Brain-Drain has to be stopped Points to be known:-

Brain-Drain means settling in foreign country. It can be simply defined as the mass emigration of technically skilled people from one country to another country. Brain-Drain is occurring because of lack of opportunities or lack of facilities for practical education in higher education in their own country or because of political instability or for other reasons.

In Favor:-

Because of Brain-Drain India is still remaining as developing country. Indians must utili e their knowledge and skills for India to make our India as developed country. If all Indians utili e their skills for India! India will be the top most developed country in the total world. Because India has much skilled manpower. "ot only in case of India but also in every country! if everybody serves their country! every country will become developed and standard of living of every person increases. Developed countries attracting the citi ens of developing countries by high salaries and using their skills for themselves.

In #gainst:-

It completely depends on individual. $verybody have a right of freedom. %ost of the "&Is are returning India and using their money! which they earned in foreign country to develop their native place or for charities. 'ome people are going foreign for better studies and they are returning India and serving our country. It(ll be really an asset for India.

)onclusion:In my view! we should not compel anyone to be in their native place against

their will. It(s better if we make them reali e that everyone must have will to serve their country and desire to see their country as developed. #nd the main solution for stopping the brain drain is providing opportunities for everyone in one(s own country to prove themselves

*ikipedia! the free encyclopedia +ump to: navigation! search ,his article is about the emigration term. For other uses! see Brain drain -disambiguation..

Brain drain -or human capital flight.! is the large-scale emigration of a large group of individuals with technical skills or knowledge. ,he reasons usually include two aspects which respectively come from countries and individuals. In terms of countries! the reasons may be social environment -in source countries: lack of opportunities! political instability or oppression! economic depression! health risks! etc./ in host countries: rich opportunities! political stability and freedom! developed economy! better living conditions! etc... In terms of individual reasons! there are family influence -overseas relatives.! and personal preference: preference for e0ploring! ambition for an improved career! etc. #lthough the term originally referred to technology workers leaving a nation! the meaning has broadened into: 1the departure of educated or professional people from one country! economic sector! or field for another! usually for better pay or living conditions1.234 Brain drain is usually regarded as an economic cost! since emigrants usually take with them the fraction of value of their training sponsored by the government or other organi ations. It is a parallel of capital flight! which refers to the same movement of financial capital. Brain drain is often associated with de-skilling of emigrants in their country of destination! while their country of emigration e0periences the draining of skilled individuals.

,he term brain drain was coined by the &oyal 'ociety to describe the emigration of 1scientists and technologists1 to "orth #merica from post-war $urope.254 #nother source indicates that this term was first used in the 6nited 7ingdom to describe the influ0 of

Indian scientist and engineers.284 ,he converse phenomenon is 1brain gain1! which occurs when there is a large-scale immigration of technically 9ualified persons. ,here are also relevant phrases called 1brain circulation1 and 1brain waste1.

Brain drain is common amongst developing nations! such as the former colonies of #frica!2:4 the island nations of the )aribbean!2;4 and particularly in centrali ed economies such as former $ast <ermany and the 'oviet 6nion! where marketable skills were not financially rewarded. )ontents

3 =istorical e0amples 3.3 "eoplatonic academy philosophers moves 3.5 'panish e0pulsion of +ews and %oors 3.8 =uguenot e0odus from France -3>th century. 3.: #nti-'emitism in pre-**II $urope -3?88@3?:8. 3.; $astern Bloc brain drain crisis -3?55-3?A3. 5 By region 5.3 $urope 5.3.3 *estern $urope 5.3.5 )entral and $astern $urope 5.3.8 'outheastern $urope 5.3.: Portugal! Ireland! Italy! <reece and 'pain 5.3.; ,he 67 5.5 #frica 5.5.3 <hana 5.5.5 'outh #frica 5.8 *estern #sia 5.8.3 Ira9

5.8.5 Iran 5.: #sia Pacific 5.:.3 %alaysia 5.:.5 Philippines 5.; 'outh #sia 5.;.3 India 5.;.5 "epal 5.;.8 Pakistan 5.;.: 'ri Banka 5.A $astern #sia 5.A.3 )hina 5.> #ustralasia 5.>.3 Pacific Islands 5.>.5 "ew Cealand 5.D "orth #merica 5.D.3 )anada 5.D.5 6nited 'tates 5.? Batin #merica 5.?.3 )uba 5.3E )aribbean 8 Preventative measures 8.3 Brain circulation 8.5 Brain waste 8.8 ,he advantages of the Brain Drain 8.: "egative conse9uences of the Brain drain 8.:.3 "egative Impact of Brain Drain on =ealth 'ystems of Developing )ountries

8.; ,he utility of the brain drain : 'ee also ; Footnotes A &eferences > Fnline references D $0ternal links

=istorical e0amples "eoplatonic academy philosophers moves

#fter +ustinian closed #cademy in #D ;5?! according to the historian #gathias! its remaining members looked for protection under the rule of 'assanid king 7hosrau I! carrying with them precious scrolls of literature and philosophy! and to a lesser degree of science. #fter a peace treaty between the Persian and the By antine empire in ;85 guaranteed their personal security! some members of it found sanctuary in the pagan stronghold of =arran! near $dessa. Fne of the last leading figures of this group was 'implicius! a pupil of Damascius! the last head of the #thenian school. From there! the students of an #cademy-in-e0ile could have survived into the ?th century! long enough to facilitate the #rabic revival of the "eoplatonist commentary tradition in Baghdad.2A4 'panish e0pulsion of +ews and %oors

#fter the end of the )atholic recon9uest of 'pain! the )atholic %onarchs pursued a religiously uniform kingdom. +ews were e0pelled from the country in 3:?5. #s they dominated financial services in the country! their e0pulsion was instrumental in causing future economic problems! such as the need of foreign bankers such as the Fugger family and from <enoa. Fn > +anuary 3:?5 the 7ing ordered the e0pulsion of all the +ews from 'pain-from the kingdoms of )astile! )atalonia! #ragon! <alicia! %aGorca! %inorca! the Bas9ue provinces! the islands of 'ardinia and 'icily! and the kingdom of Halencia. Before that the Iueen had e0pelled them from the kingdom of #ndalusia2>4 %ore information is available in +ewish =istory 'ourcebook.

,he war against ,urks and "orth #frican %oors affected internal policy in the uprising of the #lpuGarras -3;AD@3;>3. and motivated the $0pulsion of the %oriscos in 3AE?. Despite being demographically a minority they were a key part of the farming sector and

trained artisans. ,heir departure contributed to economic decline in some regions of 'pain. ,his way! the conservative aristocracy increased its power over economically developed provinces. =uguenot e0odus from France -3>th century.

In 3AD;! Bouis JIH revoked the $dict of "antes and declared Protestantism to be illegal in the $dict of Fontainebleau. #fter this! =uguenots -with estimates ranging from 5EE!EEE to 3!EEE!EEE2D4. fled to surrounding Protestant countries: $ngland! the "etherlands! 'wit erland! "orway! Denmark and Prussia K whose )alvinist <reat $lector Frederick *illiam welcomed them to help rebuild his war-ravaged and underpopulated country. %any went to the Dutch colony at the )ape -'outh #frica. where they were instrumental in establishing a wine industry.2?4 #t least 3E!EEE went to Ireland where they assimilated into the Protestant minority during the plantations.

%any =uguenots and their decedents prospered. =enri Basnage de Beauval fled France and settled in the "etherlands! where he became an influential writer and historian. #bel Boyer! another noted writer! settled in Bondon and became a tutor to the British &oyal Family. =enry Fourdrinier! the descendant of =uguenot settlers in $ngland! founded the modern paper industry. #ugustin )ourtauld fled to $ngland settling in $sse0 and established a dynasty that founded the British silk industry. "otes 'wiss mathematician <abriel )ramer was born in <eneva to =uguenot refugees. 'ir +ohn =oublon! the first <overnor of the Bank of $ngland! was born into a =uguenot family in Bondon. Isaac BarrL! the son of =uguenots settlers in Ireland! became an influential British soldier and politician. Future British Field %arshal +ohn Bigonier! born +ean Bouis Bigonier! was a child when his family fled France for $ngland. <ustav and Peter )arl FabergL! the descendants of =uguenot refugees! founded the world famous FabergL company in &ussia.

Fther settlers went to the newly established British colonies in "orth #merica. ,hey established communities in places such as "ew &ochelle and "ew Palt in "ew Mork. ,he =uguenot )hurch in )harleston! 'outh )arolina was originally founded in 3AD> by a group of refugees from France. ,he =uguenots and their descendants were instrumental in the growth of the 6nited 'tates. &evolutionary leaders +ohn 'evier! Francis %arion and Paul &evere were descendants of =uguenot refugees. 'even other 6' presidents have documented =uguenot ancestors: <eorge *ashington! 6lysses '. <rant! ,heodore &oosevelt! *illiam ,aft! =arry ,ruman! <erald Ford and Byndon +ohnson.23E4

,he e0odus of =uguenots from France created a brain drain as =uguenots accounted

for a disproportionate number of entrepreneurial! artisan! and technical occupations in the country. ,he loss of this technical e0pertise was a blow from which the kingdom did not fully recover for many years.2citation needed4 #nti-'emitism in pre-**II $urope -3?88@3?:8.

#ntisemitic feelings and laws in $urope through the 3?8Es and 3?:Es! culminating in the =olocaust! caused the emigration of many scientists to the 6nited 'tates. "otable e0amples are:

#lbert $instein -emigrated permanently to the 6nited 'tates in 3?88. 'igmund Freud -=e finally decided to emigrate permanently with his wife and daughter to Bondon! $ngland in 3?8D! 5 months after the #nschluss. $nrico Fermi -3?8D/ though not +ewish himself! his wife Baura was. "iels Bohr -3?:8/ his mother was +ewish. ,heodore von 7arman +ohn von "eumann

and many others.

In addition to the anti-'emitic conditions! "a i political persecution against liberals and socialists in <ermany contributed to another kind of emigration. ,he Bauhaus! perhaps the most important arts and design school of the 5Eth century! was forced to close down during the "a i regime because of their liberal and socialist leanings! which the "a is considered degenerate.2citation needed4 ,he school had already been shut down in *eimar because of its political stance but moved to Dessau prior to the closing. Following this abandonment! two of the three pioneers of %odern architecture! %ies Han Der &ohe and *alter <ropius! left <ermany for #merica -while Be )orbusier stayed in France.. #long with them! they brought the $uropean modern movement to the #merican public and fostered the international style in architecture and design.2citation needed4 ,hey helped to transform design education at #merican universities and thus influenced a generation of up and coming architects.2citation needed4 $astern Bloc brain drain crisis -3?55-3?A3. Berlin *all 3?>;

%ain articles: $astern Bloc emigration and defection and $astern Bloc

By 3?55! the 'oviet 6nion had issued restrictions making emigration of its citi ens to other countries almost impossible.2334 'oviet Premier "ikita 7hrushchev later stated 1*e were scared! really scared. *e were afraid the thaw might unleash a flood! which we wouldn(t be able to control and which could drown us. =ow could it drown usN It could have overflowed the banks of the 'oviet riverbed and formed a tidal wave which would have washed away all the barriers and retaining walls of our society.12354 #fter 'oviet occupation of $astern $urope at the end of *orld *ar II! the maGority of those living in the newly ac9uired areas of the $astern Bloc aspired to independence and wanted the 'oviets to leave.2384 By the early 3?;Es! the approach of the 'oviet 6nion to restricting emigration was emulated by most of the rest of the $astern Bloc! including $ast <ermany.23:4

$ven with the closing of the Inner <erman border officially in 3?;5!23;4 the border between the sectors of $ast Berlin and *est Berlin remained considerably more accessible than the rest of the border because it was administered by all four occupying powers.23A4 ,he Berlin sector border was essentially a 1loophole1 through which $ast Bloc citi ens could still emigrate.23;4 ,he 8.; million $ast <ermans! called &epublikflOchtlinge! that had left by 3?A3 totaled appro0imately 5EP of the entire $ast <erman population.23>4 ,he emigrants tended to be young and well educated! leading to the brain drain feared by officials in $ast <ermany.2384 Muri #ndropov! then the )P'6 Director on &elations with )ommunist and *orkers Parties of 'ocialist )ountries! to write an urgent letter to the )entral )ommittee on 5D #ugust 3?;D about the significant ;EP increase in the number of $ast <erman intelligentsia among the refugees.23D4 #ndropov reported that! while the $ast <erman leadership stated that they were leaving for economic reasons! testimony from refugees indicated that the reasons were more political than material.23D4 =e stated 1the flight of the intelligentsia has reached a particularly critical phase.123D4 ,he direct cost of labour force losses has been estimated at Q> billion to Q? billion! with $ast <erman party leader *alter 6lbricht later claiming that *est <ermany owed him Q3> billion in compensation! including reparations as well as labour force losses.23>4 In addition! the drain of $ast <ermany(s young population potentially cost it over 55.; billion marks in lost educational investment.23?4 In #ugust 3?A3! $ast <ermany erected a barbed-wire barrier that would eventually be e0panded by construction into the Berlin *all! effectively closing the loophole.25E4 By region $urope

Brain drain phenomena in $urope fall into two distinct trends. ,he first is an outflow of

highly 9ualified scientists from (*estern $urope( mostly to the 6nited 'tates.2534 ,he second is a migration of skilled workers from ()entral( and ('outheastern $urope( into (*estern $urope(! within the $6!2554 although there is evidence that the trend is slowing. 258425:4 ,he $uropean 6nion has noted a net loss of highly skilled workers and introduced a 1blue card1 policy @ much like the #merican green card @ which 1seeks to draw an additional 5E million workers from #sia! #frica and Batin #merica in the ne0t two decades1.25;4

#lthough the $6 recogni es a need for e0tensive immigration to mitigate the effects of an aging population!25A4 nationalist political parties have gained support in many $uropean countries by calling for stronger laws restricting immigration.25>4 Immigrants are perceived as a burden on the state and cause of social problems like increased crime rates and maGor culture differences.25D4 *estern $urope

In 5EEA! over 5;E!EEE $uropeans emigrated to the 6nited 'tates -3A:!5D;.!25?4 #ustralia -:E!:;;.!28E4 )anada -8>!?:A.2834 and "ew Cealand -8E!5A5..2854 <ermany alone saw 3;;!5?E people leave the country -though mostly to destinations within $urope.. ,his is the highest rate of worker emigration since reunification! which itself was e9ual to the rate in the aftermath of *orld *ar II.2884 Portugal is suffering the largest drain in *estern $urope. ,he country has lost 3?.;P of its 9ualified population and is struggling to absorb sufficient skilled immigrants to compensate for losses to #ustralia! )anada! 'wit erland! <ermany and #ustria.28:4 )entral and $astern $urope

%ore than ;EE!EEE &ussian scientists and computer programmers have left the country since the fall of the 'oviet 6nion in 3??3.28;4 )entral and $astern $uropean countries have e0pressed concerns about e0tensive migration of skilled labourers to Ireland and the 6nited 7ingdom. Bithuania! for e0ample! has lost about 3EE!EEE citi ens since 5EE8! many of them young and well-educated! to emigration to Ireland in particular.2citation needed4 -Ireland itself used to suffer serious brain drain to #merica! Britain and )anada before the )eltic ,iger economic programmes.. # similar phenomenon occurred in Poland after its entry into the $uropean 6nion. In the first year of its $6 membership! 3EE!EEE Poles registered to work in $ngland! Goining an estimated >;E!EEE residents of Polish descent.28A4 &esearch conducted by P7F Bank Polski! Poland(s largest retail bank! shows that A8P of Polish immigrants to the 67 are aged between 5: and 8; with :EP possessing a university degree.28>4 =owever! with the rapid growth of salaries in Poland! booming economy! strong value of the Roty! and decreasing unemployment -which fell from 3:.5P in %ay 5EEA to DP in %arch 5EED28D4.! the flight of Polish workers

is slowing.28?4 In 5EED and early 5EE? people who came back outnumbered those leaving the country. ,he e0odus is likely to continue.2:E4 'outheastern $urope

,he rapid and small-scale departure of highly skilled workers from 'outheastern $urope has caused concern about those nations developing towards inclusion in the $uropean 6nion.2:34 ,his has sparked programmes to curb the outflow by encouraging skilled technicians and scientists to remain in the region to work on international proGects.2:54

#lbania is also one of the countries that has e0perienced brain drain from the fall of communist regime. 'ince 3??3! people started emigrating in the closest countries! Italy and <reece and with the passing of years going further to the 6nited 7ingdom! )anada and the 6nited 'tates. In the last 3E years! educated people and professionals have been leaving the country and going in other countries where they feel they can have better possibilities! better and secure lives. ,his is a concern for #lbania as it is losing its skilled-workers and professionals. Portugal! Ireland! Italy! <reece and 'pain

)iti ens of countries mostly stricken by the crisis in $urope head towards #ustralia! Bra il! #ngola and #rgentina.2:842::4 ,he 67

,here are a considerable number of people leaving the 67 for #ustralia and the 6'.2:;4 #frica

)onservatively speaking! 1Brain drain has cost the #frican continent over Q: billion in the employment of 3;E!EEE e0patriate professionals annually.12:A4 #ccording to the 6nited "ations Development Programme! 1$thiopia lost >; percent of its skilled workforce between 3?DE and 3??3!1 which harms the ability of such nations to get out of poverty. "igeria! 7enya and $thiopia are believed to be the most affected. In the case of $thiopia! the country produces many e0cellent doctors! but there are more $thiopian doctors in )hicago than there are in $thiopia.2:>4 'outh #frican President ,habo %beki said in his 3??D (#frican &enaissance( speech:

1In our world in which the generation of new knowledge and its application to change the human condition is the engine which moves human society further away from barbarism! do we not have need to recall #frica(s hundreds of thousands of intellectuals back from their places of emigration in *estern $urope and "orth #merica! to reGoin those who remain still within our shoresS I dream of the day when these! the #frican mathematicians and computer specialists in *ashington and "ew Mork! the #frican physicists! engineers! doctors! business managers and economists! will return from Bondon and %anchester and Paris and Brussels to add to the #frican pool of brain power! to en9uire into and find solutions to #frica(s problems and challenges! to open the #frican door to the world of knowledge! to elevate #frica(s place within the universe of research the information of new knowledge! education and information.1

#fricarecruit is a Goint initiative by "$P#D and the )ommonwealth Business )ouncil to recruit professional e0patriate #fricans to take employment back in #frica after working overseas.2:D4

In response to growing debate over brain drain of health care professionals! especially from lower income countries to some higher income countries! in 5E3E the *orld =ealth Frgani ation adopted the <lobal )ode of Practice on the International &ecruitment of =ealth Personnel! a policy framework for all countries for the ethical international recruitment of doctors! nurses and other health professionals. <hana

,he trend for young doctors and nurses to seek higher salaries and better working conditions! mainly in higher income countries of the *est! is having serious impacts on the health care sector in <hana. <hana currently has about 8AEE doctorsKone for every A>EE inhabitants. ,his compares with one doctor per :8E people in the 6nited 'tates. 2:?4 %any of the country(s trained doctors and nurses leave to work in countries such as Britain! the 6nited 'tates! +amaica and )anada! in what many refer to as the brain drain. It is estimated that up to ADP of the country(s trained medical staff left between 3??8 and 5EEE and according to <hana(s official statistics institute! in the period 3??? to 5EE:! ::D doctors! or ;:P of those trained in the period! left to work abroad.2;E4 'outh #frica %ain article: $conomy of 'outh #fricaTBrain drain

#long with many #frican nations! 'outh #frica has been e0periencing a 1brain drain1 in the past 5E years. ,his is believed to be potentially damaging for the regional economy! 2;34 and is almost certainly detrimental for the wellbeing of regional poor maGority desperately reliant on the health care infrastructure given the =IHU#ID' epidemic.2;54 ,he skills drain in 'outh #frica tends to demonstrate racial contours e0acerbated by Black $conomic $mpowerment policies! and has thus resulted in large *hite 'outh #frican communities abroad.2;84 ,he problem is further highlighted by 'outh #frica(s re9uest in 5EE3 of )anada to stop recruiting its doctors and other highly skilled medical personnel.2;:4

For the medical sector! the loss of returns from investment for all doctors emigrating is Q3.:3bn for 'outh #frica. ,he benefit to destination countries is huge: Q5.>bn for the 6nited 7ingdom only! without compensation.2;;4 *estern #sia Ira9

,he lack of basic services and security is feeding an outflow of professionals from Ira9 that began under 'addam =ussein! under whose rule : million Ira9is are believed to have left the country.2;A4 ,he e0odus is fuelled by invasion of Ira9 by the 6'# and subse9uent violence! which! as of 5EEA! has seen D? university professors and senior lecturers killed.2;>4 Iran %ain article: Iran(s brain drain

In 5EEA! the International %onetary Fund ranked Iran highest in brain drain among ?E measured countries.2;D4 ,he estimated e0odus of 3DE!EEE people per year is thought to be due to a poor Gob market! and tense domestic social conditions.2;?42AE4 #sia Pacific %alaysia

,here has been a serious brain drain from %alaysia. %aGor pull factors have included better career opportunities abroad and compensation while maGor push factors included corruption! social ine9uality! and educational opportunities! and the government(s Bumiputera affirmative action policies. #s of 5E33! Bernama has reported that there are

a million talented %alaysians working overseas.2A34 &ecently the brain drain has increased in pace: 8E;!EEE %alaysians migrated overseas between %arch 5EED and #ugust 5EE? compared to 3:E!EEE in 5EE>.2A54 "on-Bumiputeras particularly %alaysian Indian and %alaysian )hinese were over-represented in these statistics. Popular destinations included 'ingapore! #ustralia! the 6nited 'tates and the 6nited 7ingdom. 2A84 ,his has caused %alaysia(s economic growth rate to fall to an average of :.AP per annum in the 5EEEs compared to >.5P in the 3??Es.2A:4 Philippines

,he term Vbrain drainW has been applied to the Philippines since the 3?AEs and continues to be relevant to their economic situation today. In particular! the term has been used to describe the Filipino nursing sector. #lthough the economic situation has changed in the last several decades! academics have tended to discuss the brain drain phenomenon in the Philippines as a historical progression from colonial and international ties.

Post-)olonial Philippines In 3?:A! colonialism in the Philippines ended with the election %anuel &o0as.2A;4 ,he PhilippinesX infrastructure and economies had been devastated by **II contributing to serious national health problems and uneven wealth distribution. 2AA4 #s part of reconstruction efforts to the newly independent state! education of nurses was encouraged to combat the low 3 nurse per 35 EEE Filipinos ratio2A>4 and to help raise national health care standards. =owever &o0as having spent his prior 8 years as the secretary of finance and chairman of the "ational $conomic )ouncil and a number of other Filipino companies! was particularly concerned with the countryXs financial -rather than health. problems.2AA4 ,he lack of government funding for rural community clinics and hospitals as well as low wages continued to perpetuate low nurse retention rates in rural areas and slow economic recovery. *hen the 6nited 'tates rela0ed their Immigration #ct laws in 3?A;! labor e0port emerged as a possible solution for the Philippines.

Babour e0port from the 3?AEs on 'ince the 3?AEs and 3?>Es! the Philippines has been the largest supplier of nurses to the 6nited 'tates! in addition to e0port labour supplied to the 67 and 'audi #rabia.2AD4 In 3?A;! with a recovering post-**II economy and facing labor shortages! the 6nited 'tates introduced a new occupational clause to the Immigration #ct.2A?4 ,he clause encouraged migration of skilled labour into sectors e0periencing a shortage!2A?4 particularly nursing! as well rela0ing restrictions on race and origin.2>E4 ,his was seen as an opportunity for mass Filipino labour e0portation by the Filipino government! and was followed by a boom in public and private nursing educational programs. 'eeking access through the 6.'. government sponsored $0change Hisitors Program -$HP.! workers were encouraged to go abroad to learn more

skills and earn higher pay! sending remittance payments back home.2>34 &egarded as a highly femini ed profession! most labour migrants have been predominantly female and young -5;@8E years of age..2>54

Pursuing economic gains through labour migration over infrastructural financing and improvement! the Philippines still faced slow economic growth during the 3?>Es and 3?DEs.2>84 *ith continuously rising demand for nurses in the international service sector and overseas! the Filipino government aggressively furthered their educational programs under the now elected President Ferdinande %arcos. #lthough complete statistical data can be difficult to collect! studies done in the 3?>Es show 38 ;EE nurses -or D;P of all Filipino nurses. had left the country to pursue work elsewhere.2>:4 #dditionally! public and private nursing school programs multiplied from a reported 3> nursing schools in 3?;E! to 3:E nursing schools in 3?>E.2>;4

&emittances - #n economic boost for the home countryN 'tudies show wage discrepancies between the Philippines and developed countries such as the 6.'. and the 67 as stark. ,his has lead Filipino government officials to note that remittances sent home may be seen as more economically valuable than pursuit of local work. #round the turn of the 5Eth century! the average monthly wage of Filipino nurses who remain in their home country was between ;;E - 3EEE pesos per month -roughly >E - 3:E 6'D at that time..2>A4 )omparatively the average nurse working in the 6.'. was receiving DEE - 3:EE 6'D per month.2>A4

=owever scholars have noted that economic disparities in the Philippines have not been eased in the past decades. #lthough remittance payments account for a large portion of Filipino <DP -5?E.; %illion 6'D in 3?>D! increased to 3E.> Billion 6'D in 5EE;.!2>>4 and are therefore regarded as a large economic boost to the state! Filipino unemployment has continued to rise -D.:P in 3??E! increased to 35.>P in 5EE8..2>>4 =ere scholars have begun to look at the culture of nurse migration endorsed by the Filipino state as a contributing factor the countryXs economic and health problems.

%igration )ulture of "ursing ,he Philippines spent only 8.AP of their <DP on health care and facilities in 5E33! ranking them 3>Eth by the *orld =ealth Frgani ation on health spending.2>D4 ,heir health system! particularly in rural areas has been underfunded! understaffed and lacking advancements in health technologies causing retention difficulties and poor access to services.2>?4 =owever with reported figures of Filipino nursing graduates reaching 5> EEE between 3??? and 5EE8! and Gumping to a total of 5A EEE in 5EE; alone! there are clear discrepancies between skilled Filipino

nurses and availability to health services in the country.2DE4 'cholars have pointed to the increasing privati ation and commerciali ation of the nursing industry as a maGor reason for this loss of skill! i.e. brain drain.

%igration has arguably become a Vtaken-for-grantedW aspect of a nursing career particularly with regards to the culture of migration that has been institutionally perpetuated in the health sector.2D34 %ost nursing schools have been built since the turn of the century and are concentrated primarily in metro %anilla and other main cities. Ff appro0imately :AE schools providing bachelors of nursing!2D54 the maGority are privately controlled! in part due to the inability of the Filipino government to keep up with rising education demand. =owever the private schooling has also been a lucrative business! playing on the desperation of Philippine labour looking for potential access to higher income.

$ducation Industry In addition to the Philippine Fverseas $mployment #dministration -PF$#. run by the government as a source of overseas recruitment agreements! and a marketer of Filipino labour overseas! private nursing schools have acted as migration funnels e0panding enrollment! asserting control over licensure process! and entering into business agreements with other overseas recruitment agencies.2D84 =owever retaining 9ualified instructors and staff has been reported to be as problematic as retaining actual nurses! contributing to low e0am pass rates -only 35 of 3>; reporting schools had pass rates of ?EP or higher in 5EE;!2D:4 with an average pass rate of :5P across the country in 5EEA..2D;4 Private schools have also begun to control licensure e0am review centers! providing e0tra preparation for international 9ualification e0ams at e0tra cost and with no guarantee of success.2DA4 It is estimated that between 3??? and 5EEA! >EE million 6'D was spent on nursing education and licensure review courses by individuals who never even took the licensing e0ams or were able to complete the programming.2D>4 *ith migrant nursing pushed as the most desirable route to higher income it is easy to see why the country is e0periencing a serious brain drain in the health sector of not only nurses and physicians as well.

Discrepancies in wages between Filipino nurses working at home and those working abroad! as noted above! provide clear economic incentives for nurses to leave the country however physicians have also been lured into these promises of wealth through the creation of V'econd )ourseW nursing programs.2DD4 'tudies compare wages of athome and abroad Filipino nurses from 5EE;-5E3E! with at-home nurses receiving 3>E 6'D per month! or 5E:E 6'D per annum! compared to a 8-:EEE 6'D salary per month in the 6.'.! or 8A-:D EEE 6'D per annum.2D?4 Filipino Physician salaries of those working at home are not much more competitive! earning on average 8EE-DEE 6'D per month or 8AEE-?AEE 6'D per annum.2?E4 #lthough it is important to note with such

discrepancies that the costs of living are also higher in the 6.'.! and remittance payment transfers back home are not free! there is still evidently a large economic pull to studying as a nurse and migrating overseas.

Brain Drain - ,he Push and Pull! and the lasting effects ,he PhilippinesX colonial and post-**II history contribute an understanding of the process by which nurses have increasingly turned to migration for greater economic benefits. Discussed in terms of numbers and financial gains! e0port labour migration has been suggested as a solution to the struggling Filipino economy with labour transfers and remittances payments seen as beneficial for both countries.2?34 =owever noting that in 5EE:! DEP of all Filipino physicians had taken Ysecond coursesX to retrain as nurses! it is suggested that e0port labour migration is undermining the national health sector of the country.2?54

*ith physicians and nurses leaving en mass for greater financial promise abroad! the ratio of nurse to patients in the Philippines has worsened from 3 nurse per 3;-5E patients in 3??E to 3 nurse per :E-AE patients in 5EE>.2?84 #dditionally! the increase in private institution recruitment has evaded government oversight! and arguably has led to lower standards and working conditions for nurses actually working abroad. Fnce abroad! Filipino nurses have identified discriminatory workplace practices! receiving more night and holiday shifts! as well as more mundane tasks than non-Filipino counterparts.2?:4 "urses also discuss the lack of opportunity to train and learn new skills! an enticement that is promoted by the Filipino e0port labour migration system.2?;4 =omesickness and lack of community integration can also cause great emotional duress on migrants! and with the maGority of migrants female! family separation can cause negative impacts on both the migrant and the families.

Further critical in9uiries into the success of e0port labour migration for the Philippines are needed. #s noted! financial and economic statistics can not fully describe the comple0ity of en-mass migration of nurses and physicians. It is important to understand the multitude of elements which combine to encourage a culture of migration. Brain-drain as a phenomenon can be currently applied to the Filipino situation however it is important to note! this does not suggest e0port labour migration as the primary causal factor of the countryXs current economic situation. Back of government funding for health care systems in addition to the e0port labour migration culture! as well as other local factors! all contribute to what is described as the current brain-drain phenomenon occurring in the Philippines. It is important to understand the comple0ity of the nationXs history with regards to labour e0port and government funding! in order to determine benefits! costs! and perpetuated problems within the societyXs infrastructure. 'outh #sia

India

,he 6"DP estimates that India loses Q5 billion a year because of the emigration of computer e0perts to the 6.'.2?A4 Indian students going abroad for their higher studies costs India a foreign e0change outflow of Q3E billion annually.2?>4 "epal

$very year 5;E!EEE youth are reported to leave "epal for various reasons. ,hey seek opportunities in its various manifestation K higher living standards! employment! better income! education! a luring western lifestyle! stability and security. ,he list entails everything "epal is incapable of providing to the youth for the obvious reasons.2?D4 Pakistan

,he ever-increasing Pakistani diaspora through the migration of skilled labour from Pakistan to industrialised nations in $urope! "orth #merica and oil-rich %iddle $ast has contributed to a professional brain drain in the country.2citation needed4 In recent years! the uncertain political situation and better Gob opportunities abroad has allowed many Pakistanis to seek prospective interests outside the country.

*hile Pakistan is a semi-industrialised country that has not overtly been affected by a brain drain! a continuous emigration of professionals is thought to be an impediment in its long-term economic growth.2??4 $ach year! thousands of highly 9ualified doctors! engineers and scientists are said to move abroad! the most visible effect being an overall loss of skilled human resources.23EE4 'ri Banka

'ri Banka is losing a significant proportion of its intellectuals -almost all are educated by government money through the free education system of 'ri Banka.. %aGority migrated to 6'#! 67 or #ustralia. $astern #sia )hina

*ith rapid <DP growth and a higher degree of openness towards the rest of the world! )hina has been facing brain drain. # popular Internet writer recently caused a stir when he asserted that Vall )hinese who earn more than 35E!EEE yuan -Q3>!A;E. a year want to immigrate.W ,here has been upsurge in )hinese emigration to *estern countriesK particularly the 6nited 'tates! )anada and #ustraliaKsince the mid-first decade of the 53st century.23E34 )hina became the biggest worldwide contributor of emigrants in 5EE>. #ccording to the official )hinese media! A;!EEE )hinese last year secured immigration or permanent resident status in the 6nited 'tates! 5;!EEE in )anada and 3;!EEE in #ustralia.23E34 ,he largest group of emigrants consists of professionals and e0perts with a middle-class background!23E34 who are the backbone for the development of )hina. #s the biggest contributor of emigrants! )hina also suffers the worst brain drain in the world! according to a new study that found seven out of every 3E students who enroll in an overseas university never return to live in their homeland.23E54

,he brain drain usually happens in two ways! including that the skilled intellectuals migrate to other countries! and students study overseas and then stay abroad. In )hina! both ways e0ist! but the second one is more popular and common.

'ince the beginning of last century! international students were sent to different countries to learn advanced skills and knowledge! and they were e0pected to return to save the nation from invasion and poverty. *hile most of these students came back to make a living! there were still those who chose to stay abroad. From 3?;Es to 3?>Es! )hina was in a period of widespread upheaval due to political instability. #s a result! many )hinese felt upset and disappointed about the situation. ,he situation did not improve after the gradual liberali ation of )hina during the DEs/ Gust as many people chose to go abroad since there were more opportunities overseas. %ore social upheavals happened with the ,iananmen '9uare %assacreKthe result of which was an increasing )hinese diaspora. #s steady economic growth boost <DP per capita! more families in )hina are able to support their children to go abroad for studying or living. #ll of these factors contribute to the current brain drain in )hina. In this day and age! most students do not go back to )hina if they are able to find a good Gob abroad. *ealthy )hinese people tend to settle down abroad to enGoy high 9uality of life.

'tatistics of Brain Drain in )hina

)hart 3: &eturn rate of )hinese international students Mear returned &ate -P. 3?>D DAE 5:D 5D.D:

T of students T

3?>? 3?DE 3?D3 3?D5 3?D8 3?D: 3?D; 3?DA 3?D> 3?DD 3?D? 3??E 3??3 3??5 3??8 3??: 3??; 3??A 3??> 3??D 3??? 5EEE 5EE3 5EE5 5EE8 5EE:

3>>> 535: 5?55 585A 5A88 8E>8 :DDD :A>A :>E8 8>DA 885? 5?;E 5?EE A;:E

583 3A5 33:8 533A 58E8 55?E 3:5: 38DD 3AE; 8EEE 3>;8 3;?8 5EA? 8A33

3D.3A 38.:A 58.55 8D.?A :?.E> ;:.E: :D.38 ::.>5 :8.EA :>.35 :>.A3 :D.ED :?.A; ;E.8? :?.?5 :8.5; :E.3> 8D.AA 8>.;D 8D.E; 8>.8A 8:.?5

3E>:5 ;35D 3?E>3 :58E 5E8D3 ;>;E 5E?E; A;>E 55:3E >38E 3>A55 >8>? 58>:? >>:D 8D?D? ?353

D8?>8 355:8 5?.8A 35;3>? 33>8E> 33:AD5 3>?:; 5;.E3 5E3;5 58.8: 5:>5A 58.E8

5EE; 5EEA

33D;3; 38:EEE

8:?D> 5:.E5 :5EEE 5;.E?

,he statistics from this chart shows an increasing trend of )hinese international students from 3?>D to 5EEA! while the number of people returned to )hina also increased. =owever! the return rate fluctuated in those years. )hart 5: )hinese students and scholars in 6' Mear )hinese 'tudents -&ank! of 6' international students. students in 6' in 6' 3??E-3 3??3-5 3??5-8 3??8-: 3??:-; 3??;-A 3??A-> 3??>-D 3??D-? 3???-E 5EEE-3 5EE3-5 5EE5-8 5EE8-: 5EE:-; 5EE;-A 5EEA-> 8?AEE -3. :5?3E -3. :;38E -3. ::8DE -3. 8?:E8 -5. 8?A38 -5. :5;E8 -5. :A?;D -5. ;3EE3 -3. ;::AA -3. ;??8? -3. A8533 -5. A:>;> -5. A3>A; -5. A5;58 -5. A5;D5 -5. A>>58 -5. ?.> 3E.5 3E.8 ?.? D.> D.> >.D ?.D 3E.: 3E.A 3E.? 3E.D 33.E 3E.D 33.3 33.3 33.A "U# "U# "U# "U# "U# "U# P international P foreign scholars

)hinese scholars

333;A 3D.A ?DAA ?55D ?>5: 3>.E 3;.; 3;.A

3E>E? 3A.: 33D;: 3A.D 3855? 3>.> 3:>>5 3D.; 3;A5: 3D.5 3;3>3 3D.E 3:?58 3D.E 3>E8; 3?.E 3?E3> 3?.A 5E3:? 5E.;

'tatistics sources23E84 'ee also: )ollege graduates struggle to build their careers #ustralasia Pacific Islands

,he post-**II migration trends in the Pacific Islands has essentially followed these trends

%ost Pacific island nations that were formerly under 67 mandate have had migration outflows to #ustralia and "ew Cealand since the de-coloniali ation of the region from the 3?AEs to the 3??Es. ,here has only been a limited outflow from these islands to )anada and the 67 since de-coloniali ation. %ost Pacific islands administered by France -like ,ahiti. have had an outflow into France. %ost Pacific islands under some kind of 6' administration have had inflows into the 6'! and to a lesser e0tent )anada.

"ew Cealand

During the 3??Es! 8E!EEE "ew Cealanders were emigrating each year. #n F$)D report released in 5EE; revealed that 5:.5P of "ew Cealanders with a tertiary education were living outside of "ew Cealand! predominantly in #ustralia.23E:4 In 5EE>! around 5:!EEE "ew Cealanders settled in #ustralia.23E;4

During the 5EED election campaign! the "ational Party campaigned on the ruling Babour Party(s inability to keep "ew Cealanders at home! with a series of billboards announcing 1*ave goodbye to higher ta0es! not your loved ones1.23EA4 =owever four years after winning that election! the e0odus to #ustralia had intensified! surpassing ;8!EEE per annum in 5E35.23E>4 Prime %inister +ohn 7ey blamed the global financial crisis for the continuing drain.23ED4

'ince taking power in late 5EED! it is estimated 3>E!EEE 7iwis have left for #ustralia! as of December 5E35.23E?4

It has been noted that "ew Cealand also enGoys immigration of 9ualified foreigners! potentially leaving a net gain of skills.233E4 "orth #merica )anada

)olonial administrators in )anada observed the trend of human capital flight to the 6nited 'tates as early as the 3DAEs! when it was already clear that a maGority of immigrants arriving at Iuebec )ity were en route to destinations in the 6nited 'tates. #le0ander ). Buchanan! government agent at Iuebec! argued that prospective emigrants should be offered free land to remain in )anada. ,he problem of attracting and keeping the right immigrants has been a constant in )anadian immigration history. 23334

In the 3?5Es! over 5EP of university graduating classes in engineering and science were emigrating to the 6nited 'tates. *hen governments displayed no interest! concerned industrials formed the ,echnical 'ervice )ouncil in 3?5> to combat the brain drain. #s a practical means of doing so! the )ouncil operated a placement service that was free to graduates.

By 3?>A! the )ouncil had placed over 3A!EEE men and women. Between 3?AE and 3?>? over 3>!EEE engineers and scientists emigrated to the 6nited 'tates. But the e0odus of technically trained )anadians leaving dropped from 5>P of the graduating classes in 3?5> to under 3EP in 3?;3 and ;P in 3?A>.

In )anada today! the idea of a brain drain to the 6nited 'tates is occasionally a domestic political issue. #t times! (brain drain( is used as a Gustification for income ta0 cuts. During the 3??Es! some alleged a brain drain from )anada to the 6nited 'tates! especially in the software! aerospace! health care and entertainment industries! due to the perception of higher wages and lower income ta0es in the 6'.23354 'ome also suggest that engineers and scientists were also attracted by the greater diversity of Gobs and a perceived lack of research funding in )anada.

,he evidence suggests that! in the 3??Es! )anada did indeed lose some of its homegrown talent to the 6'.23384 "onetheless! )anada hedged against these losses by attracting more highly skilled workers from abroad. ,his allowed the country to reali e a net brain gain as more professionals entered )anada than left -even today! )anada still enGoys a net brain gain..23384 'ometimes! the 9ualifications of these migrants are given no standing in )anada -see credentialism.! resulting in some - though not all - highly skilled professionals being forced into lower paying service sector Gobs.

Brain drain is still a significant issue in #tlantic provinces such as "ew Brunswick! where a relative lack of Gobs results in many of the fully educated to move to other provinces such as "ova 'cotia! #lberta! or British )olumbia. Brain gain also occurs here! however! through immigration. ,his often causes controversy among the working class as to whether or not enough Gobs are available for born )anadians.

%ore recently however! )anada(s resilient economy! strong domestic market! enviable standard of living! and considerable wage growth across a number of sectors! have effectively ended the brain drain debate in )anada.233:4233;4 )anada(s economic success has also prompted some top 6' talent to migrate to )anada.233:4233;4233A4 233>4233D4 In the first decade of the 53st century! )anadian productivity grew while 6' productivity evened out.233:4 #necdotal evidence also suggests that stringent 6' security measures put in place after 'eptember 33th! 5EE3 have helped to end the brain drain debate in )anada.233?4 6nited 'tates

,he 5EEE 6nited 'tates )ensus Bureau published a special report on domestic worker migration! with a focus on the movement of young! single! college-educated migrants. 235E4 ,he data shows a trend of such people moving away from the &ust Belt and northern <reat Plains region towards the *est )oast and 'outheast. ,he area with the largest net influ0 of young! single! college-educated persons was the 'an Francisco Bay #rea.

,he 6nited 'tates -like other countries. has been e0periencing widespread rural depopulation in the past few decades! which have seen many young rural graduates moving to urbanUsuburban areas. ,his has negatively impacted 6' rural communities. 2citation needed4 Batin #merica

,here is a surge of intellectuals leaving Batin #merica who are usually doctors! architects! and engineers. ,hey often choose the 6' as their destination. =owever! after migrating! most of them work in Gobs that have nothing to do with their original maGors. ,herefore! it is not only brain drain for their own countries! but also brain waste for the whole world.23534

In some Batin #merican nations! where enrollment at local medical schools is very high! there is a chronic shortage of doctors.

# 5EEE study revealed that a number of Batin #merican countries had! over the years! suffered a considerable loss of professionals. #s a percentage of each country(s corps of university graduates! the following percentages lived overseas: )ountry #rgentina Bra il 8.8P )hile ;.8P )olombia $cuador %e0ico 33.EP 3E.?P 3:.8P23554 Boss of professionals 5.?P

,he same study revealed that during the 3??Es! a significant number of those who emigrated from Batin #merica were speciali ed professionals! constituting the following proportions as a percent of each country(s volume of emigrants: )ountry #rgentina )hile 3;.AP %e0ico Peru )uba 5.AP 3E.EP23584 Boss of professionals 3?.3P

In 5EE>! )uban officials claimed that 83!EEE )uban doctors were deployed in A3 countries.235:4 # large number practice in 'outh #merica. 5E!EEE are employed in Hene uela in e0change for nearly 3EE!EEE barrels -3A!EEE m8. of oil per day.235;4 =owever! state employees serving at assigned foreign posts that earn money or resources for their government do not e0actly fall under the definition of brain drain. From Hene uela and Bolivia! where another 3!>EE doctors work! it is thought that as many as ;EE doctors may have fled the missions into countries nearby/ these would constitute brain drain.235:4 Figures are dubious! since the defections are rarely made public. )aribbean

%ost of the )aribbean Islands endure a substantial emigration of 9ualified workers. #ppro0imately 8EP of the labour forces of many islands have left! and more than DEP of college graduates from 'uriname! =aiti! <renada and <uyana have emigrated! mostly to the 6nited 'tates.235A4 Fver DEP of +amaicans with higher education live abroad.235>4 =owever! it is noted that these nationals pay valuable remittances. In +amaica! the money sent back amounts to 3DP of <"P.235D4 ,his calls into 9uestion whether this trend can be described as a true brain drain. Preventative measures

,alents play important roles in helping a country develop. ,he economy of a country that has a large number of world-class scientists and technicians can be more innovative than the others that don(t.235?4 Different areas and nations have distinct policies to retain skilled workers due to the different national or regional situation. For instance! in #frican countries! the health systems have been severely affected by brain drain! so various measures have been suggested and tried to limit the migration of health workers to rich countries.238E4 In 7uwait! people have argued the country should cultivate a sense of security and hope among the elite to curb brain drain because people are not so confident of their countries( future.23834 )hina tries to create a normal and free atmosphere and mechanism that would help talents flourish.235?4 #nd in India! although suffering severe brain drain every year! the Indian government has not to adopted strict policies because they believe that the overseas talent will eventually contribute to the nation in the future.23854 <ermany established a government funded initiative called <#I" to assist <ermans working abroad to return to their home country. Fther countries -'wit erland! #ustria! France. have similar initiatives.

"ot only do countries need to take preventative measures to keep their medical

professionals! but "go(s need to stop recruiting professionals from public health sectors. By taking medical staff from the government health sectors further brain drain occurs leaving these agencies with less talent especially since they are able to offer allot more money.. #n opposite situation! in which many trained and talented individuals seek entrance into a country! is called a brain gain/ this may create a brain drain in the nations that the individuals are leaving. # )anadian symposium in the late 3??Es gave circulation to the new term! in response to )anada luring more skilled professionals to the country than it lost.2citation needed4

In 5EEE! the 6' )ongress announced that it was raising the annual cap on the number of temporary work visas granted to highly skilled professionals under its =3B visa program! from 33;!EEE to 3?;!EEE per year! effective through 5EE8. ,hat suggests a rough figure for the influ0 of talent into the 6nited 'tates at that time. # significant portion of this program was initiated by lobbyists from the computer industry! including Bill <ates.23884 In the same year the government of the 6nited 7ingdom! in cooperation with the *olfson Foundation! a research charity! launched a Z5E million! five-year research award scheme aimed at drawing the return of the 67(s leading e0patriate scientists and sparking the migration of top young researchers to the 6nited 7ingdom.2citation needed4 Brain circulation

In general most developing countries suffer brain drain because emigrant intellectuals refuse to return. 'ome migrants do return to their home countries or become transnational with homes in different countries.238:4 Brain waste 'ee also: Fver9ualification 2icon4 ,his section re9uires e0pansion. -+anuary 5E33.

'ometimes migrants to other countries or urban areas are not able to obtain employment commensurate with their educational 9ualifications. ,his is called brain waste.238:4 #n e0ample would be a "igerian doctor who immigrates to $urope but works in the service industry! or even worse ends up doing menial Gobs. ,he advantages of the Brain Drain

,he brain drain is effectively an e0port of human resources such as @ Veducation servicesW which has inadvertently Vbecome a money machine for countries such as the

6' contributing over Q>bn to the 6' economyW.238;4 =owever it is important to note the knowledge and wealth generated is twofold! both for the country of origin and host country! who ac9uire an additional human capital to fill labour gaps thus increasing economic development. ,he country of origin e0porting their skilled and highly educated workforce benefit from a brain gain both in terms of the increase in the labour power they possess! but also in the fact Vskilled migrants leaving the country generate increased demand for higher level education amongst the populationW!.238A4 Furthermore the sending back of remittances increase economic development in the country and standard of living. )ircular migration presents a number of benefits associated with brain drain. First! the economy of the origin country may not be able to take advantage of the skilled laborers! so it becomes more beneficial for the workers to migrate and send back remittances. 'econd! when the migrant workers return home as part of the circular pattern! they may bring with them new skills and knowledge.

&emittances are a positive effect of the brain drain because they increase living standards in society as Faini notes Vskilled migrants typically earn more therefore remit more thus fostering growthW!238>4 nevertheless this is not a precedent. ,he remittance economy is a significant part of the brain drain as well an integral source of income for developed economies! V5E33 remittances were estimated at Q8>5bnW238D4 and for countries such as %e0ico and the Philippines was worth VQ5: and Q8:billionW 238D4 respectively. "egative conse9uences of the Brain drain

*hilst the brain drain is beneficial its flaws are inherently in its title because it usually involves the loss of human capital i.e. skilled labour force who are vital to the development of society and the country as a whole. In the case of skilled man power #lam et al. recognise emigration of these skilled workers as Vessentially providing personal benefits for individuals rather than public benefitsW.238?4

,he brain drain benefits individuals more so than society!however Vimplementing policies to reduce their movementW according to 'keldon 1is in effect to act against the process of developmentW.238A4 ,his inadvertently means society is caught in a catch 55 scenario! whereby allowing the Brain Drain to continue is likely to result in knowledge being distributed unevenlyW 238;4 across space! resulting in the fall in economic development for either the country of origin or destination countries.

#nother conse9uence of the brain drain is the e0istence of social marginalisation which occurs due to several reasons. For e0ample highly skilled labourers have been

villainised by society because they are perceived as a disruption to e0isting society or the migrant themselves who have struggled to adapt to their new surroundings and way of life and may as a result! lead to them living (parallel lives(! which is the process whereby the migrant is in fact living a dual life which coe0ist side by side. #lthough the more pressing issue skilled migrants face in contemporary society is what ,suda refers to as Vdouble marginalisationW!23:E4 which refers to when migrants are kept from integrating into their new surroundings either by society or by e0isting governments! and upon their return home are shunned by the community they originally migrated from due to their earlier departure. Double marginalisation has become a common feature in contemporary society! which has in some respects reduced the amount of skilled migration occurring. "egative Impact of Brain Drain on =ealth 'ystems of Developing )ountries

Despite the e0istence of significant global efforts trying to improve health and healthcare systems in the developing world! the money invested is insufficient as health workers from the developing countries leave their home countries and immigrate to the developed world assuming low-status positions in rich countries. ,his phenomenon is known as Ybrain drainX. ,hose health workers! the brains! are drained from their countries! while being attracted to the higher income abroad comparing to their income back home. #s a result of many local health workers abandoning their countries! countries in the developing world lack sufficient health care workers! which harms the local health system: health systems in the developing world are receiving financial aid to deal with significant diseases and health issues such as child mortality! #ID'! and %alaria. =owever the money is ineffective as there is no sufficient manpower in the form of medical and health professionals to do the work re9uired! which further damages the health system rather than strengthening it.23:34 ,he utility of the brain drain

,he assumption is Yskilled workers migrating are likely to increase remittances to the home countryX!238?4 however this is not always the case. # critic of FainiXs view of skilled migrants remitting more is <raeme =ugo! who recognises the fact that Vhighly skilled workers are often able to bring immediate family with them so they are not obliged to send money backW 23:54 making the brain drain highly problematic for society especially when countries invest up to YQ;E!EEE on highly skilled individualsX.238?4

In assessing the usefulness of the brain drain it is important to understand that for some of the worldXs developing countries Vthe gains from migration accrue neither from migrant remittances nor do they return home with amplified skills ac9uired abroadW.23:84 ,hey are instead from the increase in promotion of education of highly skilled labour in

developing countries as well as investment in infrastructure. "onetheless the e0istence of vast Vremittance economy worldwide worth Q;3E billion in 5EE>W238D4 to a degree 9uestion whether 'tark(s claim are entirely accurate as this process is seemingly occurring at an alarming rate generating uneven levels of development globally.

'=F6BD B&#I" D&#I" B$ B#""$D I",&FD6),IF": ,he term 1brain drain1 refers to the movement of highly educated people from their respective countries to other countries looking for green pasture. It refers to the movement of intellectuals like 6niversity lecturers and researchers from one national setting to another! ranging from permanent relocation to short-term visits or e0change programs! facilitates the dissemination of knowledge and the broadening of cultural hori ons. =owever! when one nation becomes a substantial net e0porter of academic talent! a 1brain drain1 condition is said to occur. ,he presence of this condition suggests that the provider nation is at risk of depleting its natural supply of intellectual talent. $ducation seems to play a key role influencing rural-urban migration in the developing countries. "umbers of studies of migration in many countries have documented the positive relationship between the educational accomplishment of an individual and his or her interest to migrate from rural to urban areas. $ducation also plays a big role in the growing problems of international migration of high level educated individuals from poor countries to the rich ones causing the so called Brain Drain to the poor countries. 'cientists! eingineers! academics and physicians who have been trained with scarcely available resources at social cost in their home countries for the benefits and growth of their nation. =owever! this has simply left helplessness to the concerned institutions and countries of the south that have been loosing thousands of their highly educated workers for the benefits of the rich countries and individuals themselves. ,he author divides international emigrants roughly into 8 maGor )#,#<F&I$': 3.$migrants due to lack of employment and low salaries! and thus people are tempted to look for better salaries elsewhere - here! we talk about $conomic factors.

5.,he second cause of migration is political instability in home countries! thus they loose confidence to their governments and future prospects for a better life. ,hese are individuals who may have difficulties because of their ethinic! cultural! religional belongings or being a member of opposition political groupings in their home countries! %igration taking place in response to wars! and political and social turmoil. 8.%any scholars who have been sent abroad for further studies or who are once out in one way or another! remain abroad leaving their family and workplace behind with the hope that a better life can be achieved elsewhere! despite their well being at home. $0pectations are usually not met as hopped/ thus! obliged to seek asylum which deteriorates their lives and becomes [ashamed[ of themselves to return home empty handed - Immigration flow due to lack of information and misguidance. )#6'$ FF B&#I" D&#I" I" D$H$BFPI"< )F6",&I$': Brain drain or human capital flight is a large emigration of individuals with technical skills or knowledge! normally due to conflict! lack of opportunity! political instability! or health risks. Brain drain is usually regarded as an economic cost! since emigrants usually take with them the fraction of value of their training sponsored by the government. It is a parallel of capital flight which refers to the same movement of financial capital. ,he term was coined by the &oyal 'ociety to describe the emigration of 1scientists and technologists1 to "orth #merica from post-war $urope.234 ,he converse phenomenon is brain gain! which occurs when there is a large-scale immigration of technically 9ualified persons. Brain drain can be stopped by providing individuals who have e0pertise with career opportunities and giving them opportunities to prove their capabilities.2citation needed4 Brain drains are common amongst developing nations! such as the former colonies of #frica!254 the island nations of the )aribbean!284 and particularly in centrali ed economies such as former $ast <ermany and the 'oviet 6nion! where marketable skills were not financially rewarded.

FIH$ PF''IBB$ 'FB6,IF" ,F )6&H$ ,=$ B&#I" D&#I": 3.<ood governance at the national and international level! especially maintenance of reasonable security for peoples( lives and property is essential for economic progress! ,hus withholding political and economical emigrants! who blame their governement(s failure for political unrest and stagnant economic growth is possible. ,ransparency in leadership is essential and should be maintained. 5.Fffering higher wages for [insiders[ according to their 9ualifications is essential! instead of over estimating and hiring e0patrates! which are more costly. 8.$ducation plays a powerful role especially in the growing problems of international migration. ,herefore! offering these individuals the necessariy education 9ualifications in

their home countries! and e0panding a better educational infrasturcture may definitely prevent emigrants who are seeking a higher education abroad. :.'eeking alternative measures for return of warranty from the beneficiaries! such as thewithholding of academic degrees until the graduates return and are willing to serve the people! may be another considerable alternative. ;.,he last alternative measure could be! ta0ing emigrants who are indigenously trained in home countries. ,his is indeed a sensitive issue and may sound absurd! and may potentially infringe on the basic human right and freedom to chose the nature and location of individuals where to live and where to work. ,hus! it must be agreed upon the international community and international laws. A.'ince richer #frican 'tates are also the stakeholders of this so called brain drain! a deal must be made between rich and poor states of the continent that prohibits the later from taking intellectuals of the poorer states. =F* ,F #HFID B&#I" D&#I": 3.)reate employment opportunities to enable the highly educated people get access on Gobs. 5.Improve on salary scale to enable them get favorable wages. 8.Improve on security in order to avoid political instability. :.Improve on social developments like health services! education opportunities! transport and communication. B#"" F" B&#I" D&#I" BM 'FHI$", 6"IF": By 3?55! the 'oviet 6nion had issued restrictions making emigration of its citi ens to other countries all but impossible 'oviet Premier "ikita 7ruschev later stated 1*e were scared! really scared. *e were afraid the thaw might unleash a flood! which we wouldn(t be able to control and which could drown us. =ow could it drown usN It could have overflowed the banks of the 'oviet riverbed and formed a tidal wave which would have washed away all the barriers and retaining walls of our society.#fter 'oviet occupation of $astern $urope at the end of *orld *ar II! the maGority of those living in the newly ac9uired areas of the $astern Bloc aspired to independence and wanted the 'oviets to leave. By the early 3?;Es! the approach of the 'oviet 6nion to restricting emigration was emulated by most of the rest of the $astern Bloc! including $ast <ermany. $ven with the closing of the Inner <erman border officially in 3?;5! the border between the sectors of $ast Berlin and *est Berlin remained considerably more accessible than the rest of the border because it was administered by all four occupying powers. ,he Berlin sector border was essentially a 1loophole1 through which $ast Bloc citi ens could still escape. ,he 8.; million $ast <ermans! called &epublikflOchtlinge! that had left by 3?A3 totaled appro0imately 5EP of the entire $ast <erman population,he emigrants

tended to be young and well educated! leading to the brain drain feared by officials in $ast <ermany.2 Muri #ndropov! then the )P'6 Director on &elations with )ommunist and *orkers Parties of 'ocialist )ountries! wrote an urgent #ugust 5D! 3?;D letter to the )entral )ommittee about the significant ;EP increase in the number of $ast <erman intelligentsia among the refugees. #ndropov reported that! while the $ast <erman leadership stated that they were leaving for economic reasons! testimony from refugees indicated that the reasons were more political than material. =e stated 1the flight of the intelligentsia has reached a particularly critical phase.1 ,he direct cost of manpower losses has been estimated at Q> billion to Q? billion! with $ast <erman party leader *alter 6lbricht later claiming that *est <ermany owed him Q3> billion in compensation! including reparations as well as manpower losses. In addition! the drain of $ast <ermany(s young population potentially cost it over 55.; billion marks in lost educational investment. In #ugust 3?A3! $ast <ermany erected a barbed-wire barrier that would eventually be e0panded through construction into the Berlin *all! effectively closing the loophole. )F"'$I6$")$' FF B&#I" D&#I": #s some statistics indicate concerning the current intelectual migration! it is #frica that suffers most from this [unfortunate phenomena\. In 3??D an estimated >EE <hanaian physicians are said to have been practicing in the 6'# alone! which makes a considerable percentage of the population of doctors in the country. It is estimated that about 5E!EEE "igerian academics are now employed in6'# alone and more than 8EE $thiopian physicians are working in )hicago! 6'# alone. =ere! one can emagine how much it means in the whole of the 6nited 'tates. #ccording to research reports presented on an international conference concerning the issue of Brain Drain! #frica generally looses over 5E!EEE intelectuals yearly. ,his is undoubtfully one of the main constraints of under development in the continent. =ow long should #frica tolerate thisN indeed not for long. # new report! brodcasted by the British Broadcasting )orportaion -BB). says #frica has lost a third of its skilled professionals in recent decades and it is costing the continent Q: billion dollars a year to replace them with e0patriates from the *est. *here as rich countries like the 6nited 'tates of #merica have saved a total sum of Q5A billion dollars which otherwise should have spent to train 38E!EEE highly 9ualified physicians. ,he conse9uence is especially worse for those countries like $thiopia. ,his already poor and[unfortunate[country has been loosing its meagre professionals continuously since the previous regimes. $thiopia has a long history of e0ternal provocation and internal conflict that has been driving out its limited medical doctors in particular and other professionals in general. ,he statistical estimates for $thiopia indicate that about ;E percent of the $thiopians who went abroad for training and further education have not returned home for the past two decades after completing their studies in the *est ,housands of them have been trained in home institutions with considerable social cost and debt from the richest nations. In the past 3E years i.e. between 3?DE-?E! a total of less than A.EEE students have returned from studies abroad out of nearly 58!EEE

students who left for $urope and the 6nited 'tates in that same period of time. ,hese are either tempted by significantly higher wages and better future prospects or give the blame to the political situation! which they say is a threat even for their lives. In most cases the later is likely to be the main reason what makes $thiopians on their way out from the country. 'outh #frica and "igeria seem to have the bigest portion in loosing their professionals from #frica! which consume professionals from other #frican 'tates on their part. )F")B6'IF": ,hus brain drain can be reduced only by introducing some rules against it. 'o it is in the hands of the human beings to develop and work for their nation. &$F$&$")$': ] en.wikipedia.orgUwikiUBrain^drain ] www.braindrain.comU ] www.indiadaily.comUeditorialUE?-3:-E:.as_ ] www.aviationweek.comU...Ustory^generic.GspN...Uom?E?brain...

&everse brain drain From *ikipedia! the free encyclopedia

+ump to: navigation! search

&everse brain drain! is a form of brain drain where human capital moves in reverse from a more developed country to a less developed country that is developing rapidly. ,hese migrants may accumulate savings! also known as remittances! and develop skills overseas that can be used in their home country.234

Brain drain can occur when scientists! engineers! or other intellectual elites migrate to a more developed country to learn in its universities! perform research! or gain working e0perience in areas where education and employment opportunities are limited in their home country. ,hese professionals then return to their home country after several years of e0perience to start a related business! teach in a university! or work for a multinational in their home country.254 ,heir return is thus 1&everse Brain Drain1.

,he occurrence of reverse brain drain mostly depends on the state of the countryXs development! and also strategies and planning over a long period of time to reverse the migration. )ountries that are attractive to returning intelligentsia will naturally develop migration policies to attract foreign academics and professionals. ,his would also re9uire these countries to develop an environment which will provide rewarding opportunities for those who have attained the knowledge and skills from overseas.284

In the past! many of the immigrants from developing countries chose to work and live permanently in developed countries/ however! the recent economic growth that has been occurring back in their home countries - and the difficulty of attaining long-term work visas - has caused many of the immigrants to return home.2:4 )ontents

3 Distinction of &everse Brain Drain 5 #nother Form of &everse Brain Drain 8 $0ample of %ethods and Policies to $nhance &everse Brain Drain 8.3 #sia 8.3.3 )hina 8.3.5 India

8.3.8 Pakistan 8.3.: 'outh 7orea 8.3.; ,aiwan 8.5 Batin #merica 8.5.3 %e0ico 8.8 #frica : Problems associated with &everse Brain Drain ; 'ee also A &eferences > $0ternal links

Distinction of &everse Brain Drain

,he term Yreverse brain drainX is closely tied with brain drain and brain gain because reverse brain drain is a migratory phenomenon that results due to the brain drain of the intellectual elites from developing countries and is the mirror image of the benefit of an inflow of high 9uality human resources which is brain gain.2;4

&everse brain drain is sometimes related to the term Ybrain circulationX! which is when migrants return to their own country on a regular or occasional basis! sharing the benefits of the skills and resources they have ac9uired while living and working abroad. 2A4 #n e0ample of the benefits for the host countries! especially developing countries! are the payments of remittances. ,his provides a reason for governments to issue new legislation and ta0 rules that encourage outward migration and remittances.2>4

=owever! 1brain circulation1 is known as the e0tended definition of brain gain with an emphasis on human capital circulation across nations in the global market! benefiting both the sending and receiving nations/ in addition it is considered a two-way flow of skill! capital! and technology! unlike brain drain and reverse brain drain.2D4 #nother Form of &everse Brain Drain

&ecently there is a different type of reverse brain drain developing. ,his form of reverse brain drain differs from the way it is commonly viewed. It is e0plained by 'alman 7hurshid! the %inister of 'tate for )orporate and %inority #ffairs in India. =e states that 1%any second-generation Indians are coming back to the country.2?4 ,herefore! reverse brain drain is no longer limited to the commonly perceived migration from a developed to a developing country by a first generation individual. %any of the worldXs top multinational companies are beginning to send their top Indian minds to head their companies in India and have the idea of reverse brain drain which is! 1'o when we lose some! we win many back!12?4 $0ample of %ethods and Policies to $nhance &everse Brain Drain

,he countries where reverse brain drain occurs are developing countries! or are countries who have suffered a significant impact from the Ybrain drainX from developed countries. <overnments have attempted to reverse the flow of brain drain through implementing new contracts! scholarships! government policies! and several other methods. ,hree methods of implementing and enhancing reverse brain drain are through governments retaining their students! encouraging students to pursue tertiary studies abroad and promoting them to return! and engaging with the diasporas which will encourage e0patriates to remit savings! act as bridges for foreign investment and trade! and facilitate the transfer of skills and knowledge.23E4 ,here are several countries that are prime e0amples of these three methods - and several other methods - which are: #sia )hina

)hina has generally been seen as a developing country! and they have impacted by brain drain through the migration of their talented minds to the developed world. *hat has assisted )hina in the flow of return migration is through central government policies. ,hese policies are changes in the domestic environment! the freedom to immigrate and emigrate freely! political stability! and changes in how the government uses people.2334 In addition! the local government was involved in the enhancement of return migration by cities rewarding the returnees with large bonuses from their home unit.2354 ,here are also other reasons which encouraged the migration back to the home country! which were higher social status in )hina! better carrier opportunities in )hina! and patriotism. 2384

In addition! competition among universities! research laboratories and enterprises has given the returning intellectual elites e0cellent incentives. For e0ample! in the new life science school at BeiGingXs ,singhua 6niversity! they were able to recruit many )hinese

scientists who were previously in more developed countries like the 6nited 'tates due to )hinaXs booming economy! large government investment in research! and the chance to build a science program from the ground up.23:4

Besides the government policies and economic reasons for returning to )hina! certain family factors influenced the decision to return! some of the reasons where parental views about returning! concerns for children! and the attitude of oneXs spouse about returning.23;4 India

India is one of the first countries where the phenomenon of reverse brain drain occurred. Previously! India was well known for being the country where numerous information technology students left for #merica for a better education and greater employment opportunities. ,he turning point was during the dot-com bubble. During this period many information technology e0perts were forced to return to India due to the slump and the loss of Gobs in the 6nited 'tates.23A4

Previously! the Indian <overnment was unhappy of the occurrence of brain drain. ,ens of thousands of migrants who had initially come to the 6.'. for graduate engineering education! accepted Gobs in 'ilicon Halley rather than return to their home countries! where professional opportunities were limited.23>4

Besides the dot-com bubble crisis! the economic and employment opportunities that e0isted back home/ interested many Indian entrepreneurs to improve the economic development in the home country! which increased the number of returning intelligentsias to India.23>4

In addition! other reasons for the returning migration of the Indian high skill workers was due to their desires to return to their roots! a more family oriented lifestyle! and also security concerns in the post ?U33 period where #sian Indians were discriminated against because they were often mistaken for #rabs.23D4 Pakistan

In wake of the 'eptember 33 attacks and the financial crisis of 5EE>@5E3E! a large

number of e0patriates forming the Pakistani diaspora throughout "orth #merica! and even $urope! began to return to Pakistan. %any of these returning e0patriates tended to have e0cellent credentials and due to their professional and cultural background were able to easily assimilate and find new Gob opportunities in the country - contributing to an overall 1reverse brain drain1 effect. Fne notable e0ample is the media boom in Pakistan which inspired and prompted many overseas Pakistanis working in the field of Gournalism to return to the country and take up readily available positions in the country(s largest press groups and channels.23?4 ,oday! there are over :>!EEE Britons in Pakistan! many of whom are of Pakistani origin! who have returned to contribute to the economic development of the country. 'outh 7orea

'outh 7oreaXs reverse brain drain was different from the social phenomenon because it was based on an organi ed government effort with various policies and the political support of President Park )hung =ee. ,he main features of 7oreaXs &everse Brain Drain policies were the creation of a conducive domestic environment! and the empowerment of returnees.25E4

Besides the policies! there are also cultural incentives for the intellectual elites to return home which was the desire to improve 7oreaXs economic conditions and competitiveness! the cultural differences between 7orea and #merica! and family-related responsibilities and concerns.2;4 %any of the students who migrated to the 6nited 'tates to study! especially the only son or the eldest of the family! felt obligated to return home to be with the family 2384 ,aiwan

Previously! ,aiwan had e0perienced a loss of more than DE percent of its students who had completed their graduate study in the 6nited 'tates! but the government of the &epublic of )hina -&F). responded to this to increase the return migration of the students.2534 'ome of the action taken by the authorities of the &epublic of )hina were the setting up of the "ational Mouth )ommission -"M).! a cabinet-level government office! and other organi ations to recruit ,aiwanXs scholars abroad and carry out related programs. In addition! ,aiwanXs official policy consists of two sections:

Improve and strengthen the institutions of higher learning at home $ncourage ,aiwanXs 1brain1 in the 6nited 'tates to remigrate andUor contribute their

talents and knowledge to ,aiwanXs national development.2534

Fne reason behind the increased percentage of college students going abroad and the decline of returnees was due to ,aiwanXs Political 'tatus of ,aiwan and the severed diplomatic ties with the &F) government in 3?>?/ however! the percentages of college students study abroad slowly started to increase after the political shock settle.2554 ,he two most cited reasons for returning to ,aiwan in 3?D8 were highly normative pride and strong identification with ,aiwanXs developmental goal and desire to be in it.2584 Besides these reasons!25:4 there were other social and cultural reasons that were given by the returning migrants which were:

"ever thought of staying in the 6.'. I have wife and children in ,aiwan %y parents wanted me to come home I was offered an ideal Gob in ,aiwan I could not find an ideal spouse in the 6.'. I was discriminated against in the 6.'. I could not find a good Gob in the 6.'.

Batin #merica %e0ico

,he federal government of %e0ico has been implementing public policies! were included in the Program for the 'upport of 'cience and &esearch! which were designed to internationali e the domestic academic market and had the obGective to repatriate young %e0ican scientists who have obtained a postgraduate degree abroad.25;4

,he result of the repatriation and retention of %e0ican researchers from 3??3@3??A and 5EE5 shows how there is a general increase of more %e0ican researchers to return to %e0ico and this can be viewed in the table below:25A4 3??3 3??5 3??8 3??: 3??; 3??A 5EE5

%e0ican &esearchers`

?A

5;>

3AE

5A>

3>:

3?;

3>5

` Previously known as &epatriation and &etention

#lthough these policies have been assisting in the slow returning migration of young %e0ican scientists! the policies should be broadened out and not focused e0clusively on individual scientists! due to the positive outcomes that may result from repatriation.25>4 #frica

In #frica! instead of the commonly termed Ybrain drainX! the term Yreverse transfer of technologyX -&,,. is used to describe the migration of scientists from developing countries to overseas.25D4

In order to prevent the loss of the e0perts! #frica has observed the 1friends and relatives effect1! which identifies professional! societal and personal factors as the three imperatives underlying the decision of #frican students in the 6nited 'tates to return home.25?4 In addition! the most widespread instrument used by #frican countries to combat the brain drain is bonding! which obligates a graduate to return home for a re9uired period of time before sUhe can emigrate or to also have bilateral agreements with developed countries! which will re9uire them to return home immediately upon graduation.28E4 ,hese approaches are influenced from the policies that e0ist and worked in #sian countries. Problems associated with &everse Brain Drain

,he problem of a reverse brain drain is e0acerbated by an0iety in developed countries. ,his is of particular concern in the 6nited 'tates of #merica! where not enough undergraduate students are seeking advanced degrees at the doctorate level. ,his leads to several conse9uences. Initially! it increases the widespread replacement of nativeborn with foreign born professionals and academics in the areas of greatest intellectual and economic interest to the developed country.2834 ,his is a problem since foreign-born professional and academics from developing countries! such as )hina or India! are increasingly motivated to return to their home countries due to rapid economic growth! increasing living standards! and increasing opportunities in their home country. ,he reverse migration of the foreign-born professionals and academics leaves developed countries with a lack of intellectual capital. ,his may lead to economic drawbacks in developed countries and diminishing opportunities for native-born professionals.

'tatistics show that more than ;5P of 'ilicon HalleyXs startups during the recent tech boom were started by foreign-born entrepreneurs. In addition! the 1foreign-national researchers have contributed to more than 5;P of our global patentsa foreign-born workers comprise almost a 9uarter of all the 6.'. science and engineering workforce and :>P of science and engineering workers who have PhDs.12834 Furthermore! ;:P of engineering doctorates went to foreign students! who returned to their home country after graduation! which disheartens the e0ecutives of research and development in the developed countries.2854

#bstract

Brain drain is defined as the migration of health personnel in search of the better standard of living and 9uality of life! higher salaries! access to advanced technology and more stable political conditions in different places worldwide. ,his migration of health professionals for better opportunities! both within countries and across international borders! is of growing concern worldwide because of its impact on health systems in developing countries. *hy do talented people leave their countries and go abroadN *hat are the conse9uences of such migrations especially on the educational sectorN *hat policies can be adopted to stem such movements from developing countries to developed countriesN

,his article seeks to raise 9uestions! identify key issues and provide solutions which would enable immigrant health professionals to share their knowledge! skills and innovative capacities and thereby enhancing the economic development of their countries. <o to: I",&FD6),IF"

Brain drain is the migration of skilled human resources for trade! education! etc.3 ,rained health professionals are needed in every part of the world. =owever! better

standards of living and 9uality of life! higher salaries! access to advanced technology and more stable political conditions in the developed countries attract talent from less developed areas. ,he maGority of migration is from developing to developed countries. ,his is of growing concern worldwide because of its impact on the health systems in developing countries. ,hese countries have invested in the education and training of young health professionals. ,his translates into a loss of considerable resources when these people migrate! with the direct benefit accruing to the recipient states who have not forked out the cost of educating them. ,he intellectuals of any country are some of the most e0pensive resources because of their training in terms of material cost and time! and most importantly! because of lost opportunity.

In 5EEE almost 3>; million people! or 5.?P of the worldXs population! were living outside their country of birth for more than a year. Ff these! about A; million were economically active.5 ,his form of migration has in the past involved many health professionals8: nurses and physicians have sought employment abroad for many reasons including high unemployment in their home country.

International migration first emerged as a maGor public health concern in the 3?:Es when many $uropean professionals emigrated to the 67 and 6'#.: In the 3?>Es! the *orld =ealth Frgani ation -*=F. published a detailed :E-country study on the magnitude and flow of the health professionals.; #ccording to this report! close to ?EP of all migrating physicians! were moving to Gust five countries: #ustralia! )anada! <ermany! 67 and 6'#.;

In 3?>5! about AP of the worldXs physicians -3:E EEE. were located outside their countries of origin. Fver three-9uarters were found in only three countries: in order of magnitude! the 6'#! 67 and )anada.A ,he main donor countries reflected colonial and linguistic ties! with a dominance of #sian countries: India! Pakistan and 'ri Banka. By linking the number of physicians per 3E EEE population to gross domestic product -<DP. per capita! the countries that produced more physicians than they had the capacity to absorb were identified> as $gypt! India! Pakistan! Philippines and 'outh 7orea. =owever! the lack of reliable data and the difficulties of defining whether a migrant is YpermanentX or YtemporaryX still e0ist.

Fne may claim that this migration from developing countries is both useful and unavoidable. ,here are definite advantagesKenabling the migrant to spend time in other countriesKbut at the same time! the very low emigration rate of professionals from 6'# or 67 may be as disturbing a sign as the high rates of immigration to these countries.

Moung! well-educated! healthy individuals are most likely to migrate! especially in pursuit of higher education and economic improvement.D!? ,he distinction between YpushX and YpullX factors has been recogni ed.3E )ontinuing disparities in working conditions between richer and poorer countries offer a greater YpullX towards the more developed countries. ,he role of governments and recruitment agencies in systematically encouraging the migration of health professionals increases the pull.3E %igrant health professionals are faced with a combination of economic! social and psychological factors! and family choices33! and reflect the Ypush@pullX nature of the choices underpinning these YGourneys of hopeX. De-motivating working conditions! coupled with low salaries! are set against the likelihood of prosperity for themselves and their families! work in well-e9uipped hospitals! and the opportunity for professional development.35

In many cases! the country is not only losing its investment in the education of health professionals! but also the contribution of these workers to health care. For e0ample! healthcare e0penditure in India is 8P of <DP compared to 38P of <DP in the 6'# and the ratio of doctor to patients in India is 3:5ED8 compared to the 6'# where the ratio is 3:;EE.38 %oreover! in many developing countries healthcare systems are suffering from years of underinvestment! which! for health professionals! has resulted in low wages! poor working conditions! a lack of leadership and very few incentives.3:

$mployers in receiving countries take a different position/ they have their own shortages of skilled people in specific fields and can drain a developing country of e0pertise by providing Gob opportunities.3; 7upfer et al. provided the strategies to discourage migration to the 6'#! a maGor recipient country.3A =owever! keeping the social! political and economic conditions in the developing countries in mind! can we stop the brain drainN Probably notS

=igher education is one of the principal conduits of permanent emigration.3> ,he maGority of doctors ac9uire speciali ed and postgraduate professional 9ualifications in the host country. =alf of the foreign-born graduate students in France! 67 and 6'# remain there after completing their studies.3D #mong the doctoral graduates in science and engineering in the 6'# in 3??;! >?P of those from India and DDP from )hina remained in the 6'#.3? ,he recent study on brain drain from 5: maGor countries published by the *orld Bank5E also presented data on 'outh #sian immigration to the 6'# -,able 3.. %igration to F$)D -Frgani ation for $conomic )ooperation and Development. countries is also shown in ,able 5. Met more data showing the momentum and demand for skilled people by high tech and research and development -&bD. industries illustrating accelerated flows of highly skilled workers to F$)D countries are

shown in Figure 3. Figure 3 Figure 3 $mployment of scientists and engineers with doctoral degrees in academia in the 6'#! 3?>8@3???. -#dopted from "ational 'cience Board. 'cience and engineering indicators! 5EE5 2www.nsf.govUsbeUsrsUseindE5Ustart.htm4. ,able 3 ,able 3 "umber of 'outh #sian immigrants -age 5; and older. to the 6'# by level of educational attainment! 5EEE ,able 5 ,able 5 'tock of foreign students in F$)D countries! 3??D -obtained from F$)D 5EE5 2http:UUwww.oecd.orgUhomeU4

,hese statistics suggest that if developing countries provided world-class education and training opportunities! as well as opportunities for career advancement and employment! the migratory flow could be reduced.53 =owever! in reality! this may not make much difference. Fn the plus side! foreign-born graduates ac9uire e0pensive skills which are not available within their countries. Fn the negative side! these skills and knowledge never migrate back to their own countries.

Besides the pull@push factors described earlier! some researchers from developing countries cite other reasons for not returning after training which include: lack of research funding/ poor facilities/ limited career structures/ poor intellectual stimulation/ threats of violence/ and lack of good education for children in their home country.5E Incentives for migrants to return to developing countries have been insufficient to override the limitations at homeKboth real and perceivedKand the attraction of opportunities found abroad. %any of these countries have made significant investments in infrastructure and education but have not achieved the scientific development! technological and innovative capability either to retain or to recover the human capital that they have generated. Is there a solution to this problemN ,his raises the 9uestion of whether one can Gustify losing human capital or whether one should make the additional investment in science and technology and bring about the innovations that will stop the loss and convert it into wealth generation.

<o to: )F"H$&,I"< B&#I" D&#I" I",F *I'DF% <#I"

Developing countries! especially 'outh #sia! are now the main source of healthcare migration to developed countries. ,his trend has led to concerns that the outflow of healthcare professionals is adversely affecting the healthcare system in developing countries and! hence! the health of the population. #s a result! decision-makers in source countries are searching for policy options to slow down and even reverse the outflow of healthcare professionals. Is it possible to do soN %aybe not! bearing in mind the current political and economic situations of the source countries and globali ation. ,he increasing demand for health care in the higher income countries is fuelled to a large e0tent by demographic trends! e.g. the ageing of the baby-boom generation.55

,he opening up of international borders for goods and labour! a key strategy in the current liberal global economy! is accompanied by a linguistic shift from Yhuman capital flightX and Ybrain drainX to Yprofessional mobilityX or Ybrain circulationX.55 'olutions should therefore be based on this wider perspective! interrelating health workforce imbalances between! but also within developing and developed countries.

#t current levels! wage differentials between source and destination country are so large that small increases in healthcare wages in source countries are unlikely to affect significantly the supply of healthcare migrants. #ccording to the results of a study in Pakistan! a small proportion of people funded for a doctorate face on return maGor nonfinancial disincentives for good performance.58 ,hus the financial component of such flows is only part of the picture and in some cases not the maGor push or pull factor. %oreover! there is a need to review the social! political! and economic reasons behind the e0odus! and to provide security and opportunities for further development locally. Bowering of standards should not be accepted/ instead local conditions should be reviewed and rectified. <o to: )F",&IB6,IF"' BM '=#&I"< 7"F*B$D<$ #"D '7IBB' ,F D$H$BFPI"< )F6",&I$'

It is time to understand and accept that health professionalsX mobility is part of life in the 53st century. )ountries need to recogni e that they compete with the best institutions in the world for 9uality manpower. It is time to bury the archaic concept of brain drain and

turn to assessing the performance of health professionals and systems! wherever they are in the world. ,he turn of the 53st century has not only brought technology! but also modes by which scientists around the world can be connected in no time. In this globali ed world the physical location of a person may or may not have any relation to the ability to make an impact on human health. =ealth professionals in the developed world may have most of their work portfolios in the developing world. $asy communication! 9uick travel! and greater collaborations between developed and developing countries are increasingly more common and we need to develop ways in which foreign professionals can contribute to their countries of origin.

&emittances from e0patriates living abroad constitute a significant proportion of foreign revenue for many developing countries.5: In Bangladesh for e0ample 6'Q 5 billion is received from citi ens who have emigrated overseas! and these remittances are the second largest source of foreign revenue.5; ,he transfer and management of remittance revenues are potentially e0ploitable factors in plumbing the brain drain. Formali ing the transfer of remittances might permit the generation of revenues that could be invested nationally in the social and economic development of the developing home country. =owever! the magnitude and economic importance of remittances! economic development and growth! and ultimately social e9uity! depend on the endogenous capacity of each nationXs human resources. If only a small percentage of the multimillion dollar sums sent home by emigrants could be invested in research and development! might not opportunities for highly skilled and educated nationals improve at homeN #nd would this not in turn spur economic developmentN %aybe to some e0tent Kbut without resources and skills! this may not have a huge impact on health and disease prevention.

It has been estimated that foreign scientists from developing countries who are involved in research and development produce :.; more publications and 3E times more patents than their counterparts at home.5A *hy is there such a vast difference in productive capacityN ,he conte0t and conditions in which science and technology are able to prosper re9uire political decisions! funding! infrastructure! technical support! and a scientific community/ these are generally unavailable in developing countries. ,he value and effectiveness of individuals depends on their connection to the people! institutions and organi ations that enable knowledge creation! and together constitute a propitious environment. ,hese e0patriate scientists and healthcare professionals can contribute their knowledge! clinical and research skills to their native countries by developing collaborative training programmes! research proGects and teaching their own countrymen. ,his re9uires the commitment of foreign scientists and receptiveness at the other end. 'cientists! political leaders and decision-makers in developing and developed countries! and international development agencies! need to appreciate the social and synergistic nature of knowledge sharing so that policies and education systems are

designed to promote and enable research and development.

=ealthcare services are a rapidly growing sector of the world economy and trade in health services has created diverse means of accessing these services across borders. For e0ample! information technology can provide telemedicine services and telepreventive services. ,hese information technologies can be used as a mode of sharing knowledge and research skills in a cost-effective manner.

Fne such large network is already in place called supercourse 2www.pitt.eduUsuper345> which has connected more than 5E EEE scientists! healthcare professionals and researchers together through I, connectivity! and they share their knowledge in the form of teaching lectures -currently there are more than 5EEE lectures. for free to a global audience. # similar kind of connectivity needs to be developed by e0patriate citi ens who can contribute their knowledge and skills to their countries of origin without any maGor costs. Policies are needed to ensure that these favourable outcomes are reali ed as an e9uitable access to the benefits of the international trade in health services.

,he availability of both high-9uality education and opportunities in research are the keys to retaining and attracting regional talent. ,he steps taken by )hina towards becoming a leader in biological research and biotechnology illustrate the empowerment. ,he scientific leadership positioned )hina to become the only developing country participating in the =uman <enome ProGect.5D $0perience gained through the participation of its institutions in the =uman <enome ProGect -including large-scale se9uencing! the use of bioinformatics and the coordination of multi-centre research protocols. provided the platform for developing biotechnology that can be applied to human diseases and agriculture. ,he opportunities generated by the )hinese in biotechnology attract both international collaboration in Goint ventures and gifted scientists from )hina and abroad.

# similar e0ample can be replicated in other developing countries with the help of their foreign e0patriate citi ens who have developed skills in research that are needed in their native countries. ,his approach to creating targeted educational opportunity together with political decision and investment in science and technology infrastructure provides a good e0ample of a resourceful way of redirecting the brain drain. It is tempting to think that such on-site programmes involving national talent at home and abroad coupled with creative distance learning strategies could create networks of e0patriates thus enabling their countries of origin to gain access to a world-class education in specific disciplines in the developing world.

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'cientists who have emigrated for several reasons are recoverable assets who can play a part in developing opportunities at home. =owever! recovery re9uires the opening of diverse and creative conduits. ,he health services in the developing world must be supported to maintain their skilled personnel. Fnly when health staff! whatever their cadre! have the tools they re9uire to do their Gob! training opportunities! a network of supportive colleagues! and recognition for the difficult Gob they do! are they likely to feel motivated to stay put when opportunity beckons from elsewhere. Foreign professionals could be used to develop innovative graduate education opportunities at home and technology to be transfered to areas of national priorities for research and development. 6ltimately! involving individuals who are living abroad in creating opportunities at home favours both the retention and repatriation of national talent. Building an enlightened leadership and an enabling national scientific community! with the help of e0patriate citi ens! for the coherent development of scientific and technological capacity in developing countries will be mutually beneficial. <o to: #cknowledgments

*e are grateful to all #ga 7han 6niversity alumni at #76 7arachi! Pakistan and #76 6'# for their valuable help.