Proving Implication

p q T T T F F T F F pq T F T T

The truth table for prevents p and q to be true together. To prove p q is to show that a) q can be derived by p (meaning), or b) q and p can be true together (truth-value). For the case where p is false, we do not need to do anything since p q is true anyway.

Universal Generalization
To show X p(X) is by choosing an arbitrary c and showing that p(c) is true without using any special property of being c.

Definition The integer n is even if there exists an integer k such that n = 2k and it is odd if there exists an integer k such that n = 2k+1 (Note that an integer is either even or odd) Example1 Give a direct proof of theorem If n is odd, then n2 is odd. Solution: Assume that the hypothesis of this implication is true, namely, suppose that n is odd. Then n = 2k + 1, where k is an integer. It follows that n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k2 + 4k +1 = 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1.Therefore, n2 is odd (it is 1 more than twice an integer).

Example2 Give an indirect proof of the theorem If 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd. Solution: Assume that the conclusion of this implication is false; namely, assume that n is even. Then n = 2k for some integer k. It follows that 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2 = 6k + 2 = 2(3k + 1), so 3n + 2 is even (since it is a multiple of 2). Since the negation of the conclusion of the implication implies that the hypothesis is false, the original implication is true.

Proof by Case Analysis To prove an implication of the form (p1 p2 pn) q is to show that p1 q p2 q . . . pn q (case n), due to [(p1 p2 pn) q] (case 1), and (case 2), and

[(p1 q) (p2 q) ... pn q)]

Definition a mod m means the remainder when a is divided by m Example3 17 mod 5 = 2 Definition a b (mod n) iff a mod m = b mod n Example4 17 5 (mod 6) Definition If r = a mod n then (n * k) + r = a for some integer k

Example5 Prove the implication If n is an integer not divisible by 3, then n2 1 (mod 3). Solution: It is to show that n 1 (mod 3) n 2 (mod 3) n2 1 (mod 3) by showing case1: n 1 (mod 3) n2 1 (mod 3) case2: n 2 (mod 3) n2 1 (mod 3) Let p be the proposition n is not divisible by 3, and let q be the proposition n2 1 (mod 3) Then p is equivalent to p1 p2 where p1 is n

1 (mod 3) and p2 is n 2 (mod 3)Hence, to show that p q it can be

shown that p1 q and p2 q. It is easy to give direct proofs of these two implications. First, suppose p1 that is true. Then n 1 (mod 3), so that n = 3k + 1 for some integer k. Thus, n2 = 9k2 + 6k + 1 = 3(3k2 + 2k) + 1. It follows that n2 1 (mod 3). Hence, the implication p1 q is true. Next, suppose that p2 is true. Then n 2 (mod 3), so that n = 3k + 2 for some integer k. Thus, n2 = 9k2 + 12k + 4 = 3(3k2 + 4k + 1) + 1. Hence, n2 1 (mod 3), so the implication p2 q is true. Since it has been shown that both p1 q are p2 q true, it can be concluded that (p1 p2) q is true. Moreover, since p is equivalent to p1

p2 , it follows p q that is true.

Example6 Give a proof by a contradiction of the theorem If 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd. Solution: We assume that 3n + 2 is odd and that n is not odd, so that n is even. Following the same step as in Example2 (an indirect proof of this theorem), we can show that if n is even, then 3n + 2 is even. This contradicts the assumption that 3n + 2 is odd, completing the proof

Example7 Use mathematical induction to prove the inequality n < 2n For all positive integers n. Solution: Let P(n) be the proposition n < 2n. BASIS STEP: P(1) is true, since 1 < 21 = 2. INDUCTIVE STEP: Assume that P(n) is true for the positive integer n. That is, assume that n < 2n. We need to show that P(n + 1) is true. That is, we need to show that n + 1 < 2n+1. Adding 1 to both sides of n < 2n, and then noting that 1 2n, gives n < 2n n + 1 < 2n +1 2n + 2n = 2n+1 Thus, n + 1 < 2n+1 (By inductive hypothesis) (By arithmetic)

We have shown that P(n+1) is true, namely, that n + 1 < 2n+1, based on the assumption that P(n) is true. The induction step is complete. Therefore, by the principle of mathematical induction, it has been shown that n < 2n is true for all positive integers n.

Example8 Use mathematical induction to prove that n3 n is divisible by 3 whenever n is a positive integer. Solution: To construct the proof, let P(n) denote the proposition: n3 n is divisible by 3. BASIS STEP: P(1) is true, since 13 1 = 0 is divisible by 3. INDUCTIVE STEP: Assume that P(n) is true; that is, n3 n is divisible by 3. We must show that P(n + 1) is true. That is, we must show that (n + 1)3 (n + 1) is divisible by 3. Note that (n + 1)3 (n + 1) = (n3 + 3n2 + 3n + 1) (n + 1) = (n 3 n)+ 3(n2 + n) Clearly, (n 3 n)+ 3(n2 + n) is divisible by 3.

Since both terms in this sum are divisible by 3 (the first by the assumption of the inductive step, and the second because it is 3 times an integer), it follows that (n + 1)3 (n + 1)is also divisible by 3. This completes the induction step. Thus, by the principle of mathematical induction, n3 n is divisible by 3 whenever n is a positive integer.

Example9 Use mathematical induction to show that 1 + 2 + 22 + + 2n = 2n+1 1 for all nonnegative integers n. Solution: Let P(n) be the proposition that this formula is correct for the integer n. BASIS STEP: P(0) is true since 20 = 1 = 21 1 INDUCTIVE STEP: Assume that P(n) is true. To carry out the inductive step using this assumption, it must be shown that P(n + 1) is true, namely, 1 + 2 + 22 + + 2n + 2n+1 = 2( n + 1) +1 1 = 2( n +2) 1. Using the inductive hypothesis P(n), it follows that 1 + 2 + 22 + + 2n + 2n+1 = (1 + 2 + 22 + + 2n) + 2n+1 = (2n + 1 1) + 2 n +1 (by inductive hyp) = 2(2 n + 1) 1 = 2( n +2) 1. which is P(n+1)

This finishes the inductive step, which completes the proof.

Example10 Use mathematical induction to prove that 2 n < n! for every positive integer n with n 4 Solution: Let P(n) be the proposition that 2 n < n!. BASIS STEP: To prove this inequality for n 4 requires that the basis step be P(4). Note that P(4) is true, since 2 4 = 16 < 4! = 24. INDUCTIVE STEP: Assume that P(n) is true. That is, assume that 2 n < n!. We must show that P(n + 1) is true. That is, we must show that 2 n+1 < (n + 1)!. Multiplying both sides of the inequality 2 n < n! by 2, it follows that 2(2 n) < 2(n!) < (n + 1)!. This shows that P(n + 1) is true when P(n) is true. This completes the inductive step of the proof. Hence, it follows that 2 n < n! is true for all integers n with n 4.

(by inductive hypothesis)

< (n + 1)(n!) (since n 4)

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