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By Kissa R. Alunga
Abstract
Of recent, biocatalytic production of aroma compounds has rapidly gained momentum. Natural flavours belong to many different structural classes and their industrial production has been of great challenge to academic and research scientists. Here, an overview of the potential offered by biocatalysis for the synthesis of natural odorants, highlighting relevant biotransformations using enzymes. The examples of industrial processes based on biocatalytic methods are discussed, their advantages over classical chemical synthesis is also highlighted. Lastly the challenges facing the biocatalytic production are expounded upon. Key words; Enzyme catalysis; Flavour production; Bioreduction; Ehrlich pathway; Biotransformation; Esterification.
Contents
Abstract................................................................................................................................................... 1 1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 3 2. History of enzyme catalysis for flavour production .............................................................................. 3 3. Advantages of biocatalysis over conventional chemical synthesis. ........................................................ 4 4. Examples of enzyme catalysis for flavour production ........................................................................... 5 4.1 Ehrlich pathway: the route for 2-phenylethanol (2-pe) production .................................................. 5 4.2 Rose oxide biosynthesis using Chloroperoxidase (CPO) ................................................................. 8 4.3 Production of Flavours via Bioreduction ........................................................................................ 9 4.4 Esterification by lipase ................................................................................................................. 11 5. Challenges ......................................................................................................................................... 13 5.1 Low yield and high costs of production ........................................................................................ 13 5.2 Toxicity of the substrate and products .......................................................................................... 13 5.3 Enzymes deactivation .................................................................................................................. 13 5.4 Other challenges .......................................................................................................................... 14 6. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 15 7. References ......................................................................................................................................... 16
1. Introduction
Flavours and fragrances are more the same playing a similar role because of their volatile odor characteristic. They are natural and vital ingredients of most essential oils which play an important role in the food, beverage, perfume and pharmaceutical industries among others [3, 6]. Because natural flavours are obtained from natural raw materials using microorganism, are regarded as safer over chemically synthesized ones [6]. The US and European laws have marked them natural flavo urs because they are obtained naturally using living cells and that makes them have a market advantage over the non-natural flavours [6, 7]. The high demand for natural flavours and fragrances is the reason for the upsurge of the number of research scientists currently studying and developing biocatalysts for producing these molecules. Thus, the microbial and enzymatic biotransformation of some substances such as monoterpenoids, in particular a few ketones and aldehydes (e.g., carvone, menthol, citronellol, myrtenal and geraniol) into highly valuable flavouring derivatives is becoming of increasing interest because of their economic potential for the perfume, soap, food, and beverage industries[6].
Back in the days, the microbiologists concentrated on screening microorganisms and the aroma compounds generated. Contemporary microbiological techniques including genetic engineering are now increasingly applied to enhance efficiency of the biocatalysts. According to Perfumer & Flavourist magazine, the flavours and fragrance industry was worth US$20.3 billion in 2009 (estimate may vary from other sources), of which the lions share is flavours. There is a significant amount of natural volatiles available but a few have been manufactured on a scale greater than 1 ton per annum. Bioprocesses for volatile compounds have emerged only recently. Technical scale processes are operating for some aliphatic alkenols and carbonyls, carboxylic and benzoic esters including lactones, vanillin and certain specialities.
Fig.1 Ehrlich pathway for 2-PE production from L-Phe [D. Hua et al, 2011]
To address the challenge of low product yield, scientists have come up with techniques such as the ISPR (in situ product-removal) techniques which are effective and promising methods. This technique has been applied in the production of 2-PE production from L-Phe as may be explained below. ISPR techniques, which are the continuous in-situ removal of product from reaction system, are widely used. These techniques include two-phase extraction, adsorption and solvent immobilization these methods maintain the product concentration around cells below an inhibitory level, and the strains are able to continue the production of target product.
To illustrate one of the techniques applied; two phase extraction, using aqueous organic twophase extraction in 2-PE production from L-Phe. Biotransformation of LPhe to 2-PE is carried out in the aqueous phase. The produced 2-PE is continuously extracted into the organic phase as may be illustrated in the figure 2
If successful high yield of 2-PE is achieved, them more valuable aromatic compounds can also be achieved highly. 2-PE is used as a substrate for the synthesis of other aroma compounds such as phenylethyl acetate (scheme 1).
Scheme 1, Biotransformation of 2-PE to other valuable chemicals (D. Hua et al, 2011). 7
Scheme 2, Chloroperoxidase-catalyzed formation of the diastereomeric bromohydrins 2a/2b from (R)-citronellol (R)-1 and conversion of 2a/2b to the corresponding epoxides 3a/3b or to rose oxide 6 via the diols 4 and 5; DMSO, dimethyl sulfoxide; t-BuOK: potassium tert-butylate [2].
Carvone is an important element; their dihydrocarveols are valuable ingredients currently applicable in the flavour and fragrance industry. The biotransformations of the ,-unsaturated ketone (4R)-()-carvone (1) catalyzed by wholecells of NCYs in aqueous media were investigated. The possible reaction pathway is illustrated in Scheme 3. According to the proposed scheme, the biotransformation resulted in the reduction of the ,unsaturated C=C bond of the cyclic ketone, catalyzed by ene-reductases (ERs) associated to the yeast cells, to give two dihydrocarvones 2a,b. The ER-catalysed reduction was thus followed by the subsequent reduction of the carbonyl group of both dihydrocarvone isomers, catalyzed by carbonyl reductases (CRs), which determined the formation of a mixture of four dihydrocarveols 3ad.
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bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl) imide ([C16tma][NTf2], see Fig. 3B) as a switchable ionic liquid/solid phase, used for the reaction and subsequent product separation by centrifugation .
Fig. 3 (A) Flavour esters synthesized by lipase-catalyzed esterification. (B) The IL [C16tma][[NTf2], as an example of switchable ionic liquid/solid phase.
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Fig 3B. Scheme of the cyclic protocol for the production of flavor esters by lipase-catalyzed direct
esterification in switchable ionic liquid/solid phases, and reusing the enzyme/IL system.
In summary, The ability of hydrophobic ILs based on long alkyl side chains in cations (e.g. [C16tma][NTf2]) to melt at temperatures compatible with enzyme catalysis (e.g. lower than 80 C) permitted development of a two-step protocol for flavour ester production: (i) lipase catalyzed direct esterification between an aliphatic acid and a flavour alcohol with a product yield close to 100%, and (ii) clean separation of the reaction product by a cooling/centrifugation method [4].
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5. Challenges
5.1 Low yield and high costs of production
The problem facing the biocatalysis processes is the low yields of the products and high costs associated to separation and purification of the isolated enzymes; this renders it truly uncompetitive with the conventional chemical synthesis [6, 7]. An example to illustrate this challenge, synthesis of these aroma compounds has been restricted in food, beverages, and cosmetics for instance natural 2-PE can be extracted from the essential oils of certain flowers (e.g. rose flowers) [6]. However, the concentration of 2-PE in flowers is very low, and the extraction process is therefore complicated and costly. The harvest of flowers is also influenced by weather conditions; therefore, natural 2-PE from botanical sources cannot meet the large market demands and is significantly more expensive than its chemically produced counterpart.
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Table 1
Table 2
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6. Conclusion
Because of the ever-growing demands for natural products in the world market, flavour production by biocatalysis has become the focus of extensive research and the ever-increasing reports on biochemical pathways, genetic modifications, and metabolic engineering will be useful to further improve the yield of the target product. Well-established biocatalytic processes have been described both to point out their actual performance in the flavour production industry. The new outstanding production techniques offered by biocatalysis have been illustrated by description of some methods of industrial and academic interest with particular attention to the legal differentiation of flavours. New strategies for natural flavour biogeneration will take advantage of the current studies on biotechnology, biochemical pathways and microbiology and the preference of consumers for natural compounds will support their production. The production of natural flavours using biocatalysis will enhance the future prospects offered by chemical syntheses rather than compete with them. In this field, the most promising biocatalysts are certainly lipases because of their versatility and selectivity. Lastly but not the least, future research should focus on process scale-up and product recovery for industrialization. It is important to scale up the production process from flask to industrial application.
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7. References
[1] A-L Groussin, S. Antoniotti, Valuable chemicals by the enzymatic modification of molecules of natural origin:Terpenoids, steroids, phenolics and related compounds. Bioresource Technology 115 (2012) 237243 [2] U. Piantini, J. Schrader, A. Wawrzun, M. Wst, A biocatalytic route towards rose oxide using Chloroperoxidase. Food Chemistry 129 (2011) 10251029 [3] Zi Jin, J. Ntwali, Shuang-Yan Han, S. Zheng, Y. Lin, Production of flavor esters catalyzed by CALBdisplaying Pichia pastoris whole-cells in a batch reactor. J. Biotechnology 159 (2012) 108 114
[4] P. Lozano, J. M. Bernal and A. Navarro, A clean enzymatic process for producing flavour esters by
direct esterification in switchable ionic liquid/solid phases. Green Chem., 2012, 14, 3026 [5] D. Hua, Ping Xu, Recent advances in biotechnological production of 2-phenylethanol Biotechnol. Advances 29 (2011) 654660.
[6] M. Goretti, B. Turchetti, M. R. Cramarossa, L. Forti and P. Buzzini, Production of Flavours and
Fragrances via Bioreduction of (4R)-(-)-Carvone and (1R)-(-)-Myrtenal by Non-Conventional Yeast Whole-Cells. Molecules 2013, 18, 5736-5748
[7] C. Gavira, R. Hfer, Agns Lesot , F. Lambert, J. Zucca, D. Werck-Reichhart,
Challenges and pitfalls of P450-dependent ()-valencene bioconversion by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Metabolic Engineering 18 (2013) 2535. [8] M. J. Fink, F. Rudroff, M. D. Mihovilovic, Baeyer Villiger monooxygenases in aroma compound synthesis. Bio-organic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters 21 (2011) 61356138. [9] Carla C.C.R. de Carvalho, Enzymatic and whole cell catalysis: Finding new strategies for old processes. Biotechnology Advances 29 (2011) 7583 [10] O. Bortolini, P. P. Giovanninia, S. Maiettib, A. Massia, P. Pedrinib, G. Sacchettib, V. Venturib, An enzymatic approach to the synthesis of optically pure (3R)- and (3S)-enantiomers of green tea flavour compound 3-hydroxy-3-methylnonane-2,4-dione. J. Molecular Catalysis B: Enzymatic 85 86 (2013) 93 98
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