing.

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

Beyond the Basics

Keyword arguments to format

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

Beyond the Basics

Keyword arguments to format result

Subject : Happy Halloween Date : 10/31/12 Message : Booh

More features at: http://docs.python.org/library/string.html

Beyond the Basics

Basic File Manipulation

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

Beyond the Basics

csv reader and writer

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

Beyond the Basics

Command line arguments

easy command line arguments

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

Beyond the Basics

Command line arguments

Beyond the Basics

running external programs

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

Basic Plot - Results

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

World Population - Practice 1

We read in the data

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

World Population - Practice 1

Yann - yannpaul@bu.edu (SCV)

World Population - Practice 1