GIS: Tool or Science? Demystifying the Persistent Ambiguity of GIS as "Tool" Versus "Science" Author(s): Dawn J.

Wright, Michael F. Goodchild, James D. Proctor Reviewed work(s): Source: Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Vol. 87, No. 2 (Jun., 1997), pp. 346-362 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of the Association of American Geographers Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2564374 . Accessed: 09/03/2012 14:44
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GIS: Tool or Science?

the Persistent of GIS as "Tool" Demystifying Ambiguity versus"Science"9
D. Proctor*** DawnJ.Wright,* MichaelF Goodchild,** andJames
ofGeosciences, StateUniversity *Department Oregon andAnalysis, ofGeography andNational Center for Information **Department Geographic ofCalifornia, SantaBarbara University ofGeography, ofCalifornia, SantaBarbara ***Department University in theday-to-day Is GIS a toolora science? The question is clearly important operations of ifGIS is a tool needtoknow that should be taught at the geography departments. Departments undergraduate level, ora science andthus a legitimate research specialty offaculty andgraduate students. Wesummarize thedebate on this that wasconducted on GIS-Lelectronic question inlate1993. listserver Inevaluating this discussion itbecame clear that beunderstood GIS could a notbythetwo distinct positions taken bytheGIS-Ldiscussants butas three positions along continuum from tool toscience. These attach several to"doing GIS." ranging positions meanings These are(1) GIS as tool, i.e.,theuseofa particular class ofsoftware, associated hardware tools, anddigital datainorder toadvance some geographic specific purpose; (2) GISas toolmaking, i.e., theadvancement ofthetool's andfacilities ofGIS, capabilities (easeofuse);and(3) thescience ofthe fundamental issues raised the useofGIS.Recognizing the of i.e.,the analysis by importance is meant is meant understanding what by"doing science" as wellas what by"doing GIS,"we conclude that oneofthese science ofGIS"-is a sufficient condition for only positions-"the science. The"toolmaker" israrely abletomeet the test ofscience; andthe "GISisa tool" position if ityields Thedebate involves science" onsome substantive position "doing only progress problem. inlight iscertainly of the of onscience and onGIS.Thepersistence problematic variety perspectives the issue that the GIScommunity should continue towork toward a resolution. of suggests, however, and Words: nature Key GIS-L, systems, geographic information science, geographic thought, philosophy of nature science, of geographic information systems.

"geographic information system" for the Government of Canada in the early 1960s (Coppockand Rhind1991),he can have imagined the impactthat"GIS" scarcely would haveon thediscipline ofgeography, orthe intensity of the debatesthatwereprovoked by this seemingly innocent three-letter acronym. Of is no stranger course geography to methodological debates, andsomeofthearguments overGIS echo the arguments overquantification in the

hen Roger Tomlinson coined the term

1950s.We cannotbe certain whether the GIS debateis more orlessintense thanitsprecursors, butwe can be certain thatit is important given theinterdisciplinary nature ofGIS,albeit a nature in which geography is widely accepted as having a uniquerole (Morrison 1991; Kennedy 1994). Geography's debates overGIS arethus unusually view. exposed to general The purpose hereis notto review thevarious appraisals ofGIS,which range from GIS as savior the"geographic putting Humpty Dumpty" back

Annals ofthe Association ofAmerican Geographers, 87(2), 1997,pp.346-362 (C1997byAssociation ofAmerican Geographers Published byBlackwell Publishers, 350 MainStreet, Malden, MA 02148,and 108Cowley Road,Oxford, UK. OX4 1JF,

ToolorScience? as together again(Openshaw1991) to dismissal 1988); from expertise" "non-intellectual (Jordan secondcomexcitement overGIS as positivism's rally 1990) to GIS as a last-ditch ing (Heywood survivors (Taylor 1990). battered bypositivism's are the social implications of More interesting whomit empowers, it sends, GIS-the message should bear and theresponsibility itsdevelopers use (Smith1992; Pickles1994; foritseventual In theU.K., forthcoming). Harvey andChrisman within thediscipline have caught thesedebates a source ofevenso authoritative as theattention (Davies the Times Education Supplement Higher 1995). from theambiguthese debates arise At heart, WhileTomlinofGIS as a tooloras a science. ity inhisdefinition ofa GIS as sonwasclearenough certo perform a computer designed application tain specificfunctions (Coppock and Rhind by"doing what ismeant 1991),itisnotatallclear or "GIS research," GIS," "theGIS community," since in all thesecases the etymological path and phrase has becomehopebetween acronym GIS" seems Atfacevalue,"doing lessly muddied. witha morethaninteracting to imply nothing classofsoftware: "the GIS community" particular of individuals withan is no morethana group in thatsoftware; and "GIS reinterest intense the search"seemsan oxymoron. By examining tensionbetweenGIS as a tool and GIS as a 8-

347

thatultimately defines what science-a tension it meansto be "doingGIS" in geography-we issues, which are hopetoshedsomelight on these in theday-to-day operations of clearly important Departments need to geography departments. ifGIS is either should be taught know a toolthat levelor a sciexclusively at the undergraduate ence and thusa legitimate research specialty of who students. Are students faculty andgraduate substantive science? Is an associa"doGIS" doing that research is tionwith GIS sufficient toensure are or ifnot,whatother conditions substantive, necessary? for this Muchofthemotivation paperderives from a debateon theGIS-L electronic listserver in late 1993.These electronic lists, or "invisible spanthebarricolleges" (Crane1972) as itwere, Sinceitsinception, GISersbetween disciplines. a variety ofdiscussions L hasprovided a forum for of GIS issues(Markand Zubrow1993; Thoen 1993, the 1996). DuringOctober-November 64 postings topic"GIS as a Science"generated from 40 individuals in 8 statesand 6 countries and intensity ofthe (Figure 1). The usuallength discussion made it clear that the "tool versus science" debate sparked greatinterest among and practitioners, technicians, manyscientists, their One oftheobjectives whatever discipline. beof thispaperis to explorethe relationship takenin thiselectronic detweenthepositions

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348

et al. Wright cussionlists,the WorldWide Web,electronic and digital libraries journals, (on the Internet's seeHessetal. 1993;and impact inoceanography, likewiseon traditional journals,see Odlyzko 1995). Subscribers to an electronic listsuch as GIS-L are able to reachhundreds ofcolleagues aroundthe worldto discussan issue or ask a all of the traditional question, thereby crossing structures oftheresearch community (saveperminhapsstructures basedon language) within utes.Whileitis impossible to determine exactly howmany individuals readGIS-L andwith what level of interest, Markand Zubrow(1993) rethatat thetimeoftheir thelist ported analysis, 1100 individualIncontainedapproximately ternet and was redistributed addresses to more than30 additional lists worldwide. as a subscriber Once registered to an unmoderatedelectronic discussion list,anyindividual withan Internet address receives automatically all messages The subscriber. posted byanyother essential ofthissystem informality ofcommuniand a source cation isbotha blessing ofdifficulty for tosynthesize these discusanyone attempting sions.Manyof thediscussants do not have the the inclination, or perhaps to the energy time, research the positions thatthey adopton such of science, topicsas, in our case, philosophies or the interplay begeographic methodology, tweenscienceand technology. Electronic commentsposted to a discussionlist are not as out as writing in thescientific carefully thought A written literature. synthesis is thusperhaps moreakinto theproceedings in ofa workshop, which ideasareexpressed useful butnotyetconsolidated orputintoperspective. is howbestto present Another challenge the in other howto properly cite discussion; words, an electronic from communication conference. As on-linenewspapers, and journals, libraries, dataarchives more become on the"inprevalent and itbecomes formation necessuperhighway," toinformation that exist in torefer sary may only will electronic formal methods ofcitation form, haveto emerge thatareas robust and persistent as conventional The use ofUniversal methods. Resource Locators(URLs,theelectronic World WideWeb addresses thatcommonly beginwith forcitations to information available "http://") theWorld WideWebis already through causing problemswith "brokenURLs," which occur is deleted whenever information or movedfrom itsexisting orthenameofa server oritsfile site, structure is changed.Untilbetter are methods

bateand current debates within thediscipline of geography. The "toolversus science" debatehas received little mention in thepublished literature ofgeography, which is surprising inviewoftheattention givento GIS the past decade. The closestthe literature comes to the debate is Goodchild's sci(1992) paper on "geographic information on reconciling the ence,"Sui's (1994) discussion GIS enthusiasts differences between and critics, andthearticles on "Automated Geography" that in appeared in The Professional Geographer a series 1993-the latter, ofreflections on develin the ten yearssinceDobson (1983) opments in analytical announced thatadvances methods andcomputer hadmadeitpossible technology to automate several aspects ofgeographical research and problem solving. In thediscussion thatfollows, theelectronic debateon GIS-L serves as thepoint ofdeparture GIS" from foran exploration of"doing theperin and the society spectives of bothgeography whichthe discipline is embedded. The paper frames thetension thepositions between of"GIS as a tool"and"GIS as a science," summarizes the GIS-L debate, considers theimplications ofthe theposition and prodebate,explores adopted, anddiscusses itsimplications for posesa solution theprofession. One noteon terminology is necessary. The term"geographic information science"has appeared with an increasing frequency in the geographic literature (Goodchild1992; Rhind et al. 1991; Rhind 1992; Abler 1993; Cromley 1993;Dobson1993;Fedra 1993).Goodchild(1992) hasargued that GIS hasdonemuch to remove thetraditional isolation between the fields ofphotogrammetry, remote sensing, geodesy, cartography, surveying, geography, computer and otherdisciplines science,spatialstatistics, issues ofspatial with interests inthegeneric data, and it is thesedisciplines thatconstitute geographicinformation science; hence it makes sensefor theresearch to decodethe community GIS acronym inthis Be that as itmay, inthis way. reference to theacronym GIS is to paperevery notto "science." "system"

The GIS-LDebate
Electronic Discussions Documenting interaction isbeing revolutionized Scholarly by theInternet ofelectronic applications mail,dis-

ToolorScience? discussion on electronic devised, material posted listsand bulletin boardfallsinto the realmof butunlike oralcomcommunication," "personal mailprovides a moreor munication, electronic record ofcommulesspermanent and verbatim quotable.In thispaper nication and is precisely citation style proposed we follow theelectronic byLi and Crane(1993). of A final Forthis study issueisconfidentiality. all participants werenotitheGIS-L discussion, their and synthesize fied ofourintent to present manuscript, and given comments in a published ofhaving andreferences to theoption quotations Before their comments removed. themanuscript were was submitted participants for publication, review and comment. It senta draft version for be notedthat theviews should byGISexpressed do notnecessarily reflect theviews L discussants institutions ororganizations. oftheir

349

rethe same sense thatCurran(1987) defines motesensing as a technique. From thisperspective,GIS on its own is meaningless; its gains meaning only byitsgoals, which generally involve ofknowledge butnot theapplication by scientists, science itself (McCauley 1993;Moll 1993;Skelly 1993b).In theGIS-L discussion, thosewhodefined GIS as a tooldidso inthesenseofa physical entity and also as a technique (Crepeau1993a; Feldman 1993b;Halls 1993;Moll 1993).Viewed in this way, GIS maybelong moreto thefield of than to science (Feldman1993d; engineering enidentified Skelly 1993c,1993d).Discussants while gineering as a problem-solving activity, science was linked to discoveryand problem understanding (Al-Taha1993). That said, the thetwoare often boundaries between muddied, at thelevelofbasicresearch where particularly engineers mayuse scientific methods to identify andunderstand theproblems they will eventually to solve(Al-Taha attempt 1993). oftheGIS-L Discussion Summary Someofthe"toolside"oftheissueseemed to if feel that GIS hadany scientific itderived aspect, in Table1) The GIS-L exchange (summarized from thediscipline ofgeograGIS's placewithin aboutone of a discussion beganas an offshoot phy (Crepeau 1993a; Feldman 1993c; Halls the enterprise: important aspectofthescientific 1993). GIS is thusa tool appliedwhengoing literature within thescivalue ofpeer-reviewed ofgeographic science(Halls aboutthebusiness entific with toits particularly respect community, is a science,then 1993). If "doinggeography" as reading material students. With for suitability GIS" amounts to a science(on the"geog"doing in thecontext themention of"GIS as a science" raphy as science" issue, see Couclelis and ofpeer-reviewed somecorrespondents Golledge literature, 1983;Hart1982;Johnston 1979,1986; that"GIS is a tool,perhaps even a responded Smith 1992;andUnwin1992). cerbutitis most environment, problem-solving side"oftheGIS-L disThose on the"science not a science"(Skelly1993a). The electainly cussionspokemainly abouttheuse ofGIS as a launched a discussion that unfolded tronic debate method orbody ofknowledge for and developing betweenOctober28 and November 28, 1993 testing spatial theories(Brenner1993; Laffey chronologically 1993; Sandhu1993b;Wright (Figure 1). Table 1 is organized 1993a),notabout andevolved via wasdynamic becausethedebate Whilethey thephysical GIS itself. entity agreed a seriesof responses to particular statements, thatthe"toolbox" viewofGIS was accurate, it etc.The evolutionary course ofthedebate claims, was at the same timeverylimiting (Bartlett in shaping itscontents. was also very important 1993b;Sandhu1993a;Wright 1993b).As impora presentation oftheentire Spacedoesnotpermit of tantas arethehardware/software components GIS-L which whendownloaded from discussion, elements ofGIS (e.g., GIS, it is theconceptual and printed out comprises fifty pagesof singlethecreation ofspatial models therules governing The tableis organized to according spacedtext. and modeling oferror for GIS, themeasurement thedebate taken thetwomajor during positions a GIS,orproofs oftheorems propagation through ("GIS as tool"vs. "GIS as science")as wellas by on data structures) thatenableGIS to claima the participants' about the generalcomments placeas a science (Bartlett 1993a;Carlson 1993a; scientific enterprise. Wright 1993b). on the"toolside" Manyofthosewhoargued Some discussants raisedmore fundamental oftheissuecouldnotsee howa computer appliis science?" and "what "whatexactly questions: as a science (e.g., cation could be described ustocallGIS a science?" allows specifically (FeldMcCauley 1993; Moll 1993; Skelly 1993a, man 1993c; Piou 1993). Althoughno simple in 1993b).TheysawGIS as a toolor technique acon scienceemerged, discussants consensus

350

et al. Wright Table1. Excerpts from theGIS-LDiscussion, October-November, 1993 GIS asTool GIS as Science should move GIS as a science awayfrom the technology towards the fundamental of aspects modeling spatialphenomena (i.e.,theconceptual underpinnings of CHARACTERIZING . HowNOT spatial phenomena) togenerate erroneous spatialdata is a science in and of itself (Carlson 1993a,28 Oct. 17:34 PST). Seethe research initiatives of the NCGIA. ofGIS as a sciAspects enceinclude thestudy ofspatial datauncertainty anderror, data andhow GIS isadopted lineage, byagencies (Wright 1993a,28 Oct.22:44 PST). Thecomponent ofGIS that address thefundamental nature of information is digital geographic a science. Part oftheprocess of andimprovdesign, developing, tools isscience ing (Cooper 1993, 29Oct.9:16PST). GIS maybe a discourse which would include boththescience A discourse andtoolviews. is a for methodology studying someThetool view doesn't thing. give credit togeography, the enough science view takes GISaway from to stand on itsown geography (Brown1993, 29 Oct. 16:22 PST). General Comments about Science data models and Investigating methods ofdatabase isan design areaofinterest, applied perhaps science applied (Crepeau 1993b, 29Oct.14:04 PST). is computer science called Why "science,"not engineering? What is a science? exactly (Piou 31Oct.18:39 1993, PST). Beware ofhaving toohigh a rein gardforscience, especially terms of that itprovides believing 1Nov. the "truth" (Britton 1993, 12:29 PST). Note carefully the implications of your definition ofscience (Feldman1993a,1 Nov. 13:25PST[ Feldman 1993d, 8 Nov. 06:47 PST). Thesuccess andacceptance ofa given activity ina historic time or for some social groups may well depend onwhether that activity is considered as either scientific, philosophical, political, orstatistical. Different groups indifferent times emphasize theimportance of one or another perspective (Scalise 1993, 1 Nov. 18:36 PST).

GIS is a tool,a technology, a problem-solving environment, but definitely not a science (Skelly1993a,28 Oct. 01:55 PST). How NOT togenerate erroneous datais a problem butnot spatial a science 28 Oct. (Skelly 1993b, 20:12PST). GIS will become a science when itdivorces itself from geography. IfGISisa science, statistical softwareand its use are science. Theoreticalknowledge that ofa model forms thedesign is not of how to science, knowledge Inshort, run software. geography isthescience, notGIS (Crepeau 29 Oct.09:33PST). 1993a, GISinandofitself isa tool. The science label is merely toattract research money and/or enhance Imthe of GISusers. status/power WHY people to realize portant aremaking the science argument (Petican1993,29 Oct. 12:54 1 Nov.14:03 1993, PST;Groom PST). areunderstanding Many spatial theUSE of phenomena through GIS.GISisa tool USEDby scientists (McCauley 1993,29 Oct. 13:59 PST). a LITTLEbitofscience Perhaps goesintoGIS as somescience ENmost goesinto technology. GINEERING notsciDESIGN, ence,primarily goes intoGIS (Skelly1993c,31 Oct. 14:04 PST). Thescience of what weareabout is inthespatial andinordering of andinterrelationships objects formation. The tool we are concerned with isGIS.GISisthe ofspatial science to application thestudy ofearthbound objects, etc. (Halls1993,1 Nov.03:01 PST).

Philosophy of science isanimportant thing toconsider for this discussion.For example, "basic in laws" arepart ofscience only Doesinvestigation oftherole of the positivist to sciapproach scaleinGIS anditsrelationship ence, notin approaches such as to maparea,theimportance of 2 Nov. realism (Feldman 1993b, when alllayers of 10:05 PST; Feldman 8 spatial integrity 1993d, information come from the same Nov.06:47PST). orthe basemap, appropriateness of a spatial control for a particular Consideration of the *motivation* scale warrant a science? Areanfor asscience is labeling something swers available from another scialsoimportant for this discussion. ence?(Carlson 31 Oct. When welabel as"sci1993b, something 10:48 ence" without at PST). looking critically infact what wemean, weare laying The answer on whois thegroundwork for thearbitrary depends Forexample, involved. exclusion anddelegitimization of developof GISseeitasa sophisticated certain ers reasonable forms ofsciensalesmen and students tific 2 science, knowledge (Feldman 1993b, itas tool(Rao 1993, 1 recognize Nov.10:05PST,1993c, 5 Nov. Nov.02:22PST). 12:56 PST).

ToolorScience? GIS asTool What scientific aretheaccepted Softof GIS? of a science methods isengineering, ware development Mathandstatistics notscience. Both spaeither. arenotscience andits development tialanalysis GIS assist through application are they butlikemath science, 1993d, 1Nov. (Skelly not science PST). 16:50 GIS as Science develof GISisnot the Thescience what the ESRI of tools (i.e., opment isscido).GIStheory programmers thedevelopthat enceassuming proper mentof algorithms, (Brenner is science methodology, PST). 1Nov. 07:04 1993,

351 General Comments about Science isneiTESTING HYPOTHESIS for norsufficient ther necessary science.Scienceis concerned whichis withunderstanding, inbut often anaidtoinvention, (Feldman vention is notscience 1993d, 8 Nov.06:47PST).

or Couldit be the"authority" GIS.Deview limits Thetoolbox bytheterm suggested "stature" ofspatial vising a representation its adoption that causes an algorithm "science" data,developing area? an emergent problem in naming tosolve a spatial (method) procdescribes that GIS isa tool a sense ofvalidlends "Science" a theory are ittotest tothe manipulation andapplying esses relating be notalways onethat may ity, GIS embeds the ofscience. ofspatial data;GIS is an entity part warranted hasabout a (Elliott 1993, 19 a scientist GIS knowledge organizations; that describes Nov.). ways to test andprovides region bya sciemployed isa technique and alternatives. Devising theories untoitself nota science entist, is problem-solving a theory Engineering may new methods totest 2 Nov.09:17PST). (Moll1993, shift in and is discovery whilescience constitute a PARADIGM 1 terms At the problem understanding. 1993a, (Sandhu GIS may be a revolution-drivingKuhnian Nov.18:14 the distinction level, professional PST). a scientific revotool rather than and geologist isquite clear(e.g., examFor inandofitself. lution soilmecivil studying engineers ofusing new methods Developing pie, the telescope is the At reasons). different chanics for of science ofthe larger GISispart toolwhereas revolution-driving the boundaries the research level, etc., sciscience, computer geography, andmetallurgy arethe optics arelessapparent engineers (e.g., GIS does science. it (Murphy nota separate encesthatextend to methods mayuse scientific shift a PARADIGM not represent PST). 2 Nov.14:27 1993, understand the probor a scientific identify and in Kuhnian terms will toQuantilems revolution attempt eventually they comparable astobe distinct IsGISsufficiently to solve) (Al Taha 1993, 29 tativeRevolutionofthe'60sorthe from othersciences? separate andMarxism Nov.). ofHumanism properties onset Does it haveformal in the'70s and '80s (Feldman from investhat those distinct are 2 Nov.10:05 A GIS database is a structured sciPST). 1993b, instatistics, computer tigated ofreality. subset andabstraction GIS etc.? For cartography, ence, creation inTherules the governing sciGISispart ofa broader spatial a separate to be considered of spatial for GIS were GIS in these models science. it addresses formation ence,theproblems ofscienonthebasis formulated thehardis not merely terms toGIS,andthe be unique must and experimentatific thought but the component of GISmust betowards ware/software extension arein and nowthatthey itsuse(e.g., ISSUESsurrounding tion, ofGIS a greater understanding form a PARADIGM they itsmeasplace, datauncertainty, rather thantowards spatial problems can seekto GIS users Thetooland whereby technical issues urement modeling). solving specific analyzetherealworld.Everytime box view is limiting.GIS 5 Nov. 12:56 1993c, (Feldman these datamodeling inwhich oneapplies the geoway encompasses PST). THEHYoneisTESTING is collected, info. rules, pergraphical and used reality shifts occur when (Wright POTHESIS thatit fits managed, PARADIGM ceived, 6 Nov. 10:21 (Bartlett 2Nov.19:05 1993b, a design are reached. PST). the limits of 1993b, PST). ofderiving a new The problem wholookfor newer Arepeople istreated as science-the design like GIS isa science to analyze datanotdoing which, geolofGIS are PRINCIPLES ways design from other draws for involve deThiswould example, ogy the science? even though "scientific," of to create newways sciences such on entities theory veloping one is engiofbuilding process it. at dataandanalyzing andspatial as time 6 Nov. phenomena. looking 1993, neering (Geissman from draws The spatial aspect Forthescientist using it,it is a 12:00 PST). andother of for the math, geomorphology, GIS,itis producer tool, togetat thebusiness for ofa tool, the theengineering disciplines ofdata(Calef 28Nov.). scientist 1993, extending GIS,itisscience (Sandhu1993b,3 Nov. 10:27 PST).

352 GIS asTool that evolves Complex technology ofengineering, notsciis a field data ence. Abstractly considering in an n-dimensional that exists such andhow datacanbe space etc. in this joined, intersected, n-spacewouldbe a scientific problem. Still, this does not make GIS a science 8 (Feldman 1993d, Nov.06:47PST). some scienUnless we can find that isdistinct tific toGIS, object of then GISisanarea application elements ofcomputer combining science andgeography, andnot a scienceunto itself(Feldman 1993d, 8 Nov.06:47PST).

Wright et al. GIS asScience as GIS isanenvironment aswell a method usedto discover, exItis andtest plore, spatial theory. alsoa tool ofthe hand andmind (Laffey 1993, 4 Nov.16:56 PST). A technocentric view ofGIS is very limiting. Asimportant asthe hardware and software are the conceptual elements of GIS (data modeling, visualization, communication, legal aspects,etc.) These theoretical and conceptual in aspects give GIS atleast a foot therealm GIS is ofthesciences. a technology, soisthe paper map. that ofGIS are Denying aspects thatasscience is likedenying ofcartography pects arescience that (aswell asart). Theconcepts thetools tofacilitate, autoseek mate, and develop are strongly rooted inscience (Bartlett 1993a, 5 Nov.11:13 PST). What allows ustocall specifically GIS a science? weshould Maybe think in terms offormal science as in (purely abstract thought math andcomputer science) vs. substantive science (phenomena thatexist outside of thought). GISmay have a scientific componentas a formal science (Feldman1993c, 5 Nov.12:56 PST). General Comments Science about

cented the conceptual elementsmentioned above,alongwithactivities such as "obtaining theoretical to form knowledge the designof a model," "development theory on entities suchas time andspatial phenomena," and"development to testa theory." algorithms Thesewerethought ofthescientific to be parts enterprise (Crepeau 1993a;Sandhu1993a;Wright 1993b), andhence basisfor of a possible thescientific status testing a given activity. There wasalsoa distinction made between "formalscience" (purely abstract as in mathematics) thought, and "substantive science" (phenomena that exist outside of thought) (see Feldman 1993c).Accordingly, one theimplications must consider ofhisorherdefinition ofscienceso as not to arbitrarily exclude ordelegitimize ofknowlcertain reasonable forms edge(Feldman 1993a,1993c,1993d).

at defining sciencenaturally These attempts ledtothequestion ofwhether GIS issignificantly from science distinct sciences suchas computer In other or geography. words, ifGIS is a science with in somerespects, is it a scienceuntoitself, its own unique, logicallycoherentobject of knowledge(Carlson 1993b; Feldman 1993d; HenceDobsonis "Is Skelly 1993d)? (1993) query: GIS prompting a scientific revolution? The most severe test wouldbe whether arehypothethere be conceived and ses and theories thatcan only tested through GIS." GIS is specialin thatit is visualand able to make explicit the uniquely features ofdata.Those on the"science" implicit side or in the middleof the GIS-L discussion, body however, didnotseemtorequire a separate forGIS. Instead, ofknowledge viewedthe they ofgeography scienceofGIS as a subdiscipline or

ToolorScience? orgeocomputer science(thewaybiogeography thelarger field of morphology aresciences within orpaleontology within the isa science geography, field of geology) 1993a; Calef broader (Bartlett voicedstrong 1993;Wright 1993b).Discussants between GIS and agreement that theconnections ofgeography andthat thescience arethestrongest, a subset of computer science GIS is not merely Itwaspointed out (Bartlett 1993a;Wright 1993b). ofGIS'searly were that geographers, many pioneers and Unwinin Bickmore, e.g.,Coppock, Rhind, and Garrison, Berry, Tobler, Britain; Tomlinson, Marblein North (Bartlett 1993b);and America more than anyoneelse actually that geographers and formalized the identified, conceptualized, initial spatial concepts and connections between 1993b). computer technology (Bartlett

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theDebateinto Putting ofScience Definitions Perspective:

and sociA lengthy intothephilosophy foray isbeyond thescopeofthis paper, ology ofscience is unbut someconsiderations of thesematters inorder toknow scientists avoidable what do,the ofwhat do,andtherelationship significance they toother mechaofscience knowledge -generating Thereisonecaveatattheoutset: there are nisms. and viewpoints as many of probably definitions arescientists scienceas there (Feibleman 1972), correct! A and not all of theseare necessarily cannot definition ofscience concise hopetocapture thefull oftheterm. Scienceencommeaning differ offields that from a wide widely passes range inphilosophy, eachother and knowledge content, The term beviewed "science" may as methodology. for a logical to shorthand andsystematic approach that Thisis seeks answers. problems generalizable theposition etal. (1984)indescribing byRobinson in scientific method" how cartography employs "the et al.'s itsproducts. GivenRobinson constructing on logic,mostcomputer applications emphasis ofbeing it would "scientific," though passthetest ofwhether leavesunanswered thequestion "doing is"doing science." Nonetheless, many cartography" in the GIS-L debatewereprobably participants ofthefiner shades ofmeaning unaware conveyed ofGIS or thatmany users bytheterm "science," of themselves in the as "scientists" might think sense ofthat term. unqualified on one'sinclination, there aresevDepending eachwith eraldifferent toscience, its approaches and methodology. own ontology, epistemology,

variously by These so-called-ismsare defined (1986) uses the terms geographers. Johnston to and"structuralism" "positivism," "humanism," main scientific geography's three describe human and Petch(1986) acapproaches; Haines-Young and "positivism," "relativism," cent"empiricism," and Cloke et al. (1991) "critical rationalism," "structuration "humanism," focus on "Marxism," and "postmodernism." Thus theory," "realism," is to askthesimple question, "Is GIS a science?," thesuperiority ofone or anusually to presume Forex, other togenerating knowledge. approach the outthat theGIS-L discussion pointed ample, in of"basiclaws"is partofscienceonly concept in apthe positivist approach, not necessarily orhumanism (Feldman proaches suchas realism 1993b,1993d). Manyarguethatthe positivist with to GIS (Heyregard approach is privileged wood1990;Taylor 1990;Smith 1992;Lake 1993; Shepherd1993), but Goodchild(1994) sees in on theepistemology ofGIS thegrowing literature et al. 1994) theentire (e.g.,Pickles1991;Wellar from thepositivist tothe ofapproaches, spectrum approaches Ifin thepastcertain postmodernist. in GIS, GIS need to sciencehavebeenpreferred in thefuture. approaches notpreclude other Ifaspects as "sciofGIS are to be considered towhat approach philosophical ence,"according in briefly Thisissuewasraised arethey scientific? the GIS-L discussion(see Table 1; Feldman indetail. In 1993b,1993c)butwasnotexamined in debatesthathave occurred the longstanding overthe appropriateness ofdifferent geography rationandthe"critical approaches, "positivism" alism" ofKarlPopper (1959) areconventionally and associatedwith "science" (Haines-Young Petch 1986; Johnston 1986), but the rigorous collection ofdatain theproducand evaluation arenotexclusive tionofknowledge topositivism orcritical 1975; rationalism (e.g.,Keatand Urry to Johnston 1986;Sayer1992).It is notourwish alternatheexplanatory ofthese power downplay indeedvarious approaches; tive,nonpositivistic inunderofscience havesucceeded philosophies claimsto being a superior mining positivism's Willer method for theworld (e.g., understanding and Willer1973; Hindess1977; Couclelisand 1993). Golledge1983;Sheppard WhyDoes ScienceMatter? GIS is a sciWhyshouldone care whether ence or not?The technological (toolbox)face

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et al. Wright
answers on other haveno bearing on how, matters and howwell,we are able to think abouthuman purpose, free will, andother suchthings.

ofGIS is widely successful in government, business,and education, and it appearsto have affected andimproved thelivesoffar more people thanhave many theoretical advances(e.g.,the theories ofspatialdata and ofdata structures, andalgorithms) datamodels, .Technologyingeneral has the potential to contribute greatly to society andculture. is often heldin highregard, Science,though, and labeling a field as a sciencemaysometimes help to ensureit a place in the academy or to itgreater secure and prestige. "Science" funding isoften usedas a generic synonym for "research," of a basic,systematic, particularly research and kind.Thus "science"oftenfuncgeneralizable tions as a rather crude butconvenient shorthand for academic if"doing legitimacy; GIS" is "doing then science" itsclaimto a placein theacademy, as a topic ofresearch andgraduate-level instrucis clearly tion, strengthened. imIn theGIS-L discussion, someparticipants plied (Groom1993; Petican1993) that those for "GIS as science" arguing might be driven by ulterior motives. Some participants warnedof a regard having toohigh for science, especially in that itprovides the"truth" believing (Table1). In theopinion ofthese science correspondents, does livesand indeedgreatly influence our everyday our ideas about the world, but does it deserve Is theresomething special reverence? special aboutscience andthecontributions ithasmade? a balancebetween One muststrike debunking on theone science anddragging itoff itspedestal, intoscientism hand,and falling (theclaimthat method method of thescientific is theonlytrue on the other. The point obtaining knowledge), has alreadybeen made eloquently by Bauer (1992:144): That does not allthe does science have answers not mean that ithasnoanswers. Thatscience now has in some areas answers doesnotmean inadequate in the that theanswers will notbecome adequate infact, teaches that science's answers future; history become and better as time better goesby.That science is fallible doesnotmeanthatscience is
or thatit is as fallible fallible as suchother entirely

or not "doing Clearly it does matter whether GIS" is "doingscience," ifforno otherreason thanthat"doing is often science" regarded as a code-phrase for academic Wewill now legitimacy. argue that at leastthree "doing express GIS" may meanings that arerepresented bythree positions. Ourstrategy, istoexamine theroleand therefore, legitimacy ofeachofthese three positions within theacademy ingeneral andwithin thediscipline in particular. ofgeography

on GIS ThreePositions
In synthesizing thegeneral themes oftheGISL discussion, itbecame cleartous that GIS could be understood notbythetwodistinct positions taken butas three bytheGIS-L discussants positionsalong a continuum from tool to science. These positions focuson the severalmeanings attached to"doing GIS" rather than toGIS alone. Theseare(1) GIS as tool;(2) GIS as toolmaking; and (3) thescienceofGIS. It seemsclearfrom theGIS-L discussion thatthelabel"GIS" is simplistic, sinceit fails to indicate byitself whether the researchinvolvesfundamental scientific orwhether andhypotheses, GIS merely questions adds glossto theresearch theuse ofa through and sophisticated it detool whether complex codesas "science" or "system." We havederived three onGIS from theGIS-Ldiscussion; positions theserepresent a "fuzzy" ofopinion continuum whichrecognize thatpositional labels are not thesethreepositions do not perfect. Although allofthenuances ofargument the capture during GIS-L debate,theydo represent the principal ofviewalonga "tool-science" continuum. points The "GIS isa tool" seesGIS as theuse position of a particular class of software, the associated hardware tools suchas digitizers andplotters, and datain order to advancesome digital geographic The toolitself isinherently neuspecific purpose. itsdevelopment andavailability tral, being largely ofitsuse,which independent is driven byapplication. The "toolmaking" sees GIS as conposition cerned with thetool'scapabilities and advancing ease of use. Besidesusingthe tool,toolmakers theadoption ofGIS,play a role regularly promote in educating andwork to ensure users, responsible use.

modes andbelief ofhuman as folklore, knowledge religion, political ideology, orsocial science. That science hasno answers in some matters-such as thevalueof human lifeor thepurpose of livnot mean that ithasnoanswers inother ing-does areas are within areas-those that its matpurviews, offorces ters andsubstances andnatural phenomena. Andthatscience has no direct answers on matters ofhuman purpose doesnotmean that its

ToolorScience? ofGIS" position Finally, the"science insists on a moreintimate and reciprocal connection betweentool and science-one thatinvolves research on a setofbasicproblems, each ofwhich probably existed prior tothedevelopment ofGIS, butwhosesolution is more pressing nowbecause ofcollecting of thetechnology. Thispractice sets ofbasic problems undernew nameshas a long history in science. It occurred, for example, with the emergence of computer science,whenthe ofcomputing development technology provided theimpetus for resolving certain fundamental search problems that had previously beenassociatedwith mathematics.

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Scientists use many oftoolsin their types research. Some, suchas typewriter ortelephone, are in nature, with no particular generic association with Others aredeveloped anydiscipline. strictly for one discipline, or evenfor one project or for one group of scientists. GIS fallssomewhere in themiddle, ofinterest, in principle, being to any discipline dealingwiththe distribution of phenomenaon the surface of the Earth.It seems neither a generic toolwhoseuse is so ubiquitous thatone can reasonably assume universal familiarity (word processor, calculator), northeexclusive tool of a single discipline. Perhaps a useful is the tool of statistics, analogy whichin some is closeto universal, disciplines (e.g.,agronomy) while inothers (e.g., anthropology) usage ismixed and itsvalueis thesubject ofcontinuous debate. oftheThreePositions Discussion For these less-than-universal the acadtools, on GIS the necessary infraemytraditionally provides in the form structure of technical coursesand GIS Is a Tool technical Butin addition, theacademy support. satisfies in theassociated theneedfor education Forthosewhotakethis position, "doing GIS" In thecase ofstatistics, for concepts. it example, to making amounts use ofa toolto advancethe wouldnotbe adequateto provide a laboratory of of a problem. If the investigation statistical investigation toolswithout at thesametime providmerits thelabel "research," then"doing GIS" is have the ing coursesto ensurethat students probably "doingscience"as well,but the existofconcepts. necessary understanding The same ence and use ofthetoolare separable from the distinction between technical in theuse training substantive The documentation and problem. oftools andeducation intheunderlying concepts of the research tend to focuson the write-up toGIS. Whiletheconcepts ofGIS may be applies substantive andindeed thetoolmay not problem, familiar toprofessional must be geographers, they be mentioned at all. In somecases,GIS maybe of students. taughtanew to each generation one ofa number oftools only used,eachofwhich Without the use of GIS is conceptual courses, has been selectedstrictly forits efficacy in the likely todegenerate todatamanagement andmap In thesecases,thetoolsdo not research project. however thetool'scapabilities making, complex drive theresearch. for scientific andmodeling. analysis If theresearch are to somedegree objectives IfGIS isa toolofparticular valuetogeography, thentherulesofengagement andifgeography "methodological," hastraditionally of taught many with suchas GIS may besomewhat tools different, the concepts thatthe tool implements, thenit as may thecontent ofthepaper the documenting wouldseemthatformal in GIS aremost courses In thesecases,thetoolmayassumea research. ingeography. In theabsence appropriately taught rolein directing theresearch, and hence greater of departments of geography, have universities be givengreater in documentation, found prominence a variety GIS ofsolutions to theneedfor and case studies the maybe used to illustrate instruction. In somecases,courses aretaught by rather than to provide technique generalizable faculty or staff in computing in others, facilities; In papersof thissort, results. empirical phrases indepartments aretaught suchas surveying, they suchas "The Use ofGIS in . . ." mayappearin civilengineering, orforestry andFleury (Morgan theprocesses paper'stitle, although responsible 1993). But wherever theyare taught,these for thetool's areindependent ofthe development stucoursesservetwo purposes theyprepare research substantive Becausetheir problem. priand they dents to do their ownresearch, provide istoadvocate motivation theuseofthetool, mary students with useful job skills. demonstrations ofGIS aremore methodological Whilethis technical lineofargument provides included under thesecond appropriately position a solution for itcrethatis satisfactory students, in thenextsection. discussed ates problems forthe faculty to teach assigned

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Wright et al. At the research level,the viewof the toolmaker presumes critical analysis and reflection. that The result is an extensive research literature on GIS as a generic et al. focuses tool(Goodchild little 1991); at thesametime there is remarkably research on specific perhaps published systems, ofmost becauseofthepropriety nature GISs and fears thatprinciples ofacabecauseofscholarly demic freedom and theFirst Amendment would by a not protect themagainsta suit brought of -sectorGIS vendor private against publication a critical academic evaluation ofa product. andreflection Critical extends beyond analysis thetechniques oftoolmaking toencompass quesaboutthesocialresponsibilities oftoolmaktions ofthewidespread ersand thesocialimplications ofthetool (Smith1992; Pickles1991, adoption This 1994;Harvey and Chrisman forthcoming). a tool thathas applications involves evaluating spanning the full range of human activito society. ties from to politics In this economy case, the issuesbecomecomplexindeed.The is determined notbythetool's scopeofresearch butrather valuetogeographers, bythemultifarious applications of GIS, to includeall of the societaleffects of the computerization of geographic information. Whether "GIS" can withstandthestress ofsuchvaried remains to usages be seen.

them, particularly untenured faculty. Technical offaccourses require very heavy commitments and teaching them is unlikely toboost ulty time, the instructor's research career. The scholarly time tomaintain theGIS teaching laborequired ratory and to deal with students' technical problems cuts down on the time available for Somedepartresearch-andfor securing tenure. on sessional ments deal with this issuebyrelying oron technical muchas they teaching staff staff, in technical didin thepastwhenoffering courses orremote fields suchas cartography sensing. GIS Is Toolmaking

Advancingalong the continuum between "GIS as tool"and "GIS as science," we reachthe middle on GIS, thatoftoolmaking. For position thetoolis inseparable from thesubtoolmakers, stantive inproblem, i.e., "doingGIS" implies in thedevelopment volvement ofthetoolitself. who are makers of the GIS tool Geographers in itsspecification, participate directly developas wellas in itsuse. ment, andevaluation, In reality, the developers of GIS toolshave inmany combackgrounds disciplines, including and matheputerscience,engineering, design, as well as geography. matics, Few geographers havethenecessary technical skills tobuild major software or to write systems "industrial-strength thatmatter, academics in general code";butfor The ScienceofGIS arenotregarded to thedevelopment as suited of reliable most theGIS -Ldebate GIS software. Indeed, current GISsorigiItwasevident from that natedin theprivate incompanies sector is widely viewed thediscipline ofgeograemployoutside ing a mixof disciplines (GRASS and Idrisi are as a subset ofgeographical science. Although phy discinotable exceptions). is a small, geography unevenly represented twouniqueandpowerful pline, anddoubts intheacadabout itslegitimacy Geographers possess ofthese held (Smith1987), the recent The first emyare widely abilities as GIS toolmakers. isan of thegeographic conofGIS and itsaffiliation withthedisciexcellent understanding growth in theacadthe primitive elements of GIS plinehas meantincreased visibility ceptsthatform andprocessing andtheways databases that these emy. MoreoverGIS is associatedwith clear in theories, are embedded henceitismuch methods of easier toimagphysical imagery, concepts andmodels. GIS" than if onehas Secondis thatgeographers ine"doing "doing geography" analysis, are trained in a discipline thatintegrates underno familiarity withthelatter. affiliGeography's ofprocesses ofa widerange standing influencing ationwithGIS thuspairsit withthecomputer on theearth's surface. Bothofthese (howeverinappropriately). Computerization phenomena abilities areessential to"doing GIS" ifone adopts confers and repliautomatically precision, rigor, theposition in thepopular that"doingGIS" is toolmaking. A all ofwhich cability imagination, GIS toolmaker thus a basiceducation in totheflawed ofGIS as a subset contribute notion requires withtechnical courses that ofgeographical science. geography together critical of the technology's The very oftechnology and the emphasize analysis rapidgrowth of a technology-based in recapabilities. society emergence

ToolorScience? cent yearshave prompted new groupings and priorities within science.Few wouldhave predicted, for example, thatthedevelopment ofthe digital computer wouldeventually lead to the discipline ofcomputer science, or thatinformationwoulditself becomethebasisofa scientific discipline. Four conditions seemnecessary for the ofa science outofa technology: emergence first, thedriving technology must be ofsufficient significance; second,theissuesraised byitsdevelandusemust opment be sufficiently challenging; in and support on third, interest forresearch thoseissuesmustbe inadequate in theexisting disciplines; and fourth, there must be sufficient commonality amongthe issuesto createa substantial synergy. Twoterms haveevolved to describe theemergence of a sciencebasedon GIS. The first is in many a term favored countries begeomatics, cause ofitssimplicity and itsease oftranslation into French;the second,geographic information a term is well-known in theEnglishscience, that speaking world. The latter is usedhere. of information thescience Geographic science, GIS, is concerned withgeographic concepts, the primitive elementsused to describe, analyze, on phemodel, reason about, andmakedecisions nomenadistributed on thesurface of theearth. of These rangefrom the geometric primitives andareastothetopological relationpoints, lines, ofadjacency and connectivity the ships through dynamic relations offlow and interaction to domainspecific conceptssuch as neighborhood, or place. In theircurrent stateof geosyncline, crude GISs are comparatively developments, for digital systems representing andmanipulating geographic concepts, capable of handling only themostprimitive oftheseconcepts. But while current thescienceof technology mayconstrain GIS, it does not limitits development, just as scienceis not limited computer by the current state of computer Indeed the retechnology. search raised solutions problems byGIS andtheir willhelpto define thefuture form ofGIS techthemostcrucialof theseprobnology. Perhaps information lemsforgeographic scienceis the limitation ofdigital representation, i.e.,arethere whichcan neverbe repregeographic concepts in ormanipulated sented byGIS? The digital of andmanipulation representation a number offundamenraise geographic concepts talresearch ofwhich, issues, many though longin traditional have been standing disciplines,

357

reenergized bythedevelopment ofGIS.Although thecapabilities ofGIS areimproving, geographers whouseitstill lookforward to thestage at which all geographic and procedures concepts are implemented digitally (Dobson 1983, 1993; Couwill clelis 1991). In the interim, GIS research most likely implement those concepts andprocedures that arethesimplest, most andmost logical, rigorously defined, i.e.,themost primitive and/or themost issues ofrecogscientific. Theseinclude in thefield, nition and measurement thechoice between alternative therolesof representations, and multiple the generalization representations, of uncertain methrepresentation information, ofdescribodsofanalysis andmodeling, problems ofgeographic ingthecontent dataandevaluating foruse, and methods ofvisualization. itsfitness Thesesorts ofissues themultidiscipliunderscore narynatureof geographic information science. it includessuch traditional Besidesgeography, as geodesy, geographic information disciplines andresurveying, cartography, photogrammetry, motesensing alongwithspatially oriented elementsof such otherdisciplines as information statistics, cognitive information science, science, library science, andcomputer science.

Evaluation
In lightof thesethreeperspectives on GIS, whatcan be saidaboutthesignificance of"doing to GIS?" If"GIS is a tool,"thenitsuse has little dowith thelegitimacy oftheresearch; inthis case, from the progresses derives significance strictly madeon thesubstantive In this research problem. sense"doing GIS" is notnecessarily thesameas thelatter on themeth"doing science"; depends odsdeployed on thesubstantive problem, i.e.,are in GIS aremore scientific? to they Courses likely be offered at theundergraduate levelandreflect their service orientation. A essentially technical, geography department usingGIS on thisbasis would not claim GIS as a research probably nor wouldit encourageits students specialty, to regard subfield of the GIS as a substantive discipline. The toolmaking confers a moresigposition nificant status on GIS. In this case,GIS includes case studies thatdemonstrate themethodology, advocacyof GIS usage,and, perhaps also, the In theabsence ofindisofsoftware. development of scientific putableinstances insights uniquely

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et al. Wright Whether GIS is a geographical sciencein and of itself depends on boththerigor with whichthe toolis employed andthescopeofthetool'sfunctionality given thenature ofthesubstantive problem.These issuesclearly mustbe resolved on a case-by-case basis. theuseofGIS isnot Therefore a sufficient condition for science.

will attributable to the use of GIS, toolmaking akintoengineering thantoscience. remain more tests of toolmaking's progress Consequently, in ofimprovements wouldbe basedon indicators reflection on and the the tool'sutility. Critical in thetoolofGIS are also included evaluation legitimaking position. While theseare clearly are not as they mateactivities of the academy, characterized as "doing science" (or"doing easily . engineering") A department thetoolmaking posiadopting tionwouldprobably offer a range ofundergraduate and graduatecourses in GIS, including in the toolmaker's courses tools-programming wouldregard GIS as languages-andthefaculty and encourage students to a research specialty makesignificant contributions as toolmakers. But sucha department also expect continuing might in GIS research and teaching tension between fields(i.e., wherereand in moresubstantive ofknowlismeasured search bytheaccumulation thanbytheimprovement oftools). edgerather The third "scienceof GIS," is conposition, ofthefundamental cerned issues with theanalysis orin other raised bytheuseofGIS in geography these issues As notedearlier, not may disciplines. are remotivated be uniqueto GIS, butrather by oftheseissuescontinue to be regarded it; many incartography orsurveying orspatial as problems A department this with taking position cognition. inGIS would it recognize regard to specialization on a parwith as a substantive research field other suchfields andwouldmeasure basedon progress theaccumulation ofresearch results and contributionsto humanunderstanding, ratherthan in thetoolsthemselves. from This improvements is therefore theonlyone thatprovides position on which sufficient GIS" is"doing "doing grounds ofGIS as a reand forthe legitimacy science," in theacademy. search field ofthis must be however, Proponents position, theuse ofGIS itself careful notto confuse (e.g., a sequence of spatial analysiscomentering oftheissues surrounding mands)withan analysis theuse. Some maytry to derive from legitimacy the proposition thatGIS is so uniquely fundamental togeography thattodo GIS is necessarily that todo science-or,more todo GIS extremely, is todo geography Thisargument is scientifically. somewhat flawed becauseit implies thatGIS is moreeffective than it currently is, and vastly becauseitignores thelimitations ofcurrent GIS in dealingwithtime,scale,interactions, and a hostofother geographic concepts. sophisticated

Conclusion
Goodchild (1993:445)notesthat"an encouraging recent trend has been thewillingness ofa ofgeographers broadspectrum to see GIS notas a toolthat can useintheir ownresearch, they but as a phenomenon on which can reflect they and comment." We have chosento reflect and commenton "thephenomenon" ofGIS because,as notedearlier, someoftheinterest in theGIS-L debatemayhave stemmed from theuncertainty faced by young scholars in particularover whether departments willaccept"GIS" as a topic for In these scientific research. because situations, thelabel"GIS" is notaltogether whatis perfect, neededtofully theentity probably describe "GIS" isa shift from "black-and-white" boxesofdescriptionto "fuzzier" We find continua. thatGIS represents justsucha continuum between tool and science. The technologies ofGIS (i.e.,thetools andthetoolmaking) havethepotential to clearly a hostofinteresting motivate and fundamental scientific research The sciencebased questions. onGIS (i.e.,geographic information science)may advancethetoolsandtoolmaking ofGIS, as well as scientific research donewith aidofusing a GIS. thedesired endfrom allperspectives Surely is the ofan intellectual for GIS by foundation building and members of allied disciplines geographers which willensure itssurvival the alike, longafter ofthetechnology has worn off novelty Debatesarising outoftheambiguity ofGIS as tool or sciencemustbe understood within the context ofbroader trends inscience andinsociety Oldernotions ofscience as theequivagenerally. lent of "hardscience"are beingreplacedby a moreopenview.Warning sciagainst conflating ence and its positivistic expression, Johnston a moregenerous viewof sci(1986:6) proposes ofsystematic enceas "thepursuit andformulated andas such[it]isnotconfined toany knowledge, In this context, GIS particular epistemology." a new kindof science,one that mayrepresent visualexpression, exemphasizes collaboration, and intuition, and the uniqueness ploration, of

ToolorScience? place overmoretraditional concerns for mathematicalrigor, hypothesis testing, and generality et al. 1992;Rhind1993; (Goodchild 1992;Kemp Fedra 1993; Muller1993; Burrough and Frank 1995). As a discipline, geography has longstruggled withthe tension betweenthe generaland the particular (Bunge1962). Maps and geographic data capturethe essenceof the geographically particular, the boundaryconditionsthat influencethe outcome of physicaland social processes; in thatsense, GIS illuminates theparButunlike ticular. maps, thepurpose ofGIS is to maintain geographic data in a state(s)thatmay be transformed, and analyzed in ways processed, thatare geographically uniform. Thus GIS is a ofboththegeneral andtheparticular, technology in itsformalized implementing theformer algoand models, and thelatter in rithms, concepts, thecontents ofitsdatasets.GIS as a technology seemsuniquely forgeographic reappropriate searchand, morespecifically, fortransforming of processes intopredicgeographic knowledge and decisions. In thissenseGIS tions, policies, tensions between basicrecaptures geography's searchand application, and betweenthe geographicallygeneral and the geographically particular. The demands for basicandapplied knowledge areseveral inthenewworlds andencouncreated tered as a technoGIS serves byGIS. Whether meansto acquire and develop logical knowledge initsownright, oras an endfor scientific inquiry a central these will role systems undoubtedly play in knowledge in the future. But it is making tounderstand ismeant what important by"doing as wellas what ismeant GIS." science," by"doing Thispaper hasidentified three welldefined positions on this oneofwhich confers the matter, only kind ofacademic associated with legitimacy "doIn other GIS" is more ingscience." cases,"doing akin to usinga tool (to be evaluatedby the of the tool to the substantive appropriateness or to engineering better tools (to be problem) evaluated on thedegree in the ofimprovement nottoconstrain tool).In suchcases,GIS appears itsusers to anyparticular stance. epistemological

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delis and Alan Brenner significantly improved the manuscript. The NationalCenterforGeographical Information andAnalysis is supported bytheNational Science Foundation underCooperative Agreement SBR 88-10917.

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Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank PetePeterson, Kristin Steve andRay Smith atUCSBfor Lovelace, Behnke, of fruitful discussions. Thecritical reviews Helen Cou-

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Corvallis,OR 97331-5506, email Correspondence: Departmentof Geosciences, Oregon State University, of Geography, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA (Wright); Department dawn@dusk.geo.orst.edu and Proctor). 93106-4060(Goodchild