ATENEO PONTIFICIO REGINA APOSTOLORUM Facolt di Filosofia

The Cosmological Argument from a Beginning in Time in Robert Spitzers New Proofs for the Existence of God

Professore: P. Rafael Pascual L.C. Stude!te: Matt"e# $"ale! L.C. Nu%ero di Matricola: &&&&''&( )isserta*io!e +er la lice!*a

Ro%a (, sette%-re (&,(

INDEX

INTR D!CTI N

,.,.(...( . A Reinterp

EX" SITI N

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retation of Time

,. Indications from Science ,.,.(.... ,.,. Scientific grounds for the finitude of past time ,.,.,. Arguments from the Second law of thermodynamics ,.,.,.,. The Bouncing Universe Scenario ,.,.,.,.,. The Radiation Paradox ,.,.,.,.(. The Entropy Paradox ,.,.,.,... Increase in yclic Expansion ,.,.(. Arguments from Space!Time "eometry ,.,.(.,. singularity ,... ,.,.(.(. ,.,.(... Reply to an o'(ection# )uantum osmology The B*" Theorem+s Boundary to Past!Time onclus ion Prelude# The $ailure of the %aw&ing!Penrose . ,any universe s,.,... onclus ion ,.(. ,etaph ysical Implicat ions

,.,.(...,. The Asymptotically Static Universe %ypothesis

(. Philosophical Proof of a reator of Past Time (.,. An Analytical ontradiction(.(. An .ntological Explanation of Time (.(.,. Existential non!coincidence (.(.(. Real Time as a /on! ontemporaneous 0istensive ,anifold (.(... Time as the 1imiting ondition of Existence (.(./. The Succession of Time and the Asymmetry of Events /

,/ ,2 ,' ,0 ,3 ,1 ,1 (& (,

0 0 1 ,& ,, ,( ,. ,. ,/

(( (. (/ (0 (3 (1 .,

(.(.2. ,anifestations of Real Time (... %il'ert+s Prohi'ition of Actual Infinities (./. A $ormal Argument against the Infinity of Past Time (.2 Proof of a reator of Past Time (.'. onclusion

C NC '!SI N BIB'I (RA "$)

E&A'!ATI N

# T$E "R

,. Scientific .'(ections ,.,. The %artle!%aw&ing /o!Boundary theory (. Philosophical .'(ections (.,. Incomplete argument as regards the logical deduction of a ., minimum unit of time ./ (.(. The Possi'ility of an actual numerical infinity ./ (.(.,. %il'ert+s prohi'ition of !infinities .2 (.(.(. .ther arguments against the existence of an actual numerical infinity (.(... onclusion as regards an actual infinity (... Identification of cause and effect with time order .3 .3 .0

.3 /&

/' /1 /1

/& /( /( 2, 2.

INTR D!CTI N E4+licit ar5u%e!ts for t"e e4iste!ce of God fro% t"e +re%ise of a -e5i!!i!5 i! ti%e are !ot fou!d i! a!cie!t Gree6 +"iloso+"7 des+ite %isleadi!5 e4+la!atio!s +ro8ided o! t"e i!ter!et ,. T"ere #e %ostl7 fi!d a c7clical 8ie# of ti%e li6e t"at of 9eraclitus a!d a! eter!al #orld suc" as t"at of Aristotle. Plato alo!e arri8es close to t"e ar5u%e!t co!sideri!5 ti%e as "a8i!5 -ee! created -7 t"e )e%iur5e ( -ut t"e %atter #"ic" t"e )e%iur5e fi!ds i! c"aos a!d +uts i! order is ta6e! as to "a8e e4isted eter!all7 a!d de%a!di!5 !o e4+la!atio!. . E4+licit
I refer i! +articular to t"e $i6i+edia e!tree e!titled :;al<% cos%olo5ical ar5u%e!t = "tt+:>>e!.#i6i+edia.or5>#i6i>;al?C/?3,%@cos%olo5ical@ar5u%e!t A&1>&,>(&,(B #"ic" t"ou5" +er"a+s !ot stati!5 t"is +ositio! clearl7 see%ed to attri-ute t"e ori5i!s of t"e +roof to Aristotle. Aristotle #as a5ai!st a! i!fi!ite re5ress i! causes -ut did !ot reCect a! i!fi!ite re5ress i! ti%e. ( Cf. PLATO Ti%aeus (0dD(1-. T"is te4t at least rese%-les a first atte%+t at a +roof for a Creator of t"e u!i8erse a!d of ti%e. . See for e4a%+le C. EOLLERT i! t"e i!troductor7 %aterial to St2 Thomas A3uinas4 Siger of Bra'ant4 St2 Bonaventure# .n the Eternity of the 5orld T"e MarFuette U!i8ersit7 Press Mil#au6ee ,1'/ 'D0: 6PlatoGs +ositio! o! t"e for%atio! of t"e #orld is Fuite clear. Si!ce t"e u!i8erse is 8isi-le ta!5i-le a!d %aterial it #as created a!d co!seFue!tl7 "ad to "a8e a cause. Its fat"er a!d %a6er fas"io!ed it accordi!5 to a! eter!al u!c"a!5ea-le +atter! so t"at it is +erfect. Het God t"e su+re%el7 i!telli5e!t artificer did !ot create it out of !ot"i!5. Iecause 9e is 5ood 9e desired t"at all t"i!5s
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+roofs of t"is t7+e arise +articularl7 i! t"e Medie8al Period i! Je#is" Ara-ic a!d C"ristia! +"iloso+"7 due u!dou-tedl7 to t"e co%%o! doctri!e of Creatio! -7 God a!d t"e7 "a8e -ee! 8e"e%e!tl7 de-ated fro% t"e %iddle a5es to our +rese!t da7. T"e Fuestio! of #"et"er it could -e +ro8e! t"at t"e #orld "ad a -e5i!!i!5 #as addressed i! t"e C"ristia! #orld as earl7 as t"e si4t" ce!tur7 -7 Jo"! P"ilo+o!us K/1&D20& A.).L #"o critici*ed -ot" Aristotle a!d Proclus for "oldi!5 t"at t"e #orld #as eter!al./ As Aristotle #as later ado+ted -7 Musli% +"iloso+"ers t"e co!flict arose i! t"e Musli% #orld -et#ee! t"ose #"o follo#ed Aristotle suc" as A8erroes to t"e +oi!t of defe!di!5 t"e eter!it7 of t"e #orld #"ile clarif7i!5 t"at it #as still caused -7 God a!d t"e :Muta6alli%u!= K:dialecticia!s = i.e. ort"odo4 Musli% t"eolo5ia!sL #"o follo#i!5 t"e ;ora! defe!ded a Creatio! out of !ot"i!5 at t"e -e5i!!i!5 of ti%e. $ort"7 of !ote i! +articular is t"e de-ate -et#ee! A8erroes a!d AlDG"a*ali related for e4a%+le i! A8erroesM re-uttal t"e :Tahafut al!Tahafut47 t"at is t"e :Incoherence of Incoherence278 O!e of t"e %ost si5!ifica!t de-ates o! t"is to+ic i! t"e C"ristia! Middle a5es #as t"at -et#ee! St. T"o%as AFui!as a!d St. Io!a8e!ture -ot" of #"o% #ere res+o!di!5 to t"e A8erroist doctri!e of t"e eter!it7 of t"e #orld #"ic" "ad -ee! i!fecti!5 t"e U!i8ersit7 of Paris. T"o%as ar5ued t"at reaso! is i!ca+a-le of +ro8i!5 t"at t"e #orld "as a -e5i!!i!5 i! ti%e a!d t"at it is rat"er a do5%a of
s"ould rese%-le 9i% as closel7 as +ossi-le. T"erefore fi!di!5 t"at all 8isi-le %atter #as i! a c"aotic co!ditio! of tur-ule!t co%%otio! 9e reduced it to order fro% its +re8ious state of disorder. Alo!5 #it" t"e "ea8e!s t"at #ere set i! orderl7 %otio! -7 t"e creator ti%e itself #"ic" is t"e %o8i!5 i%a5e of u!%o8i!5 eter!it7 first ca%e i!to -ei!5. T"is 8ie# #as u!iFue i! a!tiFuit7. Aristotle asserts t"at Plato #as t"e o!l7 o!e #"o "eld t"at ti%e #as created a!d t"orou5"l7 disa5rees #it" "i%. For ti%e is i!co!cei8a-le a+art fro% t"e %o%e!t #"ic" is t"e -e5i!!i!5 of future ti%e a!d t"e e!d of +ast ti%e. 9e!ce t"ere %ust al#a7s -e ti%e -efore a!d after a!7 %o%e!t.= / P9ILOPONUS Against Aristotle4 on the Eternity of the 5orld4 Cor!ell U!i8ersit7 Press It"aca ,130N I). Against Proclus on the Eternity of the 5orld 9!84 )uc6#ort" Lo!do! (&&/. 2 T"e Tahafut al!Tahafut ca! -e fou!d i! electro!ic for% i! E!5lis" at "tt+:>>###.%usli%+"iloso+"7.co%>ir>tt>. T"e #or6 #as a re-uttal to AlDG"a*aliMs The Incoherence of the Philosophers4 #"e!ce t"e title The Incoherence of the Incoherence2

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fait". 9e!ce it ca!!ot -e used to +ro8e t"e e4iste!ce of God ratio!all7. Reaso! is !o!et"eless eFuall7 i!ca+a-le of +ro8i!5 t"e #orld eter!al. Io!a8e!ture o! t"e ot"er "a!d ar5ued t"at reaso! could arri8e o! its o#! to t"e co!clusio! t"at t"e #orld could !ot +ossi-l7 "a8e al#a7s e4isted a!d "e!ce %ust "a8e -ee! created -7 so%et"i!5 -e7o!d it so%et"i!5 eter!al.' T"is ar5u%e!t %a7 at first see% a!tiFuated a!d o-solete si!ce it is 5e!erall7 tau5"t i! sc"ools toda7 t"at #e !o# 6!o# t"rou5" scie!ce t"at t"e u!i8erse a!d ti%e "a8e a -e5i!!i!5 co%%o!l7 referred to as t"e :Ii5 Ia!5.= Iut do #eO A!d does t"is 6!o#led5e lead us !ecessaril7 to co!clude at t"e e4iste!ce of GodO T"e de-ate i! fact co!ti!ues toda7 #"et"er it co!sist i! de!7i!5 t"at ti%e "as a -e5i!!i!5 Ksuc" as Ste+"e! 9a#6i!5 #it" "is !oD-ou!dar7 t"eor7 rece!tl7 reD+ro+osed i! The "rand 0esign0L or de!7i!5 t"at a -e5i!!i!5 i%+lies a Creator Ksuc" as Pue!ti! S%it"Ms +ositio! i! Theism4 Atheism4 and Big Bang osmology:L. T"is +a+er #ill e4a%i!e a!d a++raise a +roof for GodMs e4iste!ce -ased o! co!te%+orar7 scie!tific t"eor7 a!d i!8esti5atio! t"at -ac6 u+ t"e ar5u%e!t for a -e5i!!i!5 of ti%e alo!5 #it" +"iloso+"ical ar5u%e!ts t"at t"ere !eeds -e a -e5i!!i!5 of ti%e a!d t"at t"is !ecessaril7 i%+lies a Creator. T"is +roof or set of +roofs #as +rese!ted -7 Fr. Ro-ert S+it*er i! "is -oo6 /ew Proofs for the Existence of "od# ontri'utions of ontemporary Physics and Philosophy2;

Cf. St2 Thomas A3uinas4 Siger of Bra'ant4 St2 Bonaventure# .n the Eternity of the 5orld T"e MarFuette U!i8ersit7 Press Mil#au6ee ,1'/ +u-lis"ed di5itall7 i! R. MCINERNH The ollected 5or&s of St2 Thomas A3uinas4 Electronic Edition2 A5ai! St. Io!a8e!ture #as!Mt so %uc" i!terested i! articulati!5 a +roof for t"e e4iste!ce of God as "e #as i! refuti!5 t"e doctri!e of t"e A8erroists suc" as Si5er of Ira-a!t #"o clai%ed to +ro8e as did A8erroes t"at t"e #orld is eter!al. 0 Cf. S. 9A$;ING a!d L. MLO)INO$ The "rand 0esign Ia!ta% Ioo6s Ne# Hor6 (&,& ,.,D,.2. 3 Cf. $. CRAIG a!d P. SMIT9 Theism4 Atheism4 and Big Bang osmology4 O4ford U!i8ersit7 Press Ne# Hor6 ,11.. 1 R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for the Existence of "od# ontri'utions of ontemporary Physics and Philosophy4 $%. I. Eerd%a!s Pu-lis"i!5 Co. Gra!d Ra+ids (&,&.

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I! Ro-ert S+it*erMs rece!t #or6 /ew Proofs for the Existence of "od4 t"ere are t#o %o%e!ts i! #"ic" a +roof of GodMs e4iste!ce fro% a -e5i!!i!5 i! ti%e is +rese!ted. T"e first i! C"a+ter O!e e4a%i!es a scie!tific fou!datio! or 5rou!d#or6 for a -e5i!!i!5 i! ti%e a!d dra#s %eta+"7sical co!clusio!s fro% t"is starti!5 +oi!t. T"e seco!d i! C"a+ter Fi8e is fro% -e5i!!i!5 to e!d a +"iloso+"ical +roof a!d is a 8ersio! of t"e lo!5Dde-ated &al<m ar5u%e!t. T"e disti!ctio! of t"ese +rese!tatio!s as scie!tific i!dicatio!s Kof GodMs e4iste!ceL a!d +"iloso+"ical +roof is e8ide!ced -7 Fr. S+it*erMs structuri!5 of t"e #or6. T"e first falls u!der Part O!e #"ic" is titled Indications of reation and Supernatural 0esign in ontemporary Big Bang osmology2 T"e seco!d falls u!der Part T#o #"ic" i! its tur! is titled Three Philosophical Proofs for the Existence of "od2 Let us !o# +roceed to e4a%i!e eac" of t"ese e4+ositio!s. I! doi!5 so #e s"all also atte%+t to clarif7 t"e !ature of t"ese +roofs a!d Cust "o# Scie!ce ca! co!tri-ute i! t"is #a7 to +"iloso+"7 accordi!5 to Fr. S+it*er. $e +roceed to t"e first +roof. ,. Indications from Science

As alread7 !oted a-o8e t"e e4+ositio! i! C"a+ter O!e is a-o8e all a collectio! of scie!tific data i!dicati!5 a -e5i!!i!5 of ti%e. For t"is reaso! S+it*er -e5i!s t"e c"a+ter #it" a clarificatio! -7 a!s#eri!5 t"e Fuestio! : an science indicate creation-= $e s"ould -e5i! -7 clarif7i!5 #"at scie!ce ca! reall7 tell us a-out a -e5i!!i!5 of t"e u!i8erse a!d su+er!atural causatio!. First u!li6e +"iloso+"7 a!d %eta+"7sics scie!ce ca!!ot deductively +ro8e a creatio! of God. T"is is -ecause !atural scie!ce deals #it" t"e +"7sical u!i8erse a!d #it" t"e re5ularities #"ic" #e call :la#s of !ature= t"at are o-e7ed -7 t"e +"e!o%e!a #it"i! t"e u!i8erse. Iut God is !ot a! o-Cect or +"e!o%e!o! or re5ularit7 #it"i! t"e +"7sical u!i8erseN so scie!ce ca!!ot !ot AsicB sa7 a!7t"i!5 a-out God.,& T"is certai!l7 does a#a7 #it" #"at #ould -e a! o-8ious o-Cectio! to Fr. S+it*erMs ar5u%e!t !a%el7 t"at "e is faili!5 to ta6e i!to accou!t t"e !ature of scie!tific i!8esti5atio! #"ic" a priori does a#a7 #it" t"e +ossi-ilit7 of sa7i!5 a!7t"i!5 a-out God -7 li%iti!5 itself to t"e 8erificatio! of la#s i! !ature t"rou5" e%+irical e4+eri%e!tatio!. Het t"is also a++ears to i!8alidate t"e e!tire first +art of Fr. S+it*erMs #or6 #"ic" co!sists s+ecificall7 i! a! assess%e!t of t"e co!tri-utio!s of scie!ce to +roofs for t"e e4iste!ce of God. 9e t"erefore clarifies "is reaso!i!5 t"us: So #"at can scie!ce tell usO It ca! ide!tif7 a55re5ate a!d s7!t"esi*e e8ide!ce i!dicati!5 t"at t"e fi!itude of +ast ti%e i! t"e u!i8erse as #e curre!tl7 6!o# it to -e or a!d co!cei8e it could -e.,, S+it*erMs su++ositio! t"erefore is t"at #e %a7 -ase a +"iloso+"ical +roof for GodMs e4iste!ce o! a datu% of scie!ce !a%el7 t"e fi!itude of +ast ti%e. ,( T"at t"e
R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for= ((. It a++ears o-8ious fro% t"e co!te4t t"at t"e te4t is %ea!t to read :scie!ce ca!!ot sa7 a!7t"i!5 a-out God.= ,, R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ((. T"e Fuotatio! co!ti!ues :Scie!ce ca! also ide!tif7 t"e e4ceedi!5l7 "i5" i%+ro-a-ilit7 of t"e ra!do% occurre!ce of co!ditio!s !ecessar7 to sustai! life i! t"e u!i8erse as #e curre!tl7 6!o# it to -e or a!d co!cei8e it could -e.= T"is latter +art refers %ore directl7 to C"a+ter t#o #"ic" deals #it" a! ar5u%e!t fro% desi5! #"ile t"e for%er Fuoted a-o8e refers to t"e ar5u%e!t "ere e4a%i!ed. ,( U+ till !o# #e "a8e s+o6e! of :a -e5i!!i!5 i! ti%e = rat"er t"a! :t"e fi!itude of +ast ti%e.= S+it*er so%eti%es uses -ot" e4+ressio!s i!terc"a!5ea-l7 -ut so%e "a8e +osed t"at ti%e could -e fi!ite a!d 7et "a8e !o -e5i!!i!5 as #ill -e discussed furt"er o!
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+roof is philosophical a!d not scientific is %ade clear -7 t"is first state%e!t a!d -7 "is di8isio! of t"e c"a+ter t"e first +art co!sisti!5 i! a! assess%e!t of scie!tific data i!dicati!5 t"e fi!itude of +ast ti%e ,. a!d t"e seco!d co!sisti!5 of a +"iloso+"ical +roof e!titled ,etaphysical Implications2,/ 9e!ce t#o ar5u%e!ts !eed -e %ade: first t"at scie!ce ca! +ro8e t"e fi!itude of +ast ti%e a!d seco!d t"at +"iloso+"7 ca! +ro8e GodMs e4iste!ce fro% t"e starti!5 +oi!t of t"e fact of fi!ite +ast ti%e.

,.,. Scientific grounds for the finitude of past time Iefore 5oi!5 i!to t"e scie!tific data itself +rese!ted -7 Fr. S+it*er it is i%+orta!t to !ote a #ea6!ess i! t"is %et"od of +ro8i!5 GodMs e4iste!ce #"ic" t"e aut"or "i%self +oi!ts out i! t"e sectio! an science indicate creationE8e! t"ou5" scie!tific co!clusio!s are su-Cect to c"a!5e i! t"e li5"t of !e# data #e s"ould !ot let t"is +ossi-ilit7 cause us to u!!ecessaril7 discou!t t"e 8alidit7 of lo!5Dsta!di!5 +ersiste!t ri5orousl7 esta-lis"ed t"eories. If #e did t"is #e %i5"t discou!t t"e %aCorit7 of our scie!tific t"eories. T"us it is reaso!a-le a!d res+o!si-le to attri-ute Fualified trut" 8alue to suc" t"eories u!til suc" ti%e as !e# data reFuires t"e% to -e c"a!5ed.,2 T"e :trut" 8alue= of scie!tific 6!o#led5e is :Fualified = i.e. 8alid u!til !e# data reFuires t"e% to -e re+laced. T"is #ea6!ess is a #ea6!ess i! scie!tific 6!o#led5e itself. T"ere are !o do5%as i! scie!ce -ecause scie!ce is -7 its !ature i%+erfect +ro8isio!al a!d i!direct 6!o#led5e #"ic" %ust -e co!sta!tl7 c"ec6ed a!d 8erified -7 e4+eri%e!tatio!. ,' 9e!ce e8e! if t"e lo5ic of t"e +"iloso+"ical
i! t"e e8aluatio! of t"e +roof. ,. Cf. I'id. (/D//. ,/ Cf. I'id24 //. ,2 R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ((. ,' Cf. for e4a%+le JO9N PAUL II :Address to scie!tists a!d stude!ts i! t"e Colo5!e Cat"edral Colo5!e Ger%a!7 No8e%-er ,2 t" ,13& = 1+.sservatore Romano >5ee&ly English Edition?4 KNo8. (/t" ,13&L 0: :Scie!tific affir%atio!s are al#a7s +articular. T"e7 are Custified o!l7 i! co!sideratio! of a 5i8e! starti!5 +oi!t t"e7 are set i! a +rocess of

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side of t"e +roof is sou!d K#"ic" is 7et to -e a!al7*edL t"e +roof is o!l7 8alid as lo!5 as t"e follo#i!5 scie!tific data is !ot re+laced -7 !e#fou!d data less fa8ora-le to a fi!itude of +ast ti%e. Fr. S+it*er di8ides t"e scie!tific ar5u%e!ts for t"e fi!itude of +ast ti%e i!to t#o t7+es ,0 t"ose -ased o! t"e Seco!d La# of T"er%od7!a%ics Kt"e i%+ossi-ilit7 of a! eter!all7 -ou!ci!5 u!i8erseL a!d t"ose -ased o! s+aceDti%e 5eo%etr7 Kt"e IEG,3 t"eore%Ms -ou!dar7 of +ast ti%eL. ,1 $e #ill "ere li%it oursel8es to a -rief su%%ar7 of t"ese ar5u%e!ts. ,,,. Arguments from the Second law of thermodynamics T"e seco!d la# of t"er%od7!a%ics i! si%+le ter%s states t"at "eat ca!!ot s+o!ta!eousl7 flo# fro% a colder locatio! to a "otter locatio!. I! less si%+ler ter%s t"e 5e!erali*ed seco!d la# of t"er%od7!a%ics :sa7s t"at i! isolated s7ste%s e!tro+7 al#a7s i!creases or sta7s t"e sa%e a!d !e8er 5oes do#!.= (& $"at is i%+orta!t to Fr. S+it*erMs ar5u%e!t is t"e fact t"at t"is +rocess is irreversi'le2 AAB cu+ of "ot coffee #ill 5raduall7 cool off u!til it "as t"e sa%e te%+erature as its surrou!di!5s A...B. O!e does !ot see t"e re8erse "a++e!: "eat flo#i!5 fro% t"e cooler air i!to t"e coffee a!d %a6i!5 t"e coffee "otter a!d "otter: A5ai! t"e cooli!5 of t"e coffee is a! irre8ersi-le +rocess.(,

de8elo+%e!t a!d t"e7 ca! -e corrected a!d left -e"i!d i! t"is +rocess.= See also I). Papal Addresses to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences 9;9@!ABBA and to the Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences 9;;C!ABBA4 Po!tifical Acade%7 of Scie!ces Eatica! Cit7 (&&. (23: :T"e co!Fuests of scie!ce are at ti%es +ro8isio!al su-Cect to re8ie# a!d ret"i!6i!5 a!d t"e7 #ill !e8er succeed i! e4+ressi!5 t"e #"ole trut" "idde! i! t"e u!i8erse.= ,0 Cf. R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ((. T"e di8isio! %e!tio!ed o! +5. (( is i! re8erse order to its +rese!tatio! i! t"e c"a+ter. ,3 T"e Borde!*ilen&in!"uth t"eore% soDcalled for its +ro+o!e!ts: Ar8i!d Iorde Ale4a!der Eile!6i! a!d Ala! Gut". ,1 Cf. R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 .&D/.. (& I'id24 ('. (, I'id24 (/D(2.

,,

T"e i%+licatio! is t"at if our u!i8erse "as al#a7s e4isted it s"ould "a8e ru! do#! lo!5 a5o a!d it "as!Mt. (( T"is does !ot follo# !ecessaril7 "o#e8er si!ce e!tro+7 does!Mt !ecessaril7 i!crease -ut could "a8e sta7ed t"e sa%e or +er"a+s toda7Ms e!tro+7 is actuall7 8er7 lar5e co%+ared to +ast e!tro+7. 9e!ce t"is is !ot sufficie!t as e8ide!ce e!ou5" i! itself as t"e aut"or "i%self ad%its: No# #"at #e "a8e Cust said is !ot a +roof t"at t"e u!i8erse "ad a -e5i!!i!5. It is !ot ri5orous e!ou5" to -e a +roof. Iut so%e cos%olo5ical %odels ca! -e ri5orousl7 +ro8e! to "a8e a -e5i!!i!5. A!d #"e! o!e loo6s at t"e +roofs o!e sees t"at %a!7 of t"e% are -ased o! t"e Seco!d La# of T"er%od7!a%ics. A 5ood e4a%+le is t"e case of t"e -ou!ci!5 u!i8erse sce!ario.(. Iefore +assi!5 o! to t"e case of t"e -ou!ci!5 u!i8erse it s"ould -e !oted t"at t"e Seco!d La# of T"er%od7!a%ics #ill o!l7 -e "el+ful to +ro8i!5 t"e u!i8erseMs -e5i!!i!5 if it is su++osed t"at it "as al#a7s a++lied for t"e u!i8erse.(/ ,.,.,.,. The Bouncing Universe Scenario T"e Iou!ci!5 U!i8erse Sce!ario is t"e t"eor7 t"at t"e u!i8erse first e4+a!ds fro% t"e %o%e!t of t"e -i5 -a!5 -ut t"e! slo#s do#! e8e!tuall7 colla+si!5 i! a :-i5 cru!c".=(2 T"e +ostulate is t"at t"is +rocess could "a8e -ee! 5oi!5 o! i!fi!itel7 i.e. t"at :eac" -i5 cru!c" is a Iou!ce t"at is also t"e -i5 -a!5 for t"e !e4t c7cle=(' a!d "e!ce t"ere #ould -e !o -e5i!!i!5 of ti%e.

T"is is -asicall7 t"e ar5u%e!t a5ai!st +er+etual %otio! %ac"i!es #"ic" S+it*er #ill e4+licitl7 %e!tio! a5ai! #"ile e4a%i!i!5 t"e Radiatio! Parado4. Cf. I'id24 (' (1. For %ore o! +er+etual %otio! %ac"i!es cf. H. RAO An Introduction to Thermodynamics4 U!i8ersit7 Press 97dera-ad (&&/ es+eciall7 (,,. (. R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ('D(0 (/ It see%s t"ere are fe# #"o #ould o-Cect to t"is +ositio! as it is 5e!erall7 "eld a%o!5 scie!tists. See for e4a%+le L. S;LAR :P"iloso+"7 of Statistical Mec"a!ics = i! E. QALTA Ked.L The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy >Summer ABB; Edition? o!li!e +u-licatio! "tt+:>>+lato.sta!ford.edu>arc"i8es>su%(&&1>e!tries>stat+"7sDstat%ec" A&/>&'>&1B. (2 Cf. for e4a%+le A. ANANT9AS$AMH :Fro% Ii5 Ia!5 to Ii5 Iou!ce = Ne#Scie!tist K,.t" )ece%-er (&&3L .(D.2. (' R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 (0.

((

,(

T"e first +ro-le% #it" t"is +ositio! is t"at it su++oses t"e e4+a!sio! of t"e u!i8erse "as -ee! slo#i!5 do#! si!ce t"e -i5 -a!5 to#ards a -i5 cru!c" a!d alt"ou5" t"e e4+a!sio! of t"e u!i8erse #as slo#i!5 do#! for so%e -illio! 7ears for t"e last se8eral -illio! 7ears it "as -ee! s+eedi!5 u+. 9e!ce t"ere is !o telli!5 #"et"er #e are "eaded for a -i5 cru!c" a!7ti%e i! t"e future. Iut Fr. S+it*er allo#s t"e +ossi-ilit7 t"at t"e u!i8erse could start to slo# do#! a5ai! i! its e4+a!sio! a!d co!siders t"ree ot"er +ro-le%s #it" t"e Iou!ci!5 U!i8erse t"eor7: ,L t"e radiatio! +arado4 (L t"e e!tro+7 +arado4 a!d .L a! i!crease i! c7clic e4+a!sio!.

,.,.,.,.,. The Radiation Paradox T"e +arado4 su%%ari*ed is t"at e8er7 ti%e t"e u!i8erse s"ould "a8e colla+sed starli5"t is scattered rea-sor-ed -7 %atter reDe%itted %a!7 ti%es a!d t"us "o%o5e!i*ed i!to a -lac6-od7 s+ectru% #"ic" 5ets folded i!to t"e cos%ic radiatio!. T"is #ould %ea! t"at if our u!i8erse "ad colla+sed a!d -ou!ced Cust a t"ousa!d ti%es t"e li5"t i! cos%ic radiatio! #ould -e at least a t"ousa!d ti%es %ore t"a! t"e starli5"t si!ce t"e starli5"t #e o-ser8e #as +roduced o!l7 i! t"is last c7cle. Iut i! fact t"ere is o!l7 a-out a "u!dred ti%es as %uc" li5"t fro% cos%ic radiatio! as t"ere is fro% starli5"t. S+it*er co!cludes: So t"ere ca!!ot "a8e -ee! %a!7 %ore t"a! a "u!dred c7cles i! t"e +ast #"ic" i%+lies t"at t"e u!i8erse "as !ot -ee! c7cli!5 fore8er a!d t"at Ki! t"e -ou!ci!5 u!i8erse sce!arioL t"e u!i8erse %ust "a8e "ad a -e5i!!i!5.(0 )es+ite t"e a++are!t lo5ic of t"is state%e!t t"ere are scie!tists #"o #ould !ot a5ree t"at t"e i%+ossi-ilit7 of a -ou!ci!5 u!i8erse !ecessaril7 i%+lies t"at t"e u!i8erse "as a -e5i!!i!5. T"is #ill -e addressed furt"er o! i! t"e discussio! of t"e :!oD-ou!dar7 t"eor7 = o!e of #"ose %ai! +ro+o!e!ts is Ste+"e! 9a#6i!5.(3
R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 (3 Cf. I'id24 .(D..N J. 9ARTLE AN) S. 9A$;ING :$a8e fu!ctio! of t"e u!i8erse = Physical Review ) (3 K,13.L (1'&R(102.
(3 (0

,.

S+it*er 5oes o! to sa7 t"at re5ardless t"e a%ou!t of cos%ic radiatio! +rese!t i! our u!i8erse toda7 if t"e u!i8erse #ere to -ou!ce i!fi!itel7 t"e a%ou!t of starli5"t +roduced #ould e8e!tuall7 reac" *ero si!ce t"e u!i8erse #ould ru! out of fuel #it" #"ic" to +roduce t"e% KSeco!d La# of T"er%od7!a%icsL. A!d o! t"e co!trar7 stars are still for%i!5 toda7.

,.,.,.,.(. The Entropy Paradox T"e +arado4 is stated t"us: :9o# after a "u5e !u%-er of c7cles i! #"ic" e!tro+7 #as -ei!5 5e!erated ca! our c7cle "a8e started #it" ti!7 e!tro+7O 9ere a5ai! #e see t"e Seco!d La# at #or6.=(1 ,.,.,.,... Increase in yclic Expansion Accordi!5 to Ric"ard Tol%a! .& eac" c7cle #ould lead to i!creased radiatio! i! tur! leadi!5 to i!creased +ressure #"ic" i! its tur! #ould %a6e eac" c7cle lo!5er. 9e!ce a! i!fi!ite re5ress is i%+ossi-leSat least accordi!5 to Pue!ti! S%it" Ssi!ce a re5ress i! t"e +ast #ill e8e!tuall7 reac" a! i!fi!itel7 s"ort c7cle +ast c7cles -ei!5 !ecessaril7 s"orter t"a! +osterior o!es. S%it" sa7s t"at :t"is c7cle or t"e -e5i!!i!5 of so%e c7cle #it" 8alues a++roac"i!5 t"e 8alues of t"is c7cle #ill cou!t as t"e -e5i!!i!5 of t"e oscillati!5 u!i8erse.=.,

R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 (1. See also L. S;LAR :P"iloso+"7 of StatisticalT = es+eciall7 :Irreversi'ility2= .& Cf. R. TOLMAN Relativity4 Thermodynamics4 and osmology4 Clare!do! Press Ne# Hor6 ,130. ., P. SMIT9 :T"e U!caused Ie5i!!i!5 of t"e U!i8erse = i! $. CRAIG AN) P. SMIT9 Theism4 Atheism and Big Bang osmology4 Clare!do! Press Ne# Hor6 ,11. ,,( Fuoted i! R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 (1. It is to !ote t"at Pue!ti! S%it" #rote t"is state%e!t #"ile a! at"eist a!d is "i%self a5ai!st t"e ar5u%e!t fro% a -e5i!!i!5 i! ti%e.

(1

,/

Iefore e!di!5 S+it*er -ri!5s u+ a! o-Cectio! to "is ar5u%e!t !a%el7 t"e e&pyrotic universe model +ro+osed -7 stri!5 t"eorists Paul Stei!"ardt a!d Neil Turo6..( I! Stei!"ardt a!d Turo6Ms %odel t"e u!i8erse is i!fi!ite i! e4te!t a!d i! eac" c7cle t"e u!i8erse s+aceDti%e 5ets stretc"ed out a!d t"e de!sit7 of e!tro+7 is t"i!!ed out -7 t"is e4+a!sio!. So it is clai%ed t"at t"e e!tro+7 density is reset to a s%all 8alue i! eac" c7cle. T"is #ould!Mt 8iolate t"e Seco!d La# of T"er%od7!a%ics: e!tro+7 still 5ets 5e!erated a!d is still i!creasi!5 i! t"e e6+7rotic %odel. 9o#e8er -ecause of t"e stretc"i!5 of s+ace Kt"e cos%ic e4+a!sio!L e!tro+7 re%ai!s t"e sa%e fro% o!e c7cle to t"e !e4t. Ne8ert"eless as #e s"all see t"e e6+7rotic sce!ario "as ot"er +ro-le%sT.. T"e +ro-le%s #it" t"e e6+7rotic sce!ario co%e u+ i! t"e !e4t sectio! #"ic" deals #it" ar5u%e!ts fro% S+aceDTi%e Geo%etr7. T"is structuri!5 of t"e C"a+ter de!otes t"at rat"er t"a! eac" of t"ese sectio!s -ei!5 sufficie!t i! a!d of itself to i!dicate t"e fi!itude of +ast ti%e t"e su%%ar7 of t"e collected data to5et"er i!dicates t"is fact. S+it*er ide!tifies t"is %et"od #it" #"at Cardi!al Jo"! 9e!r7 Ne#%a! called :Ui!for%al i!fere!ce M i.e. reac"i!5 a co!clusio! -7 co!sideri!5 t"e accu%ulatio! of co!8er5i!5 a!tecede!t +ro-a-ilities.=./ ,.,.(. Arguments from Space!Time "eometry ,.,.(.,. Prelude# The $ailure of the %aw&ing!Penrose singularity Iefore addressi!5 t"e ar5u%e!ts i! fa8or S+it*er ta6es i!to accou!t a! i%+orta!t ar5u%e!t t"at failed. T"e 9a#6i!5DPe!rose Si!5ularit7 t"eore%s #ere a stro!5 ar5u%e!t for a -e5i!!i!5 i! ti%e si!ce t"e7 s"o#ed t"at at so%e +oi!t i! t"e +ast e!er57 de!sit7 te%+erature a!d t"e cur8ature of s+aceDti%e all -eco%e i!fi!iteSa %at"e%atical si!5ularit7. $orld li!es Kt"e +at"s of o-Cects t"rou5"

Cf. P. STEIN9AR)T a!d N. TURO; :Cos%ic E8olutio! i! a C7clic U!i8erse = i! Physical Review4 ) '2 ,('&&. K(&&(L "tt+:>>ar4i8.or5>+df>"e+Dt">&,,,&13.+df A(/>&/>,(B. .. R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 .&. ./ I'id24 (.N Cf. J. 9. NE$MAN An Essay in Aid of A "rammar of Assent4 Lo!5%a!s Gree! a!d Co. Lo!do! ,1&' (33D.(1.

.(

,2

fourDdi%e!sio!al s+aceDti%eL %ust e!d t"ere a!d "e!ce t"is %ar6s t"e -e5i!!i!5 of ti%e..2 T"ese t"eore%s "o#e8er de+e!ded o! fi8e co!ditio!s t"e t"ird of #"ic" #as t"at %ass de!sit7 a!d +ressure of %atter !e8er -eco%e !e5ati8e. T"is co!ditio! #as reCected #"e! t"e +ro+osal of 8acuu% e!er57 Ke!taili!5 a stro!5 +ressure eFual to %i!us its e!er57 de!sit7L #as 5e!erall7 acce+ted as a! e4+la!atio! for a -rief +eriod of i!flatio! of t"e u!i8erse Ks+eedi!5 u+ i! its e4+a!sio!L disco8ered to "a8e "a++e!ed s"ortl7 after t"e -i5 -a!5. .' 9e!ce t"e 9a#6i!5DPe!rose T"eore%s %ust -e reCected as a! ar5u%e!t for a -e5i!!i!5 i! +ast ti%e #"ic" 5i8es all t"e %ore i%+orta!ce to t"e co!tri-utio! of t"e IordeD Eile!6i!DGut" t"eore%. ,.,.(.(. Reply to an o'(ection# )uantum osmology I! t"is !e4t sectio! rat"er t"a! co!structi!5 a! ar5u%e!t i! fa8or S+it*er a!s#ers a! o-Cectio! !a%el7 t"at of t"e 9artleD9a#6i!5 :!oD-ou!dar7= %odel. To e4+lai! t"e %odel S+it*er uses t"e e4a%+le of a co!e #"ere t"e s"ar+Ded5ed ti+ re+rese!ts si!5ular -e5i!!i!5 i! ti%e. O!e ca! t"e! sa7 t#o t"i!5s a-out :ti%e= o! t"at co!e: K,L Measured -ac6 fro% a!7 +lace o! t"e co!e t"e :+ast= is fi!ite Kit is o!l7 a fi!ite dista!ce to t"e ti+L. K(L T"ere is a u!iFue a!d #ellDdefi!ed :first i!sta!t of ti%e= Kt"e si!5ular +oi!t at t"e ti+L. No# i%a5i!e t"at t"e s"ar+ ti+ of t"e co!e is rou!ded off sli5"tl7 #it" sa!d+a+er. ATB T"e! #"ile t"e +oi!t %a7 still -e 8er7 s"ar+ it #o!Mt -e i!fi!itel7 s"ar+. It #o!Mt -e si!5ular a!7%ore. I! t"is case K,L is still true: i.e. %easured -ac6 fro% a!7 +lace o! t"e co!e t"e :+ast= is fi!ite A...B. Iut K(L is !o lo!5er !ecessaril7 true. It %a7 !o lo!5er -e +ossi-le to ide!tif7 :t"e= +oi!t at t"e ti+ i.e +i!+oi!t :t"e= first i!sta!t of :ti%e.=.0 T"is is of course a! a!alo57 as S+it*er "i%self states. T"e !oD-ou!dar7 %odel sa7s t"at i! o!e of t"e earliest %o%e!ts of t"e u!i8erse 6!o#! as t"e
Cf. S. 9A$;ING :T"eoretical Ad8a!ces i! Ge!eral Relati8it7 = i! 9. $OOLF editor Some Strangeness in the Proportion4 Addiso!D$esle7 Readi!5 MA ,13& ,/1. .' Cf. A. GUT9 S. THE :P"ase Tra!sitio!s a!d Ma5!etic Mo!o+ole Productio! i! t"e Eer7 Earl7 U!i8erse = Physical Review 1etters4 // K,13&L '.,R'.2. .0 R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 .(.
.2

,'

:Pla!6 era = t"e u!i8erse #as su-Cect to -ot" 5e!eral relati8it7 a!d Fua!tu% t"eor7 a!d t"at i! t"is era ti%e directio! -e"a8es li6e a!ot"er di%e!sio! of s+ace: a fourt" s+ace di%e!sio!..3 9e!ce #e ca!!ot +oi!t to a first %o%e!t of ti%e si!ce t"ere is !o disti!ct ti%e directio!. S+it*er 5oes o! to sa7 t"at t"is does !ot %ea! t"at t"ere is !o -e5i!!i!5 as is clai%ed -7 so%e -ut si%+l7 t"at #e ca!!ot ide!tif7 t"e first %o%e!t. T"e u!i8erse still -e5a! -ut !ot at a u!iFuel7 ide!tifia-le +oi!t. It "as a fi!ite +ast. To sa7 t"at it "as !o -e5i!!i!5 i! t"e !oD-ou!dar7 sce!ario is as %isleadi!5 as to sa7 t"at t"e co!e "as !o e!d Cust -ecause t"e e!d is !ot s"ar+..1 9e t"e! discards t"e +ro-le% stati!5 t"at sce!arios clai%i!5 t"at t"e -i5 -a!5 is !ot t"e -e5i!!i!5 -ut a 5ate#a7 to a! earlier era are :A%Bore i%+orta!t for t"e issues discussed i! t"is -oo6.= /& No!et"eless #e #ill co!sider t"e o-Cectio! +osed -7 t"e NoD-ou!dar7 t"eore% i! 5reater detail furt"er o! as a si5!ifica!t t"ou5" i!co!clusi8e o-Cectio! to t"is ar5u%e!t. ,.,.(... The B*" Theorem+s Boundary to Past!Time Fr. S+it*er -e5i!s t"is sectio! #it" a "istor7 of t"e t"eore% -ut #e #ill +ass directl7 to e4a%i!i!5 t"e si5!ifica!ce of t"e t"eore% itself. Our ar5u%e!t s"o#s t"at !ull a!d ti%eDli6e 5eodesics are i! 5e!eral +astD i!co%+lete i! i!flatio!ar7 %odels #"et"er or !ot e!er57 co!ditio!s "old +ro8ided o!l7 t"at t"e a8era5ed e4+a!sio! co!ditio! 9a8 V & "olds alo!5 t"ese +astDdirected 5eodesics./,
For a si%+lified e4+la!atio! of t"is t"eor7 cf. S. 9A$;ING a!d L. MLO)INO$ The "rand 0esign Ia!ta% Ioo6s Ne# Hor6 (&,& ,.,D,.2. Ta6e for e4a%+le o! +a5e ,./: :To!ce #e add t"e effects of Fua!tu% t"eor7 to t"e t"eor7 of relati8it7 i! e4tre%e cases #ar+a5e ca! occur to suc" a 5reat e4te!t t"at ti%e -e"a8es li6e a!ot"er di%e!sio! of s+ace. I! t"e earl7 u!i8erseS#"e! t"e u!i8erse #as s%all e!ou5" to -e 5o8er!ed -7 -ot" 5e!eral relati8it7 a!d Fua!tu% t"eor7St"ere #ere effecti8el7 four di%e!sio!s of s+ace a!d !o!e of ti%e.= .1 R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ... /& I'id2 ... /, A. Iorde A. Gut" a!d A. Eile!6i! :I!flatio!ar7 s+aceDti%es are !ot +astD co%+lete = i! Phys2 Rev2 1ett2 1& K(&&.L "tt+:>>ar4i8.or5>+df>5rFc>&,,&&,(.+df A(/>&/>,(B ..
.3

,0

:9a8= re+rese!ts a! a8era5e 9u--le e4+a!sio! so i! ot"er #ords i! a!7 u!i8erse #"ere t"e a8era5e 9u--le e4+a!sio! is 5reater t"a! *ero t"ere is a -ou!dar7 to +ast ti%e. T"is a++lies to t"e eter!al i!flatio! sce!ario K+resu%a-l7 caused -7 8acuu% e!er57L #"ic" #e recall "ad -ee! t"e cause for reCecti!5 si!5ularit7 i! t"e 9a#6i!5DPe!rose t"eore%s. Su%%ed u+ i! t"e #ords of Ale4a!der Eile!6i! :T"e co!clusio! is t"at +astDeter!al i!flatio! #it"out a -e5i!!i!5 is i%+ossi-le.=/( T"is #or6s for t"e e6+7rotic sce!ario Kreferred to earlier o! +5. ,.L as #ell for alt"ou5" t"ere are -rief +eriods of co!tractio! i! t"is sce!ario K#"ere 9 W &L t"e average 9u--le e4+a!sio! is 5reater t"a! *ero. T"e o!l7 sce!arios t"at could esca+e t"is t"eore% #ould "a8e to -e K,L a u!i8erse %odel #it" a! a8era5e 9u--le e4+a!sio! less t"a! *ero K(L a 9u--le e4+a!sio! eFual to *ero Ka! as7%+toticall7 static u!i8erseL or K.L a %odel i! #"ic" ti%e i! i!flatio!ar7 cos%olo57 is deco!structed. Fr. S+it*er 5i8es e4a%+les of t"ese t"ree. T"e first is reduced to a -ou!ci!5 u!i8erse sce!ario #"ic" "as alread7 -ee! addressed so #e #ill focus o! t"e ot"er t#o. ,.,.(...,. The Asymptotically Static Universe %ypothesis T"e As7%+toticall7 Static U!i8erse 97+ot"esis /. is a case #"ere t"e u!i8erse is !eit"er accelerati!5 !or decelerati!5 i! its e4+a!sio! -ut rat"er "as reac"ed a co!sta!t scale factor 8alue. T"is "o#e8er does !ot 5et arou!d a -e5i!!i!5 i! t"e u!i8erse accordi!5 to S+it*er #"o Fuoti!5 Crai5 a!d Si!clair focuses t"e dile%%a o! a tra!sitio! fro% static to e4+a!sio!: AT"e as7%+toticall7 static "7+ot"esisB "as t"e dile%%a t"at it %ust -e5i! static a!d t"e! tra!sitio! to a! e4+a!sio!. 9e!ce t"e static +"ase is %etasta-le #"ic" i%+lies t"at it is fi!ite i! lifeti%e. T"e u!i8erse -e5i!s to e4ist.//
A. EILEN;IN Fuoted i! R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 .2. See for e4a%+le S. ;OU$N J. LEE T. 9. LEE T. MOON a!d P. O9 Asymptotically Static Universe4 i! "tt+:>>ar4i8.or5>PS@cac"e>ar4i8>+df>,,&.>,,&..(/,'8(.+df A(/>&/>,(B.
/. /(

,3

T"e case of a tra!sitio! fro% e4+a!sio! to static is !ot co!sidered -7 S+it*er si!ce i! t"at sce!ario t"e a8era5e 9u--le e4+a!sio! of t"e u!i8erse #ould still -e 5reater t"a! *ero./2 ,.,.(...(. A Reinterpretation of Time T"e i!ter+retatio! or deco!structio! of ti%e +rese!ted -7 S+it*er is ta6e! fro% A5uirre a!d Gratto!Ms atte%+t to defe!d a! eter!all7 i!flati!5 u!i8erse -7 :t"e flat slici!5 of de Sitter s+ace.= /' I! t"e de Sitter solutio! s+ace actuall7 co!tracts rat"er t"a! e4+a!ds e4+o!e!tiall7 fro% t X %i!us i!fi!it7 to so%e +oi!t i! ti%e #"ere it starts e4+a!di!5 Kt X &L to#ards t X +lus i!fi!it7. /0 T"is #ould i%+l7 t"at t"ere is a! i!fi!ite +eriod of co!tractio! follo#ed -7 a! i!fi!ite +eriod of e4+a!sio!. I! order to eli%i!ate t"is irre5ularit7 A5uirre a!d Gratto! su55est t"at i! t"e +"ase fro% t X %i!us i!fi!it7 to t"e +"ase t X & ti%e is re8ersed a!d "e!ce it is a! e4+a!sio! +"ase rat"er t"a! a co!tractio! +"ase. 9e!ce at +oi!t t X & it loo6s to t"e future i! -ot" directio!s. S+it*er reCects t"is t"eor7 as :u!+"7sical = stati!5 t"at fe# +"7sicists #ould acce+t it si!ce a5ai! i! t"e #ords of Crai5 a!d Si!clair: T"e ot"er side of t"e de Sitter s+ace is !ot our +ast. For t"e %o%e!ts of t"at ti%e are !ot earlier t"a! t or a!7 of t"e %o%e!ts later t"a! t i! our u!i8erse. T"ere is !o co!!ectio! or te%+oral relatio! #"atsoe8er of our u!i8erse to t"at ot"er realit7. Efforts to deco!struct ti%e t"us fu!da%e!tall7 reCect t"e e8olutio!ar7 +aradi5%./3
$. CRAIG a!d J. SINCLAIR :T"e ;ala% Cos%olo5ical Ar5u%e!t = i! The Blac&well ompanion to /atural Theology4 edited -7 $. CRAIG a!d J. P. MORELAN) $ile7DIlac6#ell Malde! (&&1 ,23 Fuoted i! R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 .3. T"e -rac6ets are S+it*erMs. /2 9e!ce t"e t"esis of ;ou#! Lee Lee Moo! a!d O" does !ot +ose a t"reat to t"e I)E t"eore% for it clai%s t"at t"e fi!al sta5e of t"e u!i8erse -e as7%+toticall7 static i! #"ic" case t"e a8era5e 9u--le e4+a!sio! of t"e u!i8erse #ould still -e 5reater t"a! *ero Ke4+a!sio! u+ till fi!al sta5e +lus *eroL. /' Cf. A. AGUIRRE a!d S. GRATTON :Stead7 State Eter!al I!flatio! = i! Physical Reviews ) '2 &3.2&0 K(&&(L "tt+:>>ar4i8.or5>+df>astroD+">&,,,,1,.+df A(/>&/>,(B. /0 :t= "ere re+rese!ts cos%ic ti%e !a%el7 t"e ti%e at #"ic" t"e u!i8erse is e4+a!di!5 Kt"e u!i8erse dou-les i! si*e e8er7 &.'1 9u--le ti%eL. /3 $. CRAIG a!d J. SINCLAIR :T"e ;ala% Cos%olo5ical Ar5u%e!t = i! The Blac&well ompanion to /atural Theology4 edited -7 $. CRAIG a!d J. P. MORELAN) $ile7D
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S+it*er +roceeds to e4a%i!e 7et a!ot"er sce!ario for a -e5i!!i!5Dless u!i8erse t"ou5" e4a%i!i!5 t"e o-Cectio! %ore t"a! t"e sce!ario itself si!ce it is a! o-Cectio! to %a!7 +ossi-le sce!arios !a%el7 t"at of a! :e4tre%e fi!eDtu!i!5 for !o a++are!t reaso! =/1 suc" as a fi!eDtu!i!5 t"at allo#s t"e u!i8erse to -e5i! #it" a! e4tre%el7 lo# e!tro+7 i! a -ou!ci!5 u!i8erse sce!ario. ,.,.(..... ,any universesFr. S+it*er %a6es a! i%+orta!t li!5uistic +oi!t i! t"e co!clusio! as re5ards t"e use of t"e ter% :u!i8erse=: T"ere is %uc" loose tal6 e8e! a%o!5 +"7sicists a!d +"iloso+"ers of :%a!7 u!i8erses.= I! all t"e t"eories #e "a8e -ee! tal6i!5 a-out t"ere is reall7 Cust o!e u!i8erse if #e %ea! -7 u!i8erse t"e e!tiret7 of +"7sical realit7 t"at is i! a!7 #a7 +"7sicall7 co!!ected to t"e #orld #e e4+erie!ce.2& It s"ould -e e8ide!t t"at if #e ta6e :u!i8erse= to %ea! Cust t"at it is ludicrous to s+ea6 of %a!7 u!i8erses i! scie!ce. ,.,... onclusion Fr. S+it*er la7s out four reFuisites for a -e5i!!i!5Dless cos%olo5ical t"eor7 to -e co!structed: ,L a8oida!ce of i!co!siste!c7 #it" cos%olo5ical o-ser8atio! (L a8oida!ce of i!ter!al i!co!siste!c7 a!d !o!#or6a-ilit7 .L i!a++lica-ilit7 of t"e IEG t"eore% K9a8 Y &L a!d /L a8oida!ce of e!tro+7 -uildu+ Tol%a!Ms Li%it a!d t"e +arado4 of :e4tre%e fi!eDtu!i!5 for !o a++are!t reaso!.= 9e co!cludes t"at so far !o t"eor7 "as -ee! a-le to fulfill all t"ese reFuisites a!d t"at e8e! if o!e does t"is does !ot !ecessaril7 %ea! it is a %odel rese%-li!5 realit7: it #ould
Ilac6#ell Malde! (&&1 ,20 Fuoted i! R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 /&. It %a7 also -e t"at t"ere is o!e relatio! -et#ee! our u!i8erse a!d :t"at ot"er realit7 = !a%el7 t"at they share the same 'eginning. It is Fuestio!a-le #"et"er A5uirre a!d Gratto! reall7 esca+e t"e !eed for a -e5i!!i!5 a!d e8e! if it is a -e5i!!i!5 leadi!5 i! t#o directio!s it still de%a!ds a! e4+la!atio!. /1 R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 /.. :Reaso!= "ere o-8iousl7 refers to a scie!tific reaso! t"at is so%e data or e8ide!ce to i!duce us to su++ose t"is e4tre%e fi!eDtu!i!5 as o++osed to %ere #"i% or ideolo57. 2& I'id24 /..

(&

"a8e to -e 8erified #"ic" #ill -e "ard si!ce it #ill %ost li6el7 i!8ol8e 8er7 co%+licated areas of scie!ce KFua!tu% 5ra8it7 "i5"erDdi%e!sio!al s+ace etc.L.= 2, 9e t"erefore co!cludes t"at :t"e e8ide!ce curre!tl7 su++orts a reasona'le li&elihood of a -e5i!!i!5Sa +oi!t at #"ic" t"e u!i8erse ca%e i!to e4iste!ce.=2( T"e #ea6!ess of t"is +roof is o!ce a5ai! -rou5"t to li5"t !a%el7 its de+e!de!ce o! scie!tific data #"ic" is still u!clear a!d could +lausi-l7 -e co!tradicted -7 future disco8er7 t"ou5" !ot t"at easil7. S+it*er see%s to -e of t"e o+i!io! t"at suc" future co!tradictio! is u!li6el7 e!ou5" to co!sider t"is +roof #ort"7 of co!sideratio!. ,.(. ,etaphysical Implications 9ere Fr. S+it*er i!troduces "is seco!d +re%ise: :Fro% !ot"i!5 o!l7 !ot"i!5 co%es.=2. K,L If t"ere is a reaso!a-le li6eli"ood of a -e5i!!i!5 of t"e u!i8erse K+rior to #"ic" t"ere #as !o +"7sical realit7 #"atsoe8erL a!d K(L if it is a+riori true t"at :fro% !ot"i!5 o!l7 !ot"i!5 co%es = t"e! it is reaso!a-l7 li6el7 t"at t"e u!i8erse ca%e fro% something #"ic" is not +"7sical realit7. T"is is co%%o!l7 referred to as a :tra!sce!de!t cause of t"e u!i8erse K+"7sical realit7L= or :a creator of t"e u!i8erse.=2/ 9e t"e! elucidates o!ce a5ai! "is %et"od a++lied i! t"is -oo6: t"at of :i!for%al i!fere!ce = descri-ed i! t"e #ords of Ne#%a! as :t"e cu%ulatio! of +ro-a-ilities i!de+e!de!t of eac" ot"er arisi!5 out of t"e !ature a!d circu%sta!ces of t"e +articular case #"ic" is u!der re8ie#.= 22 I! ot"er #ords t"is c"a+ter rat"er t"a! a +roof i! itself #or6s to5et"er #it" t"e ot"er c"a+ters to foster a certai!t7 of GodMs e4iste!ce:
S+it*er also %e!tio!s i! a foot!ote t"at t"e "7+ot"eses te!d to -e co%+le4 a!d esoteric a!d "e!ce 8iolate Oc6"a%Ms ra*or: u!!ecessar7 co%+le4it7 #it" !o -asis i! realit7. 2( R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 //. 2. I'id24 /2. 2/ I'id24 /2. 22 J. 9. NE$MAN An Essay in Aid of A "rammar of Assent4 Lo!5%a!s Gree! a!d Co. Lo!do! ,1&' (33.
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T"is +ro-a-le co!clusio! co%-i!es #it" a! ar5u%e!t 5i8e! i! C"a+ter Fi8e fro% t"e P"iloso+"7 of %at"e%atics K)a8id 9il-ertL #"ic" de%o!strates t"e sa%e co!clusio!. T"ese t#o co!clusio!s i! tur! co!8er5e #it" t"e co!clusio! of C"a+ter T#o #"ic" s"o#s t"e e4ceedi!5l7 "i5" i%+ro-a-ilit7 of e4+lai!i!5 our lo#De!tro+7 u!i8erse a!d t"e a!t"ro+ic 8alues of our cos%olo5ical co!sta!ts -7 +ure c"a!ce.2' 9e t"e! +roceeds to sa7 t"at t"is co!clusio! corro-orates a :-elief= eit"er i! a su+er!atural cause or a :-elief= i! a! i!fi!it7 of "7+ot"etical u!i8erses. T"e fi!al for% of t"e +roof is discer!i!5 #"ic" of t"ese t#o is %ore +ro-ati8e. S+it*er clai%s t"at -ased o! t"ese t"ree c"a+ters co%-i!ed Kc"a+ters t"ree fi8e a!d t#o t"e latter deali!5 #it" fi!eDtu!i!5L it is a++are!t t"at t"e -elief i! a su+er!atural cause is %ore +ro-ati8e :-ecause a tra!sce!de!t cause of +"7sical realit7 ATB ca! also -e t"e cause of t"e a++are!t fi!eDtu!i!5.=20 ,... onclusion It ca! -e co!cluded fro% t"is first sectio! t"at accordi!5 to Fr. S+it*er scie!ce ca! co!tri-ute to +ro8i!5 t"e e4iste!ce of God -7 +ro8idi!5 "i5"l7 +ro-a-le data #"ic" +oi!t to#ards "is e4iste!ce #"ic" is t"e! %ade e4+licit t"rou5" +"iloso+"ical ar5u%e!t. T"is data co!tri-utes alo!5 #it" ot"er sources to a! i!for%al i!fere!ce t"at fur!is"es #it"i! us a certai!t7 of GodMs e4iste!ce. O-Cectio!s of differe!t t7+es to t"is t"esis #ill -e e4a%i!ed furt"er o!. $e "a8e first to e4a%i!e a!ot"er of t"ose sources t"at co!tri-utes to t"is i!for%al i!fere!ce: a +"iloso+"ical +roof for a Creator of +ast ti%e.

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R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 /2. I'id24 /'.

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(. Philosophical Proof of a reator of Past Time S+it*er -e5i!s t"is c"a+ter defe!di!5 t"e use of t"is +roof #"ic" "e ide!tifies as a 8ersio! of t"e ;ala% ar5u%e!t. 9ere S+it*er 5i8es "is reaso!s for disa5reei!5 #it" t"i!6ers suc" as T"o%as AFui!as: T"e ;ala% +roof a5ai!st t"e i!fi!it7 of +ast ti%e #as !ot acce+ted i! t"e $ester! %edie8al #orld -ecause St. T"o%as AFui!as follo#ed Aristotle i! allo#i!5 for t"e possi'ility of i!fi!ite te%+oral re5ressio! ATB. A9Be does !ot see% to "a8e reco5!i*ed t"e +arado4es i!tri!sic to #"at #ould toda7 -e called a Ca!toria! set a!d t"erefore #as !ot co!8i!ced t"at i!fi!ite +ast ti%e could !ot -e real. Furt"er%ore "e did !ot "a8e a 8ie# of ti%e corres+o!di!5 to t"e !otio!s of :real ti%e= i%+lied -7 co!te%+orar7 +"7sicsT23 S+it*erMs dis+arit7 #it" AFui!as ca! "e!ce -e su%%ed u+ i! a differe!t u!dersta!di!5 of t#o co!ce+ts: t"e i!fi!ite a!d ti%e. )iffere!ces i! u!dersta!di!5 t"e i!fi!ite are accordi!5 to S+it*er due to t"e ad8a!ce of %at"e%atics a!d t"e i%+ossi-ilit7 of a Ca!toria! set Ke4+lai!ed furt"er o!L #"ic" "e "olds to -e +ro8e! -7 )a8id 9il-ert. )iffere!ces as re5ards ti%e are due to :t"e !otio!s of Ureal ti%eM i%+lied -7 co!te%+orar7 +"7sics ATB a!d i! t"e +"iloso+"ical t"eories of Peirce Ier5so! $"ite"ead a!d %a!7 ot"ers #"o -elie8ed t"at ti%e is a real a55re5ati8e structure.=21 Accordi!5 to S+it*er AristotleMs defi!itio! of ti%e as t"e %easure of %otio! as re5ards -efore a!d after'& is !o lo!5er sufficie!t 5i8e! certai! disco8eries i! scie!ce. S+it*er sets out
R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ,00D,01. I'id24 ,01. '& :For ti%e is Cust t"isS!u%-er of %otio! i! res+ect of U-eforeM a!d UafterM.= ARISTOTLE Physics IE (,1-, Revised .xford Translation of The omplete 5or&s of Aristotle edited -7 Jo!at"a! Iar!es Pri!ceto! U!i8ersit7 Press Pri!ceto! ,13/ .0(. Alt"ou5" t"e te4t reads :!u%-er = i! Gree6 Z[\]^_ AristotleMs defi!itio! of ti%e is ofte! re!dered i! E!5lis" as t"e :%easure of %otio! = suc" as i! R. RHNASIE$ICQ :Ne#to!Gs Eie#s o! S+ace Ti%e a!d Motio! = The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy >$all AB99 Edition? Ed#ard N. Qalta Ked.L "tt+:>>+lato.sta!ford.edu>arc"i8es>fall(&,,>e!tries>!e#to!Dst%> A,'>&1>,(B. T"e #ord :%easure= ca! -e %isleadi!5 "o#e8er si!ce it "as a +redo%i!a!tl7 su-Cecti8e co!!otatio!. I! sc"olastic +"iloso+"7 it is %ostl7 u!derstood t"at Aristotle refers !ot o!l7 to t"e %easuri!5 of t"e su-Cect -ut also to t"e o-Cecti8e %easura-le as+ect as re5ards -efore a!d after i! t"e realit7 of c"a!5e itself. See for e4a%+le C. EOLLERT i! t"e
21 23

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to defe!d "is u!dersta!di!5 of -ot" of t"ese co!ce+ts -ut c"ooses to first e4a%i!e t"e e4+ressio! :i!fi!ite +ast ti%e= a!al7ticall7. (.,. An Analytical ontradictionS+it*er clai%s t"at :i!fi!ite +ast ti%e= co!tai!s a! i!tri!sic co!tradictio!. 9e atte%+ts to s"o# t"is -7 e4a%i!i!5 t"e e4+ressio!s :i!fi!ite= a!d :+ast ti%e= se+aratel7 a!d atte%+ti!5 to fi!d :a co%%o! co!ce+tual -ase t"at ca! a++l7 to -ot" ter%s= so as to detect co!tradictor7 features. ', 9e c"ooses t"e co!ce+ts of :occurri!5 = :-ei!5 ac"ie8ed = a!d :-ei!5 actuali*ed.= T"e !otio! of +ast ti%e ca!!ot i!clude :occurri!5 = :-ei!5 ac"ie8ed = or :-ei!5 actuali*ed = if it is to re%ai! disti!ct fro% +rese!t ti%e -ut rat"er :"as occurred = :"as -ee! ac"ie8ed = a!d :"as -ee! actuali*ed.= '( No# "o# are t"ese ter%s a++lied to t"e !otio! of i!fi!it7O No# i!fi!ities #it"i! a! a55re5ati!5 successio! i%+l7 :u!occurra-le = :u!ac"ie8a-le = a!d :u!actuali*a-le = for a! a55re5ati!5 successio! occurs o!e ste+ at a ti%e ATB No %atter "o# fast a!d "o# lo!5 t"e successio! occurs t"e :o!e ste+ at a ti%e= or :o!e ste+ after a!ot"er= c"aracter of t"e successio! !ecessitates t"at o!l7 a fi!ite a%ou!t is occurra-le ac"ie8a-le or actuali*a-le. ATB :AIB!fi!it7 %ust al#a7s -e %ore t"a! ca! e8er occur -e ac"ie8ed or -e actuali*ed t"rou5" a! a55re5ati!5 successio! ATB.'. T"e co!tradictio! is of course alread7 e8ide!t. It de+e!ds "o#e8er o! S+it*erMs classificatio! of i!fi!ite +ast ti%e as a! i!fi!it7 #it"i! a! :a55re5ati!5 successio! = o! "is u!dersta!di!5 of ti%e as a! a55re5ati!5 successio! a!d o! "is ide!tif7i!5 :a55re5ati!5 successio!= #it" a discrete additio! o!e ste+ at a ti%e. '/
i!troductor7 %aterial to St2 Thomas A3uinas4 Siger of Bra'ant4 St2 Bonaventure# .n the Eternity of the 5orld T"e MarFuette U!i8ersit7 Press Mil#au6ee ,1'/ +u-lis"ed di5itall7 i! R. MCINERNH The ollected 5or&s of St2 Thomas A3uinas4 Electronic Edition: :Si!ce ti%e is t"e %easure of %otio! t"ere could "a8e -ee! !o ti%e -efore t"e e4iste!ce of -ei!5s su-Cect to %otio! t"at is creatures.= Notice "e sa7s :-ei!5s su-Cect to %otio!= a!d !ot :-ei!5s t"at +ercei8e %otio! = %a6i!5 ti%e de+e!de!t o! %otio! itself a!d !ot o! our +erce+tio! of it. ', R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ,3&. '( T"is #ould !ot -e t"e case for a! o-ser8er outside of ti%e suc" as God. '. I'id24 ,3,. '/ As o++osed to a co!ti!uous successio! #"ic" #ill -e e4a%i!ed i! C"a+ter IE.

(/

S+it*er adds t"at #e "a8e 7et to s"o# Kfurt"er o! i! t"e c"a+terL t"at it is i!a++lica-le to our u!i8erse. Let us +roceed to e4a%i!e S+it*erMs defi!itio! of ti%e. (.(. An .ntological Explanation of Time A%-i5uities surrou!di!5 t"e o!tolo5ical status of ti%e see%ed to %a6e t"e +roof of a creatio! of +ast ti%e Fuite sus+ect to a!cie!t a!d %edie8al +"iloso+"ers -ut su-seFue!t de8elo+%e!ts i! scie!ce re8ealed t"at ti%e !ot o!l7 "ad real effects o! %otio! c"a!5e a!d e!er57 e%issio! -ut also t"at %otio! c"a!5e a!d e!er57 e%issio! "ad real effects o! t"e %easure%e!t of ti%e. Ti%e could !o lo!5er -e co!sidered a %ere accide!tal +ro+ert7 of %otio! or a %ere su-Cecti8e Fualit7 i%+osed o! %otio! -7 so%eo!e %easuri!5 it. Ti%e #as fou!d to -e i!5redie!t to -ot" c"a!5e and e4iste!ce. It is t"e !ecessar7 co!ditio! for c"a!5e a!d %otio! and +roduces t"e effect of duratio! Ke!dura!ce i! e4iste!ce or :!o!Dcessatio!= or e4iste!ceL.'2 T"is +ara5ra+" su%%ari*es Fr. S+it*erMs co!ce+t of ti%e. It also i!dicates "is %oti8es for de8elo+i!5 t"is co!ce+t a!d reCecti!5 t"e classical defi!itio! %e!tio!ed alread7. 9o#e8er su++ose #e #ere to %ai!tai! AristotleMs defi!itio! of ti%e. It #ould see% to follo# t"at %otio! c"a!5e a!d e!er57 e%issio! do "a8e a real effect o! ti%e si!ce ti%e u!derstood as t"e %easura-le as+ect of %otio! #ill c"a!5e #it" t"e %otio! or e!er57 e%issio! etc. I! t"e sa%e #a7 it follo#s t"at ti%e "as a! :effect= o! %otio! c"a!5e a!d e!er57 e%issio! si!ce t"ere #ould o!ce a5ai! -e +ro+ortio!alit7 -et#ee! t"e%. T"e differe!ce lies i! #"et"er ti%e is a !ecessar7 co!ditio! for t"e effect or t"e cause of t"e effect. '' It see%s t"at #it" AristotleMs defi!itio! ti%e is o!l7 a !ecessar7 co!ditio! for %otio! -ut !ot a cause of %otio! or e!er57 e%issio!. 9ere "o#e8er Fr. S+it*er "as said t"at ti%e
R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ,3. A classical defi!itio! of cause reads: : principium positivum unde ali3uid procedit secundum dependentiam in esse47 i.e. a +ositi8e +ri!ci+le #"e!ce so%et"i!5 +roceeds #it" de+e!de!ce i! -ei!5 Kto t"at #"e!ce it +roceedsL. A :!ecessar7 co!ditio!= refers to a reFuisite or !ecessar7 dis+ositio! for t"e e4ercise of causalit7. Aristotle co!sidered ti%e to -e a !ecessar7 co!ditio! of %otio!. See for e4a%+le ARISTOTLE Physics Ioo6 III (&&-(, Revised .xford Translation of The omplete 5or&s of Aristotle edited -7 Jo!at"a! Iar!es Pri!ceto! U!i8ersit7 Press Pri!ceto! ,13/ ./(: :Iesides t"ese +lace 8oid a!d ti%e are t"ou5"t to -e !ecessar7 co!ditio!s of %otio!.=
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:+roduces t"e effect of duratio! Ke!dura!ce i! e4iste!ce or :!o!Dcessatio!= or e4iste!ceL = "e!ce see%i!5l7 attri-uti!5 to it t"e status of efficie!t or +er"a+s i!tri!sic cause of e4iste!ce itself. 9o#e8er "e also see%s to -e eFuati!5 :e4iste!ce= #it" :duratio! = a rat"er Fuestio!a-le assertio!. Is it !ecessar7 to -e i! ti%e i! order to e4istO Are duratio! a!d e4iste!ce a!alo5ous u!i8ocal or eFui8ocal ter%sO $"at reall7 is ti%eO To a!s#er t"ese Fuestio!s i! full 5oes -e7o!d t"e sco+e of t"is #or6 a!d could co!stitute t"ree ot"er #or6s. 9ere #e %ust satisf7 oursel8es #it" -ri!5i!5 to li5"t t"e +ro-le%atic !ature of t"ese clai%s a!d %a6i!5 a +reli%i!ar7 Cud5%e!t. It see%s at least clear t"at asserti!5 ti%e as t"e cause of duratio! a!d t"e! eFuati!5 duratio! #it" e4iste!ce a #ord c"ar5ed #it" %ea!i!5 are affir%atio!s t"at of t"e%sel8es -e5 for furt"er ar5u%e!tatio! t"a! t"at 5i8e! -7 Fr. S+it*er at least i! t"e #or6 Fuoted.'0 Fr. S+it*er i!itiall7 +rese!ts "is defi!itio! of ti%e as :a real !o!D co!te%+ora!eous diste!sio! of realit7 Ki!to earlier a!d laterL e!a-li!5 co!tradictor7 states i! t"e sa%e realit7 Ke.5. t"e cat ali8e a!d deadL to -e !o!D si%ulta!eous.='3 9e t"e! +rese!ts a -rief "istor7 of t"e c"a!5e of t"e co!ce+t of ti%e fro% t"e Sc"olastics to our +rese!t da7. 9e +oi!ts to Ne#to! a!d Lei-!i* a!d e8e! Galileo as +io!eers si!ce t"e7 -e5a! to treat ti%e as a !u%-er Ka++l7i!5 calculus to GalileoMs `)>`TL a!d "e!ce as a discrete 3uantityD; K3uantity is "ere -ei!5 used a!alo5ousl7 si!ce it +ro+erl7 refers to s+aceL. T"is #as furt"er -ac6ed u+ -7 Pla!c6Ms disco8er7 of t"e Fua!tu%: %i!i%u% a%ou!t of e!er57 0& #"e!ce is deduced a %i!i%u% of -ot" ti%e a!d s+ace KPlanc& time a!d Planc& lengthL.

Cf. R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ,3. I'id24 ,3.. '1 T"e +ro-le% of descri-i!5 ti%e as co!ti!uous or discrete #ill -e furt"er discussed i! C"a+ter IE of t"is #or6. As #e s"all see a Fua!tit7 ca! -e %ade u+ of i!di8isi-le fi!ite +arts a!d still -e co!ti!uous as a #"ole. 0& Cf. M. PLANC; :Qur T"eorie des Geset*es der E!er5ie8erteilu!5 i% Nor%als+e6tru% = *erhandlungen der 0eutschen Physi&alischen "esselschaft K,1&&L *: (.0.
'3

'0

('

Fr. S+it*er does!Mt use t"e ter% :discrete Fua!tit7= -ut furt"er o! "e defi!es ti%e as :a! a55re5ati!5 successio! of !o!Dco!te%+ora!eous diste!sio! i!tri!sic to c"a!5ea-le realit7 #"ic" li%its a co!ditio!ed realit7Ms e4iste!ce.= 0, T"e! #"e! e4a%i!i!5 #"at "e calls :%a!ifestatio!s of real ti%e = "e sa7s: E8e! t"ou5" a! i!telli5e!t su-Cect could theoretically di8ide a %a5!itude of real ti%e ad infinitum t"e s%allest +ossi-le u!it of real ti%e ca!!ot -e *ero %a5!itude a!d t"erefore %ust -e fi!itel7 s%all Ka!d %easura-leL. T"ese fi!itel7 s%all %i!i%u% u!its of ti%e a55re5ate #it"i! a #"ole of +ast ti%e as a!7 c"a!5ea-le realit7 e!dures i! e4iste!ce.0( It is t"erefore Fuite clear t"at Fr. S+it*er %ea!s -7 a! :a55re5ati!5 successio! = a! a55re5atio! of fi!ite discrete Fua!tities. I! ot"er #ords i! o++ositio! to Aristotle a!d St. T"o%as "e is "ere co!sideri!5 ti%e !ot as a co!ti!uous Fua!tit7 -ut as discrete.0. T"is is a! i%+orta!t ele%e!t i! ar5ui!5 for "is reCectio! of T"o%asM 0e Aeternitate ,undi si!ce Fr. S+it*er #ould co!sider i!fi!ite +ast ti%e a! actuali*ed i!fi!it7 of discrete Fua!tit7 #"ic" is i%+ossi-le. $"et"er t"is u!dersta!di!5 of i!fi!ite +ast ti%e is adeFuate #ill -e discussed furt"er o!. Fr. S+it*er "o#e8er focuses t"e "istorical de-ate o! #"et"er ti%e is real or !ot 0/ a!d if so "o#O 9e +roceeds to a++eal to t"e co!corda!ce of 9e!ri Ier5so!
R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ,1, I'id24 ,1.. 0. Aristotle disti!5uis"es -et#ee! co!ti!uous a!d discrete Fua!tit7 a!d ide!tifies ti%e as a co!ti!uous Fua!tit7 #"ic" #ill -e discussed furt"er o!. Cf. ategories /-(&D2a,2 Re8ised O4ford Tra!slatio! of T"e Co%+lete $or6s of Aristotle edited -7 Jo!at"a! Iar!es Pri!ceto! U!i8ersit7 Press Pri!ceto! ,13/ 3: :)iscrete are !u%-er a!d la!5ua5eN co!ti!uous are li!es surfaces -odies a!d also -esides t"ese ti%e a!d +lace. For t"e +arts of a !u%-er "a8e !o co%%o! -ou!dar7 at #"ic" t"e7 Coi! to5et"er. ATB Nor could 7ou e8er i! t"e case of a !u%-er fi!d a co%%o! -ou!dar7 of its +arts -ut t"e7 are al#a7s se+arate. 9e!ce !u%-er is o!e of t"e discrete Fua!tities. ATB A li!e o! t"e ot"er "a!d is a co!ti!uous Fua!tit7. For it is +ossi-le to fi!d a co%%o! -ou!dar7 at #"ic" its +arts Coi! to5et"er a +oi!t. A!d for a surface a li!eN for t"e +arts of a +la!e Coi! to5et"er at so%e co%%o! -ou!dar7. Si%ilarl7 i! t"e case of a -od7 o!e could fi!d a co%%o! -ou!dar7Sa li!e or a surfaceSat #"ic" t"e +arts of t"e -od7 Coi! to5et"er. Ti%e also a!d +lace are of t"is 6i!d. For +rese!t ti%e Coi!s o! to -ot" +ast ti%e a!d future ti%e.= 0/ T"is #as caused i! +art -7 t"e a++are!t !ecessit7 of i!sta!ta!eous 8elocit7 i! t"e +"7sics of Ne#to! a!d Lei-!i* +ro-le%aticall7 -ei!5 *ero i! %a5!itude. Cf. R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ,3.D,3/.
0( 0,

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Alfred Nort" $"ite"ead )a8id Io"% Milic Ca+e6 a!d Il7a Pri5o5i!e t"at :so%et"i!5 li6e a !o!Dco!te%+ora!eous diste!si8e %a5!itude KearlierDlaterL "as to co!ditio! realit7 #"ic" is i! a state of c"a!5i!5 -eco%i!5 a!d e8e! e!duri!5.=02 9e t"e! o!ce a5ai! a++ears to eFuate e4iste!ce #it" duratio! -ut %ost li6el7 "e si%+l7 #is"es to e%+"asi*e t"e e!duri!5 as+ect of e4iste!ce.0' After a -rief disti!ctio! -et#ee! descri+tio! scie!tific e4+la!atio! a!d o!tolo5ical e4+la!atio! K#"ic" for %et"odolo5ical +ur+oses #ill !ot -e dealt #it" i! t"is #or6L Fr. S+it*er e4+lai!s t"e reFuire%e!t for real ti%e i! fi8e ste+s: ,L e4iste!tial !o!Dcoi!cide!ce (L real ti%e as !o!Dco!te%+ora!eous diste!si8e %a!ifold .L ti%e as t"e li%iti!5 co!ditio! of e4iste!ce /L t"e successio! of ti%e a!d t"e as7%%etr7 of e8e!ts a!d 2L %a!ifestatio!s of real ti%e. (.(.,. Existential non!coincidence I! t"is -rief sectio! Fr. S+it*er -ri!5s u+ t"e fa%ous e4a%+le of Sc"radi!5erMs cat t"ou5" i! a differe!t #a7 a!d #it" !o refere!ce to Sc"radi!5er.00 It is a++are!t t"at if a cat dies :t"e Ustate -eforeM a!d t"e Ustate afterM ca!!ot -e coi!cide!t =03 if #e are to a8oid co!tradictio!. Fr. S+it*er +roceeds: C"a!5ed e4iste!tial states ca!!ot -e coi!cide!t #it"out co!tradictio!. T"erefore #"ere8er t"ere is c"a!5e i!deed #"ere8er t"ere is c"a!5ea-ilit7 t"ere %ust also -e so%e e4iste!tial !o!Dcoi!cide!ce t"at allo#s differi!5 states to occur #it"i! a si!5le e!tit7 Ke.5. a catL. ATB If t"is e4iste!tial !o!D coi!cide!ce #ere !ot o-Cecti8el7 real c"a!5ea-le -ei!5s a!d c"a!5ea-le states #it"i! t"e sa%e -ei!5 #ould "a8e to -e si%ulta!eous a!d t"erefore
I'id24 ,3/. :E4iste!ce is !ot %ere facticit7 at a! i!sta!t -ut rat"er a !o!Dco!te%+ora!eous diste!sio! allo#i!5 for e8er7t"i!5 fro% co!ti!ual tra!sitio! K-eco%i!5L to co!ti!ual e!duri!5.= I'id24 ,3/. 9ere it see%s %ore li6el7 t"at S+it*er is !ot 5i8i!5 a defi!itio! of e4iste!ce -ut si%+l7 -ri!5i!5 to li5"t o!e of its +ro+erties si!ce t"e state%e!t is o-8iousl7 i!sufficie!t a!d reducti8e as a defi!itio!. 00 :Sc"radi!5erMs cat= is a t"ou5"t e4+eri%e!t used -7 Er#i! Sc"radi!5er #it" t"e i!te!tio! of s"o#i!5 t"e +ro-le%atic co!seFue!ces of t"e Co+e!"a5e! i!ter+retatio! of Fua!tu% %ec"a!ics. Cf. :T"e Prese!t Situatio! of Pua!tu% Mec"a!ics: A Tra!slatio! of Sc"radi!5erMs UCat Parado4 Pa+er M= tra!s. -7 J. Tri%%er i! Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society ,(/ K,13&L .(.D..3. 03 R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ,33.
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i!tri!sicall7 co!tradictor7 a!d t"erefore i%+ossi-le. I! 8ie# of t"is ti%e %a7 also -e defi!ed as :t"at #it"out #"ic" all "istor7 is a co!tradictio!.=01 (.(.(. Real Time as a /on! ontemporaneous 0istensive ,anifold2 Co!ti!ui!5 #it" t"e e4a%+le of t"e cat it is e8ide!t t"at :t"e catMs c"a!5e does reFuire a !o!De4te!si8e se+aratio! #"e! dead a!d #"e! ali8e. 9e!ri Ier5so! e4a%i!ed t"is :diste!si8e se+aratio!= i! "is #or6 0uration and Simultaneity43, a!d alt"ou5" Fr. S+it*er does !ot affir% t"e #or6Ms co!clusio!s "e dra#s fort" :t"e o!tolo5ical co!ditio!s of c"a!5e a!d ti%e t"at Ier5so! reco5!i*ed =3( !a%el7: ,L a real e4iste!tial !o!Dcoi!cide!ce -et#ee! c"a!5ed states (L a fu!da%e!tal u!it7 #it"i! t"is se+aratio! t"at u!ifies t"e !o!D coi!cide!ce of earlier a!d after a!d .L t"e !o!Ds+atial c"aracter of t"is :u!it7 of e4iste!tial !o!Dcoi!cide!ce.= Gi8e! t"e !o!Ds+atial c"aracter %e!tio!ed i! +oi!t t"ree Fr. S+it*er c"ooses to refer to it as :diste!sio!= i!stead of :e4te!sio!= si!ce :t"e tra!sitio! fro% earlier to later is a6i! to a Ustretc"i!5 fro% #it"i! M= a!d :Ue4te!sio!MT %ore +ro+erl7 a++lies to a co!te%+ora!eous Ks+atialL %a!ifold.= 3. 9e t"e! +ro8ides us #it" a! i!itial defi!itio! of ti%e as: :a U!o!Dco!te%+ora!eousM diste!si8e %a!ifold i!tri!sic to c"a!5ea-le realities.=3/ (.(... Time as the 1imiting ondition of Existence
I'id24 ,33. As #as %e!tio!ed earlier o! i! foot!ote !. '' Aristotle also sa# ti%e as a !ecessar7 co!ditio! for c"a!5ea-ilit7. T"is is also %ade e8ide!t -7 "is +"rasi!5 of t"e +ri!ci+le of !o!Dco!tradictio! for e4a%+le i! t"e Physics Ioo6 I ,30a2 :!ot"i!5 ca! at t"e sa%e ti%e -ot" -e a!d !ot -e.= 3& R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ,33. 3, 9. IERGSON 0urEe et simultanEitE2 propos de la thorie d'Einstein4 Li-rairie Fbli4 Alca! Paris ,1((. For a! E!5lis" tra!slatio! see 0uration and Simultaneity4 tra!s. -7 Leo! Jaco-so! Io--sDMerill I!dia!a+olis ,1'2. 3( R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ,31. 3. R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ,31. 3/ I'id24 ,31.
01

KfreFue!tl7 ter%ed a Udiste!si8e

se+aratio!ML.=3& T"e se+aratio! ca!!ot -e s+atial si!ce t"e cat is i! t"e sa%e +lace

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Fr. S+it*er !o# atte%+ts to a!s#er t"e Fuestio!: :a!d Cust #"at is t"is !o!D co!te%+ora!eous diste!si8e %a!ifold i!tri!sic to c"a!5ea-le realitiesO= 9e +roceeds: :O!tolo5ical e4+la!atio! tries to a!s#er t"is Fuestio! -7 %a6i!5 recourse to %ore fu!da%e!tal +ri!ci+les of realit7.= 32 T"e %ore fu!da%e!tal +ri!ci+le S+it*er #ill %a6e recourse to is :E4iste!ce.= :E4iste!ce is !ot -rute facticit7. ATB AIBt is t"e ulti%ate fulfill%e!t of t"e co!ditio!s of a co!ditio!ed realit7.= I! ot"er #ords a co!ditio!ed realit7 de+e!ds o! t"ese co!ditio!s -ei!5 fulfilled i! order for it to e4ist a!d "e!ce #"e! t"ese co!ditio!s are fulfilled it e4ists.3' 9e t"e! +roceeds to defi!e :cause= as :Ut"e proximate fulfill%e!t of a!7 co!ditio!ed realit7Ms co!ditio!sM Ke.5. t"e e4iste!ce of cells a!d structures of cells reFuired for t"e e4iste!ce of a cat.L.=30 It %ust -e !oted t"at t"is defi!itio! of causalit7 is e4tre%el7 +ro-le%atic a!d si!ce it #ill !ot -e dealt #it" i! t"e sectio! re5ardi!5 o-Cectio!s #e #ill -riefl7 e4a%i!e t"e +ro-le%atic as+ect of it "ere. T"e e4a%+le S+it*er 5i8es is t"at of t"e cells a!d cell structure reFuired for a cat to e4ist -ut do eit"er of t"ese cause t"e cat to e4istO )oes t"e cat +roceed fro% its cell structure i!to e4iste!ceO )oes it e8e! si%+l7 de+e!d directl7 o! it to e4ist or is cell structure itself co!co%ita!t to t"e catMs e4iste!ceO T"e 8er7 idea of so%et"i!5 co%i!5 i!to e4iste!ce -7 t"e fulfill%e!t of !ecessar7 co!ditio!s is re%i!isce!t of Lei-!i*Ms %at"e%atical u!i8erse a!d t"e %ec"a!ical causalit7 co%%o! to %oder! +"iloso+"ers: a %ec"a!istic u!dersta!di!5 of causalit7 t"at #ould i! fact lead to

I'id24 ,31D,1& Fro% a strictl7 lo5ical sta!d+oi!t t"e fact t"at e4iste!ce is e!a-led -7 t"ese co!ditio!s -ei!5 fulfilled does !ot %a6e its e4iste!ce eFual to t"e co!ditio!s -ei!5 fulfilled. It is does !ot follo# !ecessaril7 t"at E4iste!ce is t"e fulfill%e!t of !ecessar7 co!ditio!s. E4iste!ce %a7 -e so%et"i!5 %ore a!d it is !ot caused -ut allowed -7 t"e fulfill%e!t of t"ese co!ditio!s. 30 I'id24 ,1&.
3'

32

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t"e 8er7 i!ter+retatio! of e4iste!ce as :-rute facticit7= t"at S+it*er is tr7i!5 to a8oid.33 Retur!i!5 to Fr. S+it*erMs ar5u%e!t a co!ditio!ed realit7 ca! cease to e4ist a!d "e!ce its e4iste!ce is li%ited a!d its co!ditio!s are :!ot fulfilled u!Fualifiedl7 a!d a-solutel7.=31 It %ust -e li%ited -7 so%et"i!5 a!d "e co!cludes t"at it is li%ited -7 ti%e: I su-%it t"at ti%e is t"e i!tri!sic li%iti!5 co!ditio! of a co!ditio!ed realit7Ms e4iste!ce. ATB O!tolo5ical ti%e %a7 !o# -e defi!ed as t"e :!o!D co!te%+ora!eous diste!si8e %a!ifold #"ic" i!tri!sicall7 li%its a co!ditio!ed realit7Ms e4iste!ce.=1& I! ot"er #ords t"ou5" t"e co!ditio!s of a co!ditio!ed realit7 are fulfilled a!d "e!ce it e4ists t"is e4iste!ce #ill e!d a!d is "e!ce li%ited -7 ti%e.1, (.(./. The Succession of Time and the Asymmetry of Events2 Ti%e ca!!ot -e a %otio! si!ce it is itself a co%+o!e!t of %otio! a!d if it #ere #ould "e!ce !eed its o#! te%+oral co%+o!e!t. Nor is ti%e s+atial 7et it a++ears to "a8e a t7+e of a55re5atio! or successio!.

T"e ter% :co!ditio!s of +ossi-ilit7 = K Bedingungen der ,Fglich&eit L #as +o+ulari*ed -7 I%%a!uel ;a!t to a8oid usi!5 causalit7 #"ic" "ad -ee! 5reatl7 reduced -7 t"e +"iloso+"7 of )a8id 9u%e. Cf. I. ;ANT Griti& der Reiner *ernunft4 "eraus5e5e-e! 8o! G. 9arte!stei! Leo+old Eoss. Lei+*i5 ,3'3 '(N ). 9UME A Treatise of %uman /ature4 )o8er Pu-licatio!s Ne# Hor6 (&&. es+eciall7 ,,,D,(/ a!d An En3uiry oncerning %uman Understanding4 edited -7 T. Ieauc"a%+ O4ford U!i8ersit7 Press O4ford ,111 ,./D,.3. For a! i! de+t" stud7 of %ec"a!ical causalit7 see ;. CLATTERIAUG9 The ausation 0e'ate in ,odern Philosophy4 9DH@!9@H; Routled5e Ne# Hor6 ,111. 31 R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ,1&. 1& I'id24 ,1&D,1,. If #e #ere to ta6e S+it*erMs i!itial defi!itio! of e4iste!ce t"is #ould -e sa7i!5 si%+l7 t"at :ti%e is t"e li%iti!5 co!ditio! of duratio! = #"ereas ta6i!5 t"e %ore de8elo+ed defi!itio! it #ould -e :ti%e is t"e li%iti!5 co!ditio! of t"e ulti%ate fulfill%e!t of a co!ditio!ed realit7Ms co!ditio!s -7 a! u!co!ditio!ed realit7.= 1, T"is could also -e +ro-le%atic if !ot furt"er de8elo+ed si!ce it #ould a++ear fro% t"is state%e!t t"at if t"e soul is i%%ortal a!d "e!ce u!co!ditio!ed -7 ti%e re5ards e4iste!ce t"e! %a!Ms soul #ould -e a! u!co!ditio!ed realit7. T"is of course u!less it is co!ditio!ed -7 so%et"i!5 else #"ic" +uts i!to Fuestio! t"e defi!itio! of ti%e as the li%iti!5 co!ditio! of a co!ditio!ed realit7Ms e4iste!ce.

33

.,

T"ou5" #e ca!!ot sa7 t"at ti%e is %o8i!5 or flo#i!5 or t"at it is a55re5ati!5 li6e a s+atial co!ti!uu% #e ca! sa7 t"at it a55re5ates alo!5 #it" t"e co!ti!ued e4iste!ce of c"a!5ea-le realities. ATB T"is :e!duri!5 i! e4iste!ce= %ust occur t"rou5" t"e sa%e 6i!d of !o!Dco!te%+ora!eous diste!si8e %a!ifold t"at +re8e!ts co!tradictor7 states i! t"e sa%e e!tit7 Ke.5.L t"e cat ali8e a!d then deadL ATB I!as%uc" as a c"a!5ea-le realit7Ms :e!duri!5 i! e4iste!ce= occurs t"rou5" a! a55re5ati!5 successio! of earlier a!d later so does t"e ti%eTi! #"ic" earlierDlater is e%-edded.1( T"e defi!itio! of ti%e is t"us furt"er articulated as :a! a55re5ati!5 successio! of !o!Dco!te%+ora!eous diste!sio! i!tri!sic to c"a!5ea-le realit7 #"ic" li%its a co!ditio!ed realit7Ms e4iste!ce.= 1. 9e +roceeds to clarif7 t"at t"ou5" ti%e itself ca!!ot -e as7%%etrical si!ce it is !eit"er s+atial !or is a %otio! i! so%e directio! :t"e e8e!ts %ade +ossi-le -7 ti%e are as7%%etrical = i.e. u!iDdirectio!al. (.(.2. ,anifestations of Real Time Real ti%e Kt"e co!ti!uous successio! of !o!Dco!te%+ora!eous diste!sio!L %ust -e %easura-le -ecause it ca!!ot -e a! i!sta!t Ka di%e!sio!less +oi!tL or a! i!fi!itesi%al K#"ic" fu!ctio!s li6e a di%e!sio!less +oi!tL. As Ier5so! !oticed a! i!sta!t #ill !ot suffice to e4+lai! te%+oral diste!sio! KearlierDlaterL. I #ould "aste! to add t"at a di%e!sio!less i!sta!t ca!!ot se+arate t#o e4iste!tial states i! t"e sa%e realit7 Ke.5. t"e cat ali8e a!d deadL. T"us t"e %i!i%u% u!it of ti%e %ust -e finitely s%all. As suc" it ca!!ot -e reall7 i!fi!itel7 di8isi-leN for if it #ere it #ould -e co%+osed of i!fi!itel7 s%allS*ero %a5!itudeS+arts. Suc" *eroD%a5!itude +arts ca!!ot co!stitute a diste!si8e %a!ifold -ecause t"e a55re5atio! of a! i!fi!ite !u%-er of *eroD%a5!itude +arts is still *ero %a5!itude.1/ Fr. S+it*er t"e! refers to four +"e!o%e!a as %a!ifestatio! of real ti%e: a fi!itel7 s%all i!ter8al of ti%e a fi!itel7 s%all %i!i%u% i!ter8al of s+ace a fi!itel7 s%all %i!i%u% u!it of e!er57 e%issio! a!d a %a4i%u% u!it of 8elocit7.
R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ,1,. 1. I'id24 ,1,. 1/ R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ,1.. I! C"a+ter IE #e #ill e4a%i!e #"et"er t"e +ro-le% of di%e!sio!less i!sta!ts leads !ecessaril7 to a! i!di8isi-le %i!i%u% u!it of ti%e or !ot. Ie"i!d t"e +ara5ra+" Fuoted a-o8e is %ore t"a! is said a!d suc" !otio!s as Pla!c6 ti%e o-8iousl7 "a8e a +lace i! S+it*erMs u!#ritte! ar5u%e!t e8e! t"ou5" "e #ill later sa7 o! t"e sa%e +a5e t"at suc" a !otio! %i5"t !ot -e a++lica-le to all 6i!ds of c"a!5e i! t"e u!i8erse.
1(

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9e i!sists t"at t"e first t"ree !eed !ot -e ide!tified #it" Pla!6Ms co!sta!tSt"ou5" t"e7 %a7 -eS -ut rat"er t"e7 result fro% t"e i%+ossi-ilit7 of #"at "e co!siders a! actual i!fi!it7 Kor i! "is #ords a! :actuali*ed i!fi!it7=L t"ou5" ot"ers "a8e co!sidered t"is rat"er as a +ote!tial i!fi!it7 #"ic" #ill -e discussed furt"er o!. Fr. S+it*erMs deductio! of a %a4i%u% 8elocit7 see%s u!clear at first 5la!ce. It reads: A %i!i%u% i!ter8al of ti%e +redicts a %a4i%u% +ossi-le 8elocit7 K-ecause !o s+ecific dista!ce could -e tra8ersed i! a!7 less ti%e t"a! t"at %i!i%u% +ossi-le i!ter8alL. Stated differe!tl7 si!ce s+atial dis+lace%e!t ca!!ot ta6e +lace i! *ero seco!ds i!fi!ite 8elocit7 is i%+ossi-le.12 It could -e o-Cected t"at a %i!i%u% i!ter8al of ti%e does not i%+l7 a %a4i%u% +ossi-le 8elocit7 si!ce to co!clude lo5icall7 t"at t"ere e4ists a %a4i%u% 8elocit7 o!e %ust 6!o# !ot o!l7 t"at t"ere is a %i!i%u% i!ter8al of ti%e -ut also a %a4i%u% dista!ce t"at ca! -e co8ered i! t"at ti%e. Gi8e! t"at t"e u!i8erse is t"ou5"t to -e i! e4+a!sio! t"at dista!ce is co!sta!tl7 i!creasi!5. 9o#e8er t"is is !ot t"e +oi!t of #"at Fr. S+it*er is tr7i!5 to sa7. A %i!i%u% i!ter8al of ti%e %a7 !ot i%+l7 a co!sta!t %a4i%u% 8elocit7 -ut it does i%+l7 t"at if t"e u!i8erse is fi!ite Kt"ou5" i! e4+a!sio!L at a!7 5i8e! %o%e!t 8elocit7 al#a7s "as a ca+ a!d "e!ce ca! !e8er -e infinite. Fr. S+it*er %e!tio!s t"at u+ till !o# t"e s+eed of li5"t a++ears to -e t"e %a4i%u% 8elocit7 Kre5ardless t"e dista!ceL i! our u!i8erse. T"ou5" "e does !ot rule out its -ei!5 su+erseded -7 8elocities 7et to -e disco8ered "e fails to ta6e i!to accou!t t"at accordi!5 to t"e i!flatio!ar7 u!i8erse %odel alread7 "eld -7 %ost scie!tists toda71' i! t"e first sta5es of t"e u!i8erse e4+a!sio! too6 +lace at a s+eed %uc" faster t"a! t"e s+eed of li5"t 10 #"ic" #ould disFualif7 it as t"e %a4i%u% 8elocit7 of t"e u!i8erse.

I'id24 ,12. Fr. S+it*er "i%self !otes t"at t"is is t"e case i! /ew Proofs for=4 .,: :T"ere is !o# a 5reat deal of e8ide!ce t"at a 8er7 -rief +eriod of i!flatio! "a++e!ed s"ortl7 after t"e -i5 -a!5 e8ide!ce t"at "as co!8i!ced %ost cos%olo5ists a!d t"is is !o# +art of #"at #e are calli!5 t"e Sta!dard Ii5 Ia!5 Model.= 10 Cf. C. $ANJE; Ringside Seat to the UniverseIs $irst Split Second + in http,--.../nasa/go0-0ision-uni0erse-starsgala1ies-.map2pol/html 345-67-4*8/
1'

12

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$"at t"e %a4i%u% 8elocit7 is "o#e8er is less i%+orta!t for Fr. S+it*er t"a! t"at t"ere is o!e. 9e co!cludes t"at :If t"e a-o8e co!clusio!s are correct t"e! a!7 c"a!5ea-le state of affairs #ould "a8e to e4ist t"rou5" real ti%e Ka fi!itel7 s%all %i!i%u% of !o!Dco!te%+ora!eous diste!sio!L.=13 $"et"er t"e a-o8e co!clusio!s -e correct as #e "a8e see! "i!5es o! t"e i%+ossi-ilit7 of #"at Fr. S+it*er co!siders a! actuali*ed i!fi!it7. T"e 8alidit7 of t"is +re%ise #ill -e furt"er discussed i! C"a+ter IE. Fr. S+it*er %a6es a 8er7 i!teresti!5 state%e!t at t"e e!d of t"is sectio! as re5ards +ast ti%e #"ic" see%s to co!tri-ute to "is co!sideri!5 i!fi!ite +ast ti%e as a! :actuali*ed= i!fi!it7: T"ese e8e!ts are actual co!ti!uous a!d as7%%etrical a!d so t"e7 for% a real co!ti!uous as7%%etrical successio! Ke8e! t"ou5" +ast e8e!ts !o lo!5er e4istL. Past e8e!ts were real #ere related to +ro4i%ate +rese!t e8e!ts did "a8e real effects o! +ro4i%ate +rese!t e8e!ts a!d ca!!ot -e ar-itraril7 re%o8ed fro% t"eir +lace i! +ast reality #it"out creati!5 co!tradictio!s i! t"at +ast "istor7 Kt"e si%ulta!eous occurre!ce of co!tradictor7 states #it"i! a +articular realit7 or s+atiall7 u!ified 5rou+ of realitiesL. T"is %ea!s t"at +ast "istor7 Kt"e co!ti!uous successio! of +ast e8e!tsL is a real !o!Dco!te%+ora!eousl7 diste!ded i!teracti8e as7%%etricall7 related whole211 T"e last +oi!t %ade -efore e!di!5 t"e sectio! is t"at a universe is a co!te%+ora!eousl7 u!ified 5rou+ of realities si!ce t"ese realities are u!ited t"rou5" a co!te%+ora!eous %a!ifold !a%el7 s+ace.,&& (... %il'ert+s Prohi'ition of Actual Infinities T"is sectio! %ore t"a! a! e4+ositio! of )a8id 9il-ertMs 8ie#s disti!5uis"es -et#ee! t"ree differe!t t7+es of i!fi!ities: AL u!restricted K!o!D%at"e%atical
R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ,12D,1'. R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ,1'D,10. ,&& T"e co!te%+ora!eous !ature of s+ace %a7 "o#e8er -e Fuestio!a-le 5i8e! t"e +ro-le% of !o!Dlocalit7 i! Fua!tu% %ec"a!ics a!d t"e Fuestio!a-ilit7 of t"e !o!D i!8aria!ce of ti%e.
11 13

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%ea!i!5L IL +ote!tial i!fi!it7 i! t"e %at"e%atical se!se Ke.5. a series t"at could -ut !e8er does reac" i!fi!it7L a!d CL a! actual i!fi!it7 of !u%-ers or a55re5ated o-Cects. Fr. S+it*er is of t"e o+i!io! t"at )a8id 9il-ert i! "is discourse e!titled .n the Infinite,&, %at"e%aticall7 +ro"i-its CDi!fi!ities: a! actual i!fi!it7 of !u%-ers or a55re5ated o-Cects. T"e 8alidit7 of t"is o+i!io! #ill -e discussed i! C"a+ter III si!ce S+it*er #ill -ase t"e +re%ise t"at a! actual i!fi!it7 is i%+ossi-le o! t"is +ro"i-itio! a +re%ise !ecessar7 for #"at "as alread7 -ee! said Kas re5ards %a!ifestatio!s of real ti%eL a!d for t"e for%al ar5u%e!t i! t"e !e4t sectio!. (./. A $ormal Argument against the Infinity of Past Time Fr. S+it*er +roceeds i! t"e !e4t sectio! to 5i8e a co%+le4 for%al ar5u%e!t a5ai!st a! i!fi!ite +ast ti%e i! a c"a!5ea-le u!i8erse #it" four +re%ises a!d four co!clusio!s. T"e +re%ises +roceed t"us: ,L If t"ere is !o real ti%e Kas defi!ed -7 S+it*erL i!tri!sic to a c"a!5ea-le u!i8erse t"e u!i8erseMs "istor7 #ould -e a co!tradictio! (L If real ti%e is i!tri!sic to a c"a!5ea-le u!i8erse e8er7 +art of its !o!Dco!te%+ora!eous diste!sio! %ust -e i!te5rall7 co!stituti8e of t"e #"ole of +ast ti%e Ksi!ce !o +art of +ast ti%e ca! eFual *ero %a5!itudeL .L If t"e #"ole of +ast ti%e #ere i!fi!ite !o +art could -e a co!stituti8e ele%e!t a!d /L a priori !o u!i8erseMs "istor7 ca! -e a co!tradictio!. 9? a!d C? lead to t"e co!clusio! t"at real ti%e %ust -e i!tri!sic to t"e u!i8erse. T"at co!clusio! cou+led #it" A? co!cludes t"at e8er7 +art of +ast ti%e is co!stituti8e of t"e #"ole. T"e latter co!clusio! cou+led #it" H? co!cludes t"at +ast ti%e i! a c"a!5ea-le u!i8erse ca!!ot -e i!fi!ite a!d as a fourt" co!clusio! it t"erefore %ust -e fi!ite. I! our e8aluatio! of t"e +roof #e #ill focus o! t"e -asis for t"e t"ird +re%ise #"ic" #ill also -e t"e -asis for t"e follo#i!5 +roof !a%el7 #"at Fr. S+it*er refers to as 9il-ertMs +ro"i-itio! of CDi!fi!ites.
). 9ILIERT .n the Infinite i! Philosophy of mathematics seco!d editio! edited -7 P. Ie!acerraf a!d 9. Put!a% Ca%-rid5e U!i8ersit7 Press Ca%-rid5e ,13.. T"e ori5i!al discourse #as 5i8e! i! Ger%a! o! Ju!e / t" ,1(2 -efore a co!5ress of t"e $est+"alia! Mat"e%atical Societ7 i! Mu!ster i! "o!or of ;arl $eierstrass.
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(.2 Proof of a reator of Past Time T"e For%al +roof is follo#ed -7 a! ar5u%e!t for a Creator of +ast ti%e #"o is "i%self !ot co!ditio!ed -7 ti%e. Fr. S+it*er -ases t"e ar5u%e!t o! t"ree sets of deductio!s: ,L e8er7 u!i8erse %ust -e caused -7 a realit7 tra!sce!di!5 t"at u!i8erse (L t"ere %ust -e a first cause of e8er7 a55re5ati8e successio! or te%+orall7 co!ditio!ed causes of +ast ti%e .L t"is first cause ca!!ot itself -e co!ditio!ed -7 ti%e.,&( T"e ar5u%e!t for t"e first of t"ese follo#s Fuite si%+l7: ,L ti%e is fi!ite a!d "e!ce %ust "a8e a -e5i!!i!5 ,&. a!d si!ce t"e u!i8erse is i!tri!sicall7 co!ditio!ed -7 ti%e it too %ust "a8e a -e5i!!i!5N (L t"e u!i8erse t"e! could !ot "a8e caused its o#! e4iste!ce si!ce +rior to its -e5i!!i!5 it did !ot e4istN ,&/ .L t"erefore so%et"i!5 tra!sce!di!5 t"e u!i8erse %ust cause it to e4ist. T"e ar5u%e!t for t"e seco!d is sli5"tl7 %ore co%+le4. It is su++osed t"at t"e cause of t"e u!i8erse t"ou5" tra!sce!de!t of +ast ti%e %a7 !o!et"eless -e co!ditio!ed -7 its o#! +ast ti%e. If so "o#e8er its +ast ti%e %ust -e fi!ite si!ce accordi!5 to S+it*er 9il-ertMs +ro"i-itio! of CDi!fi!ities o!ce a5ai! a++lies. 9e!ce t"e cause %ust itself "a8e a cause a!d so o! ad infinitum. 9o#e8er a! :i!fi!it7 of te%+orall7 co!ditio!ed causes is eFui8ale!t to a! i!fi!ite %a5!itude of +ast ti%e =,&2 #"ic" i! tur! is su-Cect to 9il-ertMs +ro"i-itio! a!d "e!ce a! i!fi!ite !u%-er of te%+orall7 co!ditio!ed causes ca!!ot e4ist. T"erefore t"ere %ust -e a fi!ite !u%-er of te%+orall7 co!ditio!ed causes a!d "e!ce a first cause of e8er7 a55re5ati8e successio! or te%+orall7 co!ditio!ed causes of +ast ti%e.

Cf. R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 (,&D(,2. O-Cectio!s to t"is affir%atio! +articularl7 fro% t"e 9artleD9a#6i!5 u!i8erse sce!ario #ill -e e4a%i!ed i! t"e e8aluatio!. ,&/ T"e e4+ressio! :+rior to its -e5i!!i!5= is ta6e! directl7 fro% Fr. S+it*er 7et does !ot see% #"oll7 a++ro+riate si!ce tec"!icall7 t"ere is !o :+rior to= ti%e as :+rior= i!dicates te%+oralit7 #"ic" Fr. S+it*er "i%self alludes to for e4a%+le i! "is Fuotatio! of Paul )a8ies #"ic" a++ears o! +5. .0 of t"is #or6. Per"a+s it is -etter to s+ea6 of a! :outside of= ti%e. ,&2 R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 (,..
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Fro% t"e latter t"e t"ird follo#s Fuite easil7. If t"e first cause #ere co!ditio!ed -7 ti%e its +ast ti%e #ould -e fi!ite a!d it #ould "a8e a -e5i!!i!5. A!d if it "ad a -e5i!!i!5 it #ould -e !o!e4iste!t U-eforeM t"at -e5i!!i!5. A!d if it #ere !o!e4iste!t U-eforeM its -e5i!!i!5 it #ould "a8e to -e caused -7 a tra!sce!de!t realit7 %ea!i!5 t"at it could !ot -e t"e first cause.,&' 9e!ce t"e first cause %ust !ot -e co!ditio!ed -7 ti%e. Fr. S+it*er t"e! +roceeds to e4a%i!e #"at it %ea!s !ot to -e co!ditio!ed -7 ti%e a!d "e!ce arri8e at traits +articular to God. Accordi!5 to Fr. S+it*er t"is u!li%ited cause rese%-les a! ADi!fi!it7: :U!o!Drestricted!essM i! +o#er or -ei!5 -7 +ro"i-iti!5 t"e a++licatio! of fi!ite or a55re5ati8e structures to it.=,&0 T"e a-se!ce of te%+oral co!ditio!i!5 su55ests a! a-se!ce of s+atioDte%+oral co!ditio!i!5 "e!ce :!ot c"a!5ea-le !ot c"a!5i!5 !ot %o8i!5 i! s+aceDti%e a!d !ot caused.=,&3 It "e!ce rese%-les #"at Fr. S+it*er ter%s :A-solute si%+licit7 = #"ic" co!sists i! a! a-se!ce of e4tri!sic a!d i!tri!sic restrictio!s e8e! t"ou5" "ere #e are o!l7 deali!5 #it" #"at Fr. S+it*er calls a! :a-se!ce of intrinsic restrictio!s= !a%el7 ti%e. (.'. onclusion Fr. S+it*er co!cludes t"us: T"e +ro"i-itio! of a CDi!fi!it7 +oi!ts us to a! ADi!fi!it7 t"at is a Realit7 t"at tra!sce!ds t"e a4io%s of fi!ite %at"e%atics -ecause It is u!restricted i! its +o#er. T"e co!clusio! t"at t"ere %ust e4ist a first cause of all te%+orall7 co!ditio!ed causes #"ic" is !ot itself co!ditio!ed -7 ti%e is si%ilar to suc" a Realit7 -ecause it lac6s i!tri!sic restrictio! a!d is a First Cause of te%+orall7 co!ditio!ed realities. T"ese Fualities are freFue!tl7 attri-uted to God.,&1

,&' ,&0

I'id24 (,/. I'id24 (,/. ,&3 I'id24 (,/. ,&1 R. SPITQER

/ew Proofs for=4

(,2.

.0

Iefore e!di!5 "e Fuotes t"is i!teresti!5 te4t fro% Paul )a8ies t"at -ri!5s to li5"t t"e i!a++ro+riate!ess of referri!5 to a :-efore= ti%e a!d also #ill +ro8ide us #it" reflectio! o! so%e of t"e o-Cectio!s to t"is +roof i! its e8aluatio!: T"e Ai!itialB si!5ularit7 %ust -e re5arded as a te%+oral -ou!dar7 of all t"i!5s. Co!seFue!tl7 t"e Fuestio! does !ot arise of #"at "a++e!ed 'efore At"e si!5ularit7B. T"e #ord :-efore= i%+lies a te%+oral order a!d t"is ceases to e4ist at t"e Ai!itialB si!5ularit7. T"e sa%e is true of t"e Fuestio! of causatio!. It is ofte! as6ed #"at caused t"e creatio! e8e!t. T"e #"ole ide!tificatio! of cause a!d effect #it" ti%e order Kcause al#a7s +recedi!5 effectL is i! a!7 case du-ious so t"at to reFuire t"e creatio! to "a8e a cause #"ic" precedes it is !ot i! fact !ecessar7. Moreo8er t"e !otio! of a +recedi!5 causatio! is clearl7 %ea!i!5less "ere -ecause te%+oral co!sideratio!s ca!!ot -e e4te!ded -e7o!d t"e Ai!itialB si!5ularit7. ,,&

E&A'!ATI N

# T$E "R

As #it" a!7 +roof t"ere are %ulti+le o-Cectio!s t"at could -e %ade to t"e +roofs +rese!ted -7 Fr. S+it*er -ut #e %ust li%it oursel8es to t"ose #"ic" see% %ost co!8i!ci!5 a!d #ort"7 of co!sideratio!. Iesides t"ose difficulties alread7 %e!tio!ed suc" as a%-i5uities as re5ards t"e defi!itio! of ti%e ,,, t"e o-Cectio!s t"at arise ca! -e di8ided i!to t#o cate5ories: ,L O-Cectio!s to t"e scie!tific data +ro8ided -7 Fr. S+it*er i! C"a+ter o!e to esta-lis" a -e5i!!i!5 i! ti%e (L O-Cectio!s to t"e +"iloso+"ical K!o!Dscie!tific i! %oder! ter%sL ra%ificatio!s a!d +roof of a -e5i!!i!5 i! ti%e. ,. Scientific .'(ections
P. )AEIES Space and Time in the ,odern Universe Ca%-rid5e U!i8ersit7 Press Ne# Hor6 ,100 ,'&D,',. T"e -rac6ets are Fr. S+it*erMs. ,,, Cf. +5s. (/D(0 of t"is #or6.
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,.,. The %artle!%aw&ing /o!Boundary theory2 O!e o-Cectio! %e!tio!ed earlier o! is t"at +ro+osed -7 Ji% 9artle a!d Ste+"e! 9a#6i!5 i! t"eir +a+er: The 5ave function of the Universe2,,( O!e of t"e co!seFue!ces dra#! fro% t"is +a+er is t"at t"e u!i8erse #ould !ot "a8e a -e5i!!i!5 -ut is !o!et"eless fi!ite.,,. 9e!ce t"e te!a!ts of t"is t"eor7 #ould o-Cect to Fr. S+it*erMs eFuati!5 :fi!itude of +ast ti%e= to :a -e5i!!i!5 i! +ast ti%e.=,,/ Iut "o# ca! so%et"i!5 -e -ot" fi!ite a!d !ot "a8e a -e5i!!i!5O As e4+lai!ed earlier o! t"e su++ositio! of t"is t"eor7 is t"at -efore Kor +er"a+s outsideL t"e Pla!c6 e+oc" ti%e as suc" does !ot e4ist. T"is is due to t"e effects of Fua!tu% 5ra8it7. I! order to +redict "o# t"e u!i8erse s"ould "a8e started off o!e !eeds la#s t"at "old at t"e -e5i!!i!5 of ti%e. ATB 9o#e8er #"at t"e si!5ularit7 t"eore%s reall7 i!dicate is t"at t"e 5ra8itatio!al effects -eco%e i%+orta!t: classical t"eor7 is !o lo!5er a 5ood descri+tio! of t"e u!i8erse. So o!e "as to use a Fua!tu% t"eor7 of 5ra8it7 to discuss t"e 8er7 earl7 sta5es of t"e u!i8erse.,,2 T"is t"eor7 des+ite its reD+ro+osal i! 9a#6i!5Ms %ore rece!t "rand 0esign "as recei8ed %uc" criticis% i! t"e scie!tific s+"ere. ,,' No!et"eless

J. 9ARTLE AN) S. 9A$;ING :$a8e fu!ctio! of t"e u!i8erse = Physical Review ) (3 K,13.L (1'&R(102. ,,. Cf. I'id24 (102: :T"e 5rou!dDstate #a8e fu!ctio! i! t"e si%+le %i!isu+ers+ace %odel t"at #e "a8e co!sidered #it" a co!for%all7 i!8aria!t field does !ot corres+o!d to t"e Fua!tu% state of t"e U!i8erse t"at #e li8e i! -ecause t"e %atter #a8e fu!ctio! does !ot oscillate. 9o#e8er it see%s t"at t"is %a7 -e a co!seFue!ce of usi!5 o!l7 *ero rest %ass fields a!d t"at t"e 5rou!dDstate #a8e fu!ctio! for a u!i8erse #it" a %assi8e scalar field #ould -e %uc" %ore co%+licated a!d %i5"t +ro8ide a %odel of Fua!tu% state of t"e o-ser8ed U!i8erse. If t"is #ere t"e case o!e #ould "a8e sol8ed t"e +ro-le% of t"e i!itial -ou!dar7 co!ditio!s of t"e U!i8erse: t"e -ou!dar7 co!ditio!s are t"at it "as !o -ou!dar7.= ,,/ Cf. +5. 3 foot!ote !. ,(. ,,2 S. 9A$;ING The Illustrated A Brief %istory of Time4 Updated and Expanded Edition i! The Illustrated A Brief %istory of Time4 Updated and Expanded EditionJ The Universe in a /utshell Ia!ta% Ioo6s Ne# Hor6 (&&1 ,0,D,0(. ,,' Cf. ). PAGE :Suss6i!dMs C"alle!5e to t"e 9artleD9a#6i!5 NoDIou!dar7 Pro+osal a!d Possi-le Resolutio!s = i! Kournal of osmology and Astroparticle Physics4 KJa!uar7 (&&0L "tt+:>>ar4i8.or5>+df>"e+Dt">&',&,118(.+df A(&>&(>(&,(B.

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su++osi!5 it does "old #ould t"is +ose a t"reat to a -e5i!!i!5 of t"e u!i8erseO Fr. S+it*er sa7s t"e follo#i!5: So%e +eo+le i%a5i!e t"at t"e :!oD-ou!dar7= +ro+osal if true #ould %ea! t"ere is !o :-e5i!!i!5.= I! o!e se!se t"at is true: o!e ca!!ot ide!tif7 a +articular :first %o%e!t= of t"e u!i8erse. Iut t"at is so%e#"at of a +eda!tic +oi!t. T"e u!i8erse still -e5a! -ut !ot at a u!iFuel7 ide!tifia-le +oi!t. ATB To sa7 t"at it "as !o -e5i!!i!5 i! t"e !oD-ou!dar7 sce!ario is as %isleadi!5 as to sa7 t"at t"e co!e "as !o e!d Cust -ecause t"e e!d is !ot s"ar+.,,0 O!e %a7 as6 t"e! #"at #e %ea! -7 -e5i!!i!5 es+eciall7 if #e u!dersta!d ti%e as -ei!5 %ade u+ of %i!i%u% discrete Fua!tities as Fr. S+it*er does. As "i!ted u+o! earlier t"e 8er7 state%e!t :-e5i!!i!5 i! ti%e= is +ro-le%atic si!ce a -e5i!!i!5 i%+lies !ot"i!5 -efore it a!d "e!ce i! so%e se!se is outside of time. It %a7 -e t"at S+it*er is "i!ti!5 alread7 t"at t"e first cause of t"e u!i8erse %ust -e aDte%+oral as "e states %ore s+ecificall7 i! C"a+ter Fi8e. Iut a! aDte%+oral cause is !ot t"e sa%e as a :-e5i!!i!5 of ti%e.= I! fact a -e5i!!i!5 of ti%e is !ot !ecessar7 to +ro8e t"e !eed for a! aDte%+oral cause. 9e!ce e8e! t"ou5" t"e 9artleD9a#6i!5 t"eore% fails to dis+ro8e t"e !eed for a tra!sce!de!t first cause it does -ri!5 out t"e +ro-le%atic face of Fr. S+it*erMs a++roac". It %i5"t +er"a+s -e %ore "el+ful to s+ea6 of a transcendent cause of time t"a! a -e5i!!i!5 or at least to furt"er de8elo+ Cust #"at is %ea!t -7 :-e5i!!i!5.= If t"e 9artleD9a#6i!5 t"eore% "olds true it #ould -e i%+ossi-le to defi!e a first %o%e!t i! ti%e 7et t"e u!i8erse #ould -e fi!ite a!d "e!ce de%a!d a cause al-eit a %eta+"7sical !ot %ec"a!ical o!e.,,3 It s"ould -e !oted t"at if ti%e is !ot reduced to a %at"e%atical co!ce+t a!d #e re%ai! #it" t"e Aristotelia! defi!itio! of ti%e i.e. t"e %easure of %otio! #it" refere!ce to -efore a!d after t"e! e8e! i! t"e 9artleD9a#6i!5 T"eore%
R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ... Fr. S+it*erMs a++roac" "ere %a7 -e related to "is u!dersta!di!5 of causalit7 co!sidered o! +5. (1 of t"is #or6.
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t"ere #ould still -e ti%e i! t"e Pla!c6 era as t"e o!l7 reFuire%e!t #ould -e %otio! #"ic" %ost assuredl7 %ust -e +rese!t e8e! i! t"e Pla!c6 era a!d -efore.,,1 (. Philosophical .'(ections (.,. Incomplete argument as regards the logical deduction of a minimum unit of time2 Fr. S+it*erMs ar5u%e!t for t"e !ecessit7 of :real ti%e= is -ased +artl7 o! %a!ifestatio! of t"is real ti%e o!e of #"ic" is a! i!di8isi-le %i!i%u% u!it of ti%e #"ic" "e deduces fro% t"e i%+ossi-ilit7 of e4+lai!i!5 t"e se+aratio! of t#o e4iste!tial states -7 a di%e!sio!less i!sta!t.,(& Alt"ou5" a di%e!sio!less i!sta!t %a7 !ot suffice to e4+lai! t"e se+aratio! of t#o e4iste!tial states i! t"e sa%e realit7 a co!ti!uous Fua!tit7 could a!d t"is is a! o+tio! !ot co!sidered -7 Fr. S+it*er. It is !ot !ecessar7 t"at ti%e -e reduced to t"e su% of a-solute i!di8isi-le %i!i%u% Fua!tities i! order to se+arate -efore a!d after. Ta6e for e4a%+le t"e dia5ra% -elo#. Li!e AI is se+arated fro% li!e C) -7 li!e IC. Neit"er li!e AI !or li!e C) are di%e!sio!less u!its -ut are rat"er continuous u!its of ti%e #"ic" ca! -e furt"er di8ided +ossi-l7 e8e! ad infinitum -ut t"is i! !o #a7 destro7s t"e diste!sio! of ti%e. AI ca! also -e %easured -7 a c"ose! %i!i%u% u!it. T"is does !ot %ea! t"at t"at %i!i%u% u!it is a-solute a!d i!di8isi-le. T"e i%+orta!t disti!ctio! to -e %ade is t"is: t"e fact t"at t"is u!it is i!fi!itel7 di8isi-le K+ote!tiall7L does !ot %ea! t"at it is actuall7 co%+osed of :*eroD%a5!itude +arts.= A
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It see%s t"at o!e of t"e %ai! %oti8es -e"i!d t"is t"eor7 is !ot scie!tific -ut rat"er ideolo5ical as ca! -e 5at"ered fro% t"is Fuote i! S. 9A$;ING The Illustrated A Brief %istory of Time4 Updated and Expanded EditionJ The Universe in a /utshell Ia!ta% Ioo6s Ne# Hor6 (&&1 ,3,: :Iut if t"e u!i8erse is reall7 co%+letel7 selfDco!tai!ed "a8i!5 !o -ou!dar7 or ed5e it #ould "a8e !eit"er -e5i!!i!5 !or e!d: it #ould si%+l7 -e. $"at +lace t"e! for a creatorO= ,(& Cf. +5s. .,D.( of t"is #or6

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T"e +ro-le% "ere fro% a T"o%istic +oi!t of 8ie# is t"e +ro-le% of a +ote!tial i!fi!it7. St. T"o%as "as !o Fual%s #it" acce+ti!5 t"e +ossi-ilit7 of a +ote!tiall7 i!fi!ite di8isi-ilit7 of %aterial t"i!5s a!d i! fact is of t"e o+i!io! t"at all %a5!itudes K+"7sical u!derstoodL are di8isi-le. ,(, Fro% a T"o%istic +ers+ecti8e it #ould a++ear t"at Fr. S+it*er is -ac6i!5 u+ t"e !eed for a %i!i%u% i!di8isi-le u!it of ti%e o! t"e i%+ossi-ilit7 of a +ote!tial di8isi-ilit7 ad infinitum #"ic" i! T"o%asM 8ie# is +erfectl7 +ossi-le. Fr. S+it*er "o#e8er #ould %ost li6el7 res+o!d t"at i! t"is case t"e i!fi!it7 is !ot +ote!tial -ut actual
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%a5!itude is actuall7 %ade u+ of a! i!fi!ite !u%-er of +arts #"ic" it #ould see% is i%+ossi-le t"ou5" #e #ill co!sider t"e +ossi-ilit7 of a! actual !u%erical i!fi!it7 i! realit7 furt"er o!. O!e %oti8e for t"is discre+a!c7 is a di8erse u!dersta!di!5 of t"e :+arts= of a %aterial o-Cect. St. T"o%as co!sidered %a5!itude as actuall7 co!ti!uous a!d +ote!tiall7 di8isi-le i!to discrete Fua!tities. 9e #as!Mt deali!5 #it" ato%s electro!s a!d Fuar6s i! "is da7 a!d t"e u!dersta!di!5 of :+arts of a %aterial %a5!itude= at a %icrosco+ic le8el #as !ot as co!crete. It is eas7 to i%a5i!e -rea6i!5 a t#i5 i! "alf o8er a!d o8er a5ai! a!d it see%s t"at if #e "ad t"e +ro+er %ac"i!er7 Ki!fi!itel7Drefi!edL t"is +rocess could co!ti!ue ad infinitum. $it" Co!te%+orar7 +"7sics t"is -eco%es %ore +ro-le%atic si!ce electro!s -e"a8e 8er7 differe!tl7 fro% ti!7 +arts of a t#i5.,(.
In III Phys24 lectio ,& !. .0,: 6Et iterum se3uetur 3uod magnitudo non semper sit divisi'ilis in magnitudines4 sed 3uando3ue deveniatur per divisionem magnitudinum ad 3uaedam 3uae non sunt magnitudines# sed omnis magnitudo est divisi'ilis27 ,(( Cf. :A! A!al7tical Co!tradictio! = i! R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ,3&D,3.N +5. (. of t"is #or6. ,(. Cf. ). 9ILIERT .n the Infinite i! Philosophy of ,athematics seco!d editio! edited -7 P. Ie!acerraf a!d 9. Put!a% Ca%-rid5e U!i8ersit7 Press Ca%-rid5e ,13. ,32: :$"e! #e co!sider a +iece of %etal or a 8olu%e of liFuid #e 5et t"e i%+ressio! t"at t"e7 are u!li%itedl7 di8isi-le t"at t"eir s%allest +arts e4"i-it t"e sa%e +ro+erties t"at t"e #"ole does. Iut #"ere8er t"e %et"ods of i!8esti5ati!5 t"e +"7sics of %atter "a8e -ee! sufficie!tl7 refi!ed scie!tists "a8e %et di8isi-ilit7 -ou!daries #"ic" do !ot result fro% t"e s"ortco%i!5s of t"eir efforts -ut fro% t"e 8er7 !ature of t"i!5s. Co!seFue!tl7 #e could e8e! i!ter+ret t"e te!de!c7 of %oder! scie!ce as e%a!ci+atio! fro% t"e i!fi!itel7 s%all.=
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9e!ce it is !ot so si%+leSif i!deed +ossi-leSto co!clude fro% t"e i%+ossi-ilit7 of e4+lai!i!5 t"e se+aratio! of t#o e4iste!tial states -7 a di%e!sio!less i!sta!t t"at t"ere %ust -e a %i!i%u% u!it of ti%e. No!et"eless it a++ears t"at so far fro% #"at scie!ce tells us Pla!c6Ms %i!i%u% ti%e %ar6s t"e %i!i%u% li%it of ti%e i! our u!i8erse. (.(. The Possi'ility of an actual numerical infinity (.(.,. %il'ert+s prohi'ition of !infinities2 As !oted i! t"e e4+ositio! Fr. S+it*er is of t"e o+i!io! t"at )a8id 9il-ertMs .n the Infinite %at"e%aticall7 +ro"i-its CDi!fi!ities. T"is is a! i%+orta!t +ositio! to e4a%i!e si!ce "e uses it to Custif7 %a!ifestatio!s of real ti%e Kas #e "a8e Cust see!L +art of t"e t"ird +re%ise of "is for%al ar5u%e!t ,(/ +art of "is ar5u%e!t for a Creator of +ast ti%e ,(2 a!d -esides t"is it is o!e of "is %ai! reaso!s for disa5reei!5 #it" St. T"o%as AFui!asM +ositio! t"at a! eter!al +ast ti%e ca!!ot -e dis+ro8ed.,(' O!e of t"e Fuotatio!s fro% 9il-ert t"at S+it*er uses "o#e8er see%s to co!tradict t"e idea t"at 9il-ert #as a5ai!st t"e :actual i!fi!it7 = for "e sa7s: T"e role t"at re%ai!s for t"e i!fi!ite to +la7 is solel7 t"at of a! ideaSif o!e %ea!s -7 a! idea i! ;a!tMs ter%i!olo57 a co!ce+t of reaso! #"ic" tra!sce!ds all e4+erie!ce a!d #"ic" co%+letes t"e co!crete as a totalit7S t"at of a! idea #"ic" #e %a7 u!"esitati!5l7 trust #it"i! t"e fra%e#or6 erected -7 our t"eor7.,(0 Fr. S+it*er e!ds t"e Fuotatio! earl7 #it" t"e #ord :totalit7 = a!d follo#i!5 it i!serts #it"i! -rac6ets :a IDi!fi!it7.= T"is Fuotatio! "o#e8er is ta6e! out of
Cf. R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 (&1. ,(2 Cf. I'id24 (,,D(,.. Fr. S+it*er uses t"e +ro"i-itio! of CDi!fi!ities for t"e first a!d seco!d set of deductio!s +rese!ted i! t"is #or6 o! +a5es .2 a!d .'. ,(' Cf. I'id24 ,03 foot!ote !..: :If Sai!t T"o%as "ad -ee! a#are of t"e Ge!eral T"eor7 of Relati8it7 a!d t"e de8elo+%e!ts i! %at"e%atics t"at led to 9il-ertMs +ro"i-itio! I a% i!cli!ed to t"i!6 t"at "e #ould !ot "a8e "eld o! to t"e +ossi-ilit7 of i!fi!ite +ast ti%e.= ,(0 ). 9ILIERT .n the Infinite=4 (&,.
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its ori5i!al co!te4t. T"e i!fi!ities to #"ic" 9il-ert refers are rat"er CDi!fi!ites si!ce "e is referri!5 to t"e i!fi!ite sets of Ca!tor #"ic" "e defi!es earlier o! i! t"e #or6 as actual infinities2,(3 9ere 9il-ert is stati!5 !ot t"at t"e i!fi!ite is real or u!real -ut rat"er t"at as a! idea it is useful for co!structi!5 a %at"e%atical t"eor7 e8e! if it does!Mt e4ist. Moreo8er t"e first sectio! of 9il-ertMs discourse Fuoted -7 Fr. S+it*er o!l7 de!ies t"e i!fi!ite do5%aticall7 #it"out +ro8idi!5 a!7 %at"e%atical reaso! for doi!5 so.,(1 T"e %at"e%atical reaso! Fr. S+it*er 5i8es for reCecti!5 a! actual i!fi!iteS-asi!5 "i%self o! 9il-ertSlies i! t"e +arado4es t"at result fro% it. 9il-ert "i%self "o#e8er did !ot reCect Ca!torMs sets a!d sou5"t 5etti!5 arou!d t"ese +arado4es i! +articular -7 sol8i!5 t"e co!ti!uu% "7+ot"esis -elie8i!5 t"at it could -e e4+lai!ed i! so%e ot"er #a7 usi!5 a fi!itar7 s7ste%. T"is "e clai%ed "is o#! t"eor7 a-le to do t"ou5" "e !e8er +rese!ted "is i!itial atte%+t #"ic" #as -ased o! a first +ri!ci+le t"at #as su-seFue!tl7 derailed -7 GadelMs i!co%+lete!ess t"eore%: !a%el7 t"at e8er7 %at"e%atical +ro-le% is sol8a-le.,.& Gadel +ro8ed i! ,1/&,., t"at t"e co!ti!uu% "7+ot"esis ca!!ot -e dis+ro8ed fro% t"e sta!dard Qer%eloDFrae!6el set t"eor7 a!d Paul Co"e! furt"er
Cf. I'id24,33: :So%eo!e #"o #is"ed to c"aracteri*e -riefl7 t"e !e# co!ce+tio! of t"e i!fi!ite #"ic" Ca!tor i!troduced %i5"t sa7 t"at i! a!al7sis #e deal #it" t"e i!fi!itel7 lar5e a!d t"e i!fi!itel7 s%all o!l7 as li%iti!5 co!ce+ts as so%et"i!5 -eco%i!5 "a++e!i!5 i.e. #it" t"e potential infinite2 Iut t"is is !ot t"e true i!fi!ite. $e %eet t"e true i!fi!ite #"e! #e re5ard t"e totalit7 of !u%-ers , ( . / T itself as a co%+leted u!it7 or #"e! #e re5ard t"e +oi!ts of a! i!ter8al as a totalit7 of t"i!5s #"ic" e4ists all at o!ce. T"is 6i!d of i!fi!it7 is 6!o#! as actual infinity2 ATB Fre5e a!d )ede6i!d t"e t#o %at"e%aticia!s %ost cele-rated for t"eir #or6 i! t"e fou!datio!s of %at"e%atics i!de+e!de!tl7 of eac" ot"er used t"e actual i!fi!ite to +ro8ide a fou!datio! for arit"%etic #"ic" #as i!de+e!de!t of -ot" i!tuitio! a!d e4+erie!ce. ATB Iut it #as Ca!tor #"o s7ste%aticall7 de8elo+ed t"e co!ce+t of t"e actual i!fi!ite.= ,(1 Cf. ). 9ILIERT .n the InfiniteT ,3/: :Just as i! t"e li%it +rocesses of t"e i!fi!itesi%al calculus t"e i!fi!ite i! t"e se!se of t"e i!fi!itel7 lar5e a!d t"e i!fi!itel7 s%all +ro8ed to -e %erel7 a fi5ure of s+eec" so too #e %ust reali*e t"at t"e i!fi!ite i! t"e se!se of a! i!fi!ite totality #"ere #e still fi!d it used i! deducti8e %et"ods is a! illusion.= Puoted i! R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 (&,. T"e italics are Fr. S+it*erMs. ,.& Cf. ). 9ILIERT .n the InfiniteT (&,: :T"e t"eor7 #"ic" I "a8e de8elo+ed +ro8ides a solutio! of t"e co!ti!uu% +ro-le%. T"e +roof t"at e8er7 %at"e%atical +ro-le% is sol8a-le co!stitutes t"e first a!d %ost i%+orta!t ste+ to#ard its solutio!.= ,., Cf. ;. Gc)EL onsistency of the axiom of choice and of the generaliLed continuum!hypothesis with the axioms of set theory A!!als of Mat"e%atics Studies !o. . U!i8ersit7 Press Pri!ceto! ,1/&.
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s"o#ed i! ,1'. t"at it is eFuall7 i%+ossi-le to +ro8e it fro% t"ose sa%e a4io%sN a4io%s #"ic" it is #idel7 "eld co!tai! !o co!tradictio!. It is -esides t"is Fuestio!a-le #"et"er 9il-ert +ro8ides us #it" a %at"e%atical refutatio! of t"e actual i!fi!ite at all. T"e lo5ic of "is discourse +roceeds t"us: ,L t"e i!fi!ite does !ot e4ist i! realit7 Kt"is is !ot +ro8e! %at"e%aticall7L (L it %i5"t still +la7 a Custified role i! our t"i!6i!5 .L a! actual i!fi!ite i! %at"e%atics leads to +arado4es /L t"e i!fi!ite i! %at"e%atics ca! -e full7 e4+lai!ed usi!5 a fi!itar7 s7ste% 2L "o#e8er it is 8er7 co%+le4 a!d co!tradicts si%+le Aristotelia! lo5ic 'L "e!ce t"e su++le%e!tatio! of fi!itar7 state%e!ts #it" ideal state%e!ts to e!a-le co!ti!ued use of Aristotelia! lo5ic 0L "e!ce t"e for%ali*i!5 of %at"e%atics i!to s7%-olic lo5ic. 9il-ert -elie8es t"at t"is #ill resol8e t"e +arado4es #"ic" result fro% Ca!torMs i!fi!ite sets. 9e #as as "as alread7 -ee! !oted "o#e8er %ista6e!. 9o#e8er #"at reall7 i!terests us is !ot #"et"er a! actual i!fi!it7 Ki! Fua!tit7L is a +ro-le% for %at"e%atics -ut #"et"er it ca! e4ist. T"is -ri!5s i!to Fuestio! #"et"er it #ould -e correct to de!7 t"e e4iste!ce of t"e i!fi!ite Ki! Fua!tit7 u!derstoodL si%+l7 -ecause it is %at"e%aticall7 +ro-le%atic. I! t"e case of Ca!torMs i!fi!ite sets t"ere are certai!l7 +arado4es t"at result fro% it 7et i! fact t"e %at"e%atics itself is sou!d. Iut e8e! if it #ere !ot #ould it -e correct to co!clude t"at t"e i!fi!ite does !ot e4ist -ased o!l7 o! %at"e%atics a!d !ot o! e4+erie!ceO Usi!5 a! a!alo57 fro% 9il-ert "i%self :Alt"ou5" Euclidea! 5eo%etr7 is i!deed a co!siste!t co!ce+tual s7ste% it does !ot t"ere-7 follo# t"at Euclidea! 5eo%etr7 actuall7 "olds i! realit7.= ,.( A!d e8e! if t"e %at"e%atics #ere a +erfect %irror of realit7 are t"ere !ot li6e +arado4es t"at result fro% e4+eri%e!tal disco8eries i! Fua!tu% %ec"a!icsO As re5ards a! atte%+t at dis+ro8i!5 t"e +ossi-ilit7 of a! actual i!fi!ite fro% e4+erie!ce 9il-ertMs ar5u%e!t is %uc" #ea6er. It +roceeds t"us:

,.(

). 9ILIERT

.n the InfiniteT

,3'.

/2

Fro% t"e fact t"at outside a certai! +ortio! of s+ace t"ere is al#a7s %ore s+ace it follo#s o!l7 t"at s+ace is u!-ou!ded !ot t"at it is i!fi!ite. U!-ou!ded!ess a!d fi!ite!ess are co%+ati-le. I! soDcalled elliptical 5eo%etr7 %at"e%atical i!8esti5atio! fur!is"es t"e !atural %odel of a fi!ite u!i8erse. Toda7 t"e a-a!do!%e!t of euclidea! 5eo%etr7 is !o lo!5er %erel7 a %at"e%atical or +"iloso+"ical s+eculatio! -ut is su55ested -7 co!sideratio!s #"ic" ori5i!all7 "ad !ot"i!5 to do #it" t"e Fuestio! of t"e fi!ite!ess of t"e u!i8erse. Ei!stei! "as s"o#! t"at euclidea! 5eo%etr7 %ust -e a-a!do!ed. O! t"e -asis of "is 5ra8itatio!al t"eor7 "e deals #it" cos%olo5ical Fuestio!s a!d s"o#s t"at a fi!ite u!i8erse is +ossi-le. Moreo8er all t"e results of astro!o%7 are +erfectl7 co%+ati-le #it" t"e +ostulate t"at t"e u!i8erse is elli+tical.,.. T"is state%e!t o!l7 defe!ds t"e +ossi-ilit7 of a fi!ite u!i8erse -ut i! !o #a7 +ro8es t"at t"e i!fi!ite Ki! %a5!itudeL does !ot or ca!!ot e4ist.,./ (.(.(. .ther arguments against the existence of an actual numerical infinity T"ere are ot"er ar5u%e!ts a5ai!st t"e e4iste!ce of a! actual !u%erical i!fi!it7 !ot %e!tio!ed -7 Fr. S+it*er a!d t"ere is also a! i%+orta!t disti!ctio! to -e %ade: t"at -et#ee! !u%erical i!fi!it7 a!d i!fi!it7 i! %a5!itude. As re5ards t"e latter u!til !o# t"ese ter%s "a8e -ee! +rese!ted as if i!terc"a!5ea-le -ut i! fact t"e7 are !ot si!ce num'er refers to discrete Fua!tit7 a!d magnitude or extension to co!ti!uous Fua!tit7. $it" t"is i! %i!d let us address so%e ot"er ar5u%e!ts a5ai!st t"e e4iste!ce of a! actual !u%erical i!fi!it7 as #ell as reflectio!s o! t"e +ossi-ilit7 of a! i!fi!ite %a5!itude.

I'id2 ,3'. It is si5!ifica!t t"at $illia% L. Crai5 a stro!5 +ro+o!e!t of t"e ;ala% ar5u%e!t #"o is also Fuoted -7 Fr. S+it*er sa7s t"e follo#i!5 as re5ards 9il-ert: :I "a8e !ot at a!7 ti%e %ade t"e clai% t"at 9il-ert offered a +roof t"at a! i!fi!ite re5ress of causes is %at"e%aticall7 i%+ossi-le. Rat"er I cite 9il-ert as a! e4a%+le of a 5reat %at"e%aticia! #"o t"ou5" e!t"usiastic a-out t"e
,./ %at"e%atical e4iste!ce of t"e i!fi!ite de!ied t"at t"e actual i!fi!ite e4ists i! realit7. $"at t"e e4a%+le of 9il-ert s"o#s is t"at o!e !eed !ot restrict classical %at"e%atics i! order to de!7 t"at t"e actual i!fi!ite e4ists i! t"e %i!dDi!de+e!de!t #orld.= I!: "tt+:>>###.reaso!a-lefait".or5>site>Ne#s(O +a5eXNe#sArticledi dX',31

,..

A(&>,(>(&,,B.

/'

O!e is fro% Fr. Fili++o Sel8a55iMs #or6 $ilosofia del mondo KP"iloso+"7 of t"e A+"7sicalB #orldL. Fr. Sel8a55i 5i8es t"e follo#i!5 ar5u%e!t for t"e i%+ossi-ilit7 of a! actual !u%erical i!fi!it7: Se si tratta del !u%ero +ro+ria%e!te detto il !u%ero Fua!titati8o +er cui a--ia!o se!so le o+era*io!i di addi*io!e e sottra*io!e e +ie radical%e!te di %isura %edia!te lMu!ita lMi!fi!to attuale f co!cettual%e!te i%+ossi-ile +erc"b i%+lica co!traddi*io!e esse!*iale. Se i!8ece si tratta del !u%ero i%+ro+ria%e!te detto la %oltitudi!e trasce!de!tale +er ese%+io Kforse f lMu!ico ese%+ioL la %oltitudi!e dei +ossi-ili !ella %e!te di8i!a lMi!fi!ito attuale !o! se%-ra i%+licare co!traddi*io!eN ATB LMi%+ossi-ilit dellMi!fi!ito !u%erico attuale deri8a dallMesse!*a stessa del !u%ero c"e i%+lica !el suo stesso co!cetto la sua 5e!era*io!e +er addi*io!e o di8isio!e e dalla Fuale Fui!di !o! f +ossi-ile +resci!dere se !o! !e5a!do la sua stessa !atura e le +ro+riet c"e su essa so!o fo!date.,.2 T"e core of t"e ar5u%e!t is t"at i!fi!it7 co!tradicts t"e 8er7 !ature of !u%-er !a%el7 its %easura-ilit7 additi8it7 a!d su-tracta-ilit7. 9o#e8er Fr. Sel8a55i allo#s for t"e e4iste!ce of a! actual i!fi!ite +luralit7 of +ossi-ilities i! t"e %i!d of God. T"e reaso! is 5i8e! i! a foot!ote Fuoti!5 St. T"o%as: )eus aute% !o! sic co5!oscit i!fi!itu% 8el i!fi!ita Fuasi e!u%era!do +arte% +ost +arte%N cu% co5!oscat o%!ia si%ul !o! successi8e ut su+ra dictu% est. U!de !i"il +ro"i-it i+su% co5!oscere i!fi!ita.,.' Si!ce God sees e8er7t"i!5 all at o!ce t"e i!fi!ite is i%%ediatel7 6!o#! for "e does !ot !eed to 6!o# o!e after a!ot"er i! successio!. It #ould see% to follo# t"e!Sco!trar7 to Fr. Sel8a55iMs co!clusio!St"at t"e i!fi!ite i! !u%-er could e4ist else#"ereN #e si%+l7 #ould !e8er -e a-le to 6!o# it i! its totalit7. T"is #ould -e a! error "o#e8er si!ce !u%-er is discrete a!d i%+lies li%itatio!N #"at is dealt #it" "ere is rat"er a! i!fi!ite %ultitude or +luralit7. I! fact St. T"o%as sa7s i! "is co!tro8ersial #or6 .n the Eternity of the 5orld4 :!o de%o!stratio! "as as 7et -ee! fort"co%i!5 t"at God ca!!ot +roduce a %ultitude t"at is actuall7
F. SELEAGGI $ilosofia del mondo# osmologia filosofica4 U!i8ersit Gre5oria!a Editrice Ro%a ,132 (/0D(/3. ,.' Summa Theologiae I F. ,/ a. ,( ad ,u%. All Lati! Fuotatio!s of St. T"o%as i! t"is #or6 are ta6e! fro% R. IUSA S. J. Thomae A3uinatis .pera .mnia cum hypertexti'us in 0!R.,4 T"o%istica Editio secu!da ,11'.
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i!fi!ite.=,.0 9e!ce #"e! T"o%as sa7s t"at a! actual i!fi!ite i! act is i%+ossi-le "e is referri!5 s+ecificall7 to i!fi!it7 i! !u%-er as i! a %uc" earlier #or6 "is co%%e!tar7 o! t"e Se!te!ces of Peter Lo%-ard #"ere "e sa7s t"e follo#i!5: Ad tertiu% dice!du% Fuod i!fi!itu% actu i%+ossi-ile estN sed i!fi!itu% esse +er successio!e% !o! est i%+ossi-ile. I!fi!iti aute% sic co!siderati Fuodli-et acce+tu% fi!itu% est: tra!sie!s aute% !o! +otest i!telli5i !isi e4 aliFuo deter%i!ato ad aliFuod deter%i!atu%: et ita Fuodcu%Fue te%+us deter%i!atu% acci+iatur se%+er a- illo te%+ore ad istud est fi!itu% te%+usN et ita est de8e!ire ad +raese!s te%+us.,.3 T"o%as re+eats %ore or less t"is sa%e ar5u%e!t i! t"e Summa "entiles4 #"ic" reads: Puod etia% tertio +o!itur !o! est co5e!s. Na% i!fi!itu% etsi !o! sit si%ul i! actu +otest ta%e! esse i! successio!e: Fuia sic Fuodli-et i!fi!itu% acce+tu% fi!itu% est. Puaeli-et i5itur circulatio +raecede!tiu% tra!siri +otuit: Fuia fi!ita fuit.,.1 St. T"o%as "ere is of t"e o+i!io! t"at ti%e is !ot a! actual i!fi!ite at all -ut rat"er a! i!fi!ite per successionem4 a!d it #ould see% t"is is still "is +ositio! i! "is 0e Aeternitate ,undi.,/&
T. APUINAS .n the Eternity of the 5orld4 i! C. EOLLERT St2 Thomas A3uinas4 Siger of Bra'ant4 St2 Bonaventure# .n the Eternity of the 5orld T"e MarFuette U!i8ersit7 Press Mil#au6ee ,1'/ (/. T"e ori5i!al te4t reads: :Et +raeterea !o! est ad"uc de%o!stratu% Fuod deus !o! +ossit facere ut si!t i!fi!ita actu.= Note t"at t"e #orld :%ultitude= is !ot +rese!t i! t"e Lati! ori5i!al -ut is !o!et"eless i%+lied si!ce t"e i!fi!it7 referred to is a %ultitude al-eit i%%aterial of "u%a! souls. ,.3 In II Sent. d., F., a.2 ad .u%: :As re5ards t"e t"ird +oi!t to -e i!fi!ite i! act is i%+ossi-le -ut to -e i!fi!ite i! successio! is !ot i%+ossi-le. For a!7 of t"e i!fi!ite t"us co!sidered is ta6e! as fi!ite: +assa5e "o#e8er ca!!ot -e u!derstood e4ce+t as fro% o!e deter%i!ed +eriod to a!ot"er a!d t"us for e8er7 deter%i!ed +eriod of ti%e ta6e! fro% t"at ti%e to t"is o!e #ill al#a7s -e a fi!ite ti%e a!d so o! u+ to t"e +rese!t ti%e.= T"is tra!slatio! is %i!e. ,.1 Summa ontra "entiles II ca+. .3 !. ,,: :A5ai! t"e t"ird ar5u%e!t is !ot co5e!t. For t"ou5" t"e i!fi!ite i! act -e i%+ossi-le it is !ot i%+ossi-le i! successio! si!ce a!7 5i8e! i!fi!ite ta6e! i! t"is se!se is fi!ite. 9e!ce eac" of t"e +recedi!5 re8olutio!s could -e +assed -7 si!ce it #as fi!ite.= It is %ost li6el7 t"at t"e Summa ontra "entiles for its +art #as #ritte! arou!d ,('/ #"ereas 0e Aeternitate ,undi #as #ritte! duri!5 T"o%asM seco!d re5e!c7 i! Paris fro% ,('3 to ,(0(. 9is ommentary on the Sentences #as #ritte! -et#ee! ,(2( a!d ,(2'. ,/& As !oted i! foot!ote ,./ t"e Fuotatio! re5ardi!5 actual i!fi!ites ta6e! fro% 0e Aeternitate ,undi #as co!cer!i!5 a! i!fi!it7 of "u%a! souls !ot a! i!fi!it7 of +ast ti%e.
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Putti!5 aside t"e! t"e +ro-le% of t"e +ossi-ilit7 of a! actual i!fi!it7 a!d su++osi!5 t"at St. T"o%as did i! fact reCect t"is +ossi-ilit7 #"at t7+e of i!fi!it7 is i!fi!ite +ast ti%eO So%e #ould -e Fuic6 to tra!slate i!fi!ite : per successionem7 as a :+ote!tial i!fi!it7.= 9o#e8er t"e +ast is !ot i!fi!ite in potency si!ce it is !ot a'out to 'e -ut rat"er already was. Nor "o#e8er is t"e +ast actuall7 +rese!t i.e. actuall7 e4iste!t !o# #"ic" at ti%es see%s to -e #"at Fr. S+it*er #ould li6e to i%+l7 as a++ears i! a +ara5ra+" alread7 Fuoted fro% t"e sectio! ,anifestation of Real Time2,/, Ti%e t"e! ca!!ot -e trul7 co!sidered as a! actual infinity -ecause t"e #"ole of +ast ti%e does !ot actuall7 e4ist. As re5ards i!fi!it7 i! e4te!sio! Ksa7 of s+ace for e4a%+leL Sel8a55i "i%self +oi!ts out t"at St. T"o%as does !ot co!sider AristotleMs e4clusio! co!clusi8e ,/( a!d Sel8a55i for "is +art lea8es it o+e! as a +ossi-ilit7. ,/. (.(... onclusion as regards an actual infinity It is t"erefore !ot so clear t"at t"ere ca!!ot e4ist a! actual i!fi!it7 a!d e8e! if t"ere could !ot +ast ti%e does !ot fall u!der t"is cate5or7 si!ce it does !ot e4ist all at o!ce i! o!e %o%e!t. T"erefore it #ould a++ear t"at a +ro"i-itio! of a! actual !u%erical i!fi!it7 #ould !ot +ro8e t"e i%+ossi-ilit7 of i!fi!ite +ast ti%e. (... Identification of cause and effect with time order2 Let us !o# ta6e a loo6 at t"e S+it*erMs Fuote fro% Paul )a8ies %e!tio!ed earlier o! +recisel7 o! t"is to+ic: T"e Ai!itialB si!5ularit7 %ust -e re5arded as a te%+oral -ou!dar7 of all t"i!5s. Co!seFue!tl7 t"e Fuestio! does !ot arise of #"at "a++e!ed 'efore At"e si!5ularit7B. T"e #ord :-efore= i%+lies a te%+oral order a!d t"is ceases to e4ist at t"e Ai!itialB si!5ularit7. T"e sa%e is true of t"e Fuestio! of causatio!. It is ofte! as6ed #"at caused t"e creatio! e8e!t. T"e #"ole ide!tificatio! of cause a!d effect #it" ti%e order Kcause al#a7s +recedi!5 effectL is i! a!7 case du-ious so t"at to reFuire t"e creatio! to "a8e a
,/, ,/(

Cf. +5s. .. a!d ./ of t"is #or6N +5s. ,1'D,10 of S+it*er. Cf. F. Sel8a55i $ilosofia del mondo=4 (/2. ,/. Cf. I'id24 (/'.

/1

cause #"ic" precedes it is !ot i! fact !ecessar7. Moreo8er t"e !otio! of a +recedi!5 causatio! is clearl7 %ea!i!5less "ere -ecause te%+oral co!sideratio!s ca!!ot -e e4te!ded -e7o!d t"e Ai!itialB si!5ularit7. ,// Alt"ou5" Fr. S+it*er uses t"is Fuotatio! to su++ort "is t"esis t"at t"e cause of creatio! is !ot co!ditio!ed -7 ti%e t"ere a++ears to -e a! o-Cectio! to "is %et"od i! t"e Fuotatio! itself !a%el7 :t"e ide!tificatio! of cause a!d effect #it" ti%e order2= I! atte%+ti!5 to +ro8e GodMs e4iste!ce fro% fi!ite ti%e it #ould a++ear t"at S+it*er is ide!tif7i!5 cause as :t"e first do%i!o = so to s+ea6 rat"er t"a! t"at #"ic" sustai!s all t"i!5s i! e4iste!ce i.e. li!6i!5 causalit7 to c"ro!olo57. T"is ofte! ste%s fro% a %ec"a!istic u!dersta!di!5 of causalit7 a!d as #as !oted earlier Fr. S+it*erMs descri+tio! of causalit7 see%s to fall i!to t"is i!ter+retatio!.,/2 Per"a+s "o#e8er it could -e defe!ded t"at "e is ar5ui!5 rat"er fro% t"e co!ti!5e!c7 of t"e u!i8erse -ut if t"at is t"e case "e certai!l7 does !ot state so clearl7.

P. )AEIES Space and Time in the ,odern Universe Ca%-rid5e U!i8ersit7 Press Ne# Hor6 ,100 ,'&D,',. T"e -rac6ets are Fr. S+it*erMs. ,/2 Cf. +5s. (1 a!d .& of t"is #or6.

,//

2&

C NC'!SI N It ca! -e co!cluded fro% t"is stud7 t"at accordi!5 to Fr. S+it*er scie!ce ca! co!tri-ute to +ro8i!5 t"e e4iste!ce of God -7 +ro8idi!5 "i5"l7 +ro-a-le data #"ic" +oi!t to#ards "is e4iste!ce #"ic" is t"e! %ade e4+licit t"rou5" +"iloso+"ical ar5u%e!t. T"is data co!tri-utes alo!5 #it" ot"er sources suc" as t"e ar5u%e!ts 5i8e! -7 +"iloso+"7 a!d %at"e%atics to a! i!for%al i!fere!ce t"at fur!is"es #it"i! us a certai!t7 of GodMs e4iste!ce. T"e #ea6!ess of t"ese +roofs is e8ide!t fro% #"at "as -ee! see! a!d ca! -e e!u!ciated i! t"e follo#i!5 +oi!ts: ,L T"e u!certai! !ature of t"e scie!tific t"eories t"at co!tri-ute to t"e +roof (L t"e %ultitude of assu%+tio!s %ade #it"i! t"ese t"eories .L t"e %erel7 +ro-a-le co!clusio!s: t"e :reaso!a-le li6eli"ood of a -e5i!!i!5=,/' a!d t"at GodMs e4iste!ce is a %ore +ro-a-le e4+la!atio! t"a! MD t"eor7 KMulti8erse T"eor7 +5s. ,0D,3 of t"is +a+erL /L T"e difficult7 if !ot i%+ossi-ilit7 of +"iloso+"icall7 or %at"e%aticall7 +ro8i!5 t"e i%+ossi-ilit7 of a! i!fi!ite +ast ti%e 2L t"e da!5er of falli!5 i!to a %ec"a!istic co!ce+t of causalit7. I! a +ositi8e li5"t t"e to+ic of i!for%al i!fere!ce a!d its a++licatio! to t"is field see%s #ort"7 of furt"er i!8esti5atio!Sfor e4a%+le Cust "o# scie!tific 6!o#led5e alo!5 #it" ot"er for%s of 6!o#led5e ca! co!tri-ute to a li6e i!fere!ce. T"e +roof also illustrates t"at t"ere is!Mt !ecessaril7 co!flict -et#ee! scie!ce a!d t"e e4iste!ce of God as is so%eti%es su++osed t"ou5" it is does !ot s"o# t"at t"ere is necessarily !o co!flict -et#ee! t"e t#o as a %eta+"7sical
,/'

Cf. +5. (& of t"is #or6.

2,

+roof is ca+a-le of doi!5.,/0 T"e first +art i! +articular at least ser8es as a +roof of +ro-a-ilit7 -7 s"o#i!5 #a7s i! #"ic" scie!tific disco8er7 is leadi!5 us to as6 Fuestio!s t"at 5o -e7o!d scie!ce a!d lead us to#ards a tra!sce!de!t Creator. I! t"e #ords of Fr. S+it*er: E8e! t"ou5" scie!tific co!clusio!s are su-Cect to c"a!5e i! t"e li5"t of !e# data #e s"ould !ot let t"is +ossi-ilit7 cause us to u!!ecessaril7 discou!t t"e 8alidit7 of lo!5Dsta!di!5 +ersiste!t ri5orousl7 esta-lis"ed t"eories. A...B T"us it is reaso!a-le a!d res+o!si-le to attri-ute Fualified trut" 8alue to suc" t"eories u!til suc" ti%e as !e# data reFuires t"e% to -e c"a!5ed.,/3 U!til t"at ti%e arri8es if i!deed it does t"e data +rese!ted -7 Fr. S+it*er #ill co!ti!ue to direct us to#ards t"e Creator of t"e u!i8erse.

Fr. S+it*er does +ro8ide so%e t7+e of %eta+"7sical +roof of t"e e4iste!ce of God i! C"a+ter T"ree of "is -oo6. ,/3 R. SPITQER /ew Proofs for=4 ((.

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I. AGUIRRE A. a!d GRATTON S. :Stead7 State Eter!al I!flatio! = i! Physical Reviews ) '2 &3.2&0 K(&&(L. ANANT9AS$AMH A. :Fro% Ii5 Ia!5 to Ii5 Iou!ce = Ne#Scie!tist K,.t" )ece%-er (&&3L .(D.2. IERGSON 9. 0urEe et simultanEitE2 M propos de la thEorie dIEinstein4 Li-rairie Fbli4 Alca! Paris ,1((. CLATTERIAUG9 ;. The ausation 0e'ate in ,odern Philosophy4 9DH@!9@H; Routled5e Ne# Hor6 ,111. Gc)EL ;. onsistency of the axiom of choice and of the generaliLed continuum! hypothesis with the axioms of set theory A!!als of Mat"e%atics Studies !o. . U!i8ersit7 Press Pri!ceto! ,1/&. GUT9 A. THE S. :P"ase Tra!sitio!s a!d Ma5!etic Mo!o+ole Productio! i! t"e Eer7 Earl7 U!i8erse = Physical Review 1etters4 // K,13&L '.,R'.2. 9A$;ING S. :T"eoretical Ad8a!ces i! Ge!eral Relati8it7 = i! 9. $OOLF editor Some Strangeness in the Proportion4 Addiso!D$esle7 Readi!5 MA ,13&. 9UME ). A Treatise of %uman /ature4 )o8er Pu-licatio!s Ne# Hor6 (&&.N An En3uiry oncerning %uman Understanding4 edited -7 T. Ieauc"a%+ O4ford U!i8ersit7 Press O4ford ,111. ;ANT I. Griti& der Reinen *ernunft4 "eraus5e5e-e! 8o! G. 9arte!stei! Leo+old Eoss. Lei+*i5 ,3'3. ;OU$N S. LEE J. LEE T. MOON T. a!d O9 P. Asymptotically Static Universe4 i! "tt+:>>ar4i8.or5>PS@cac"e>ar4i8>+df>,,&.>,,&..(/,'8(.+df A(.>&.>(&,,B. PLANC; M. :Qur T"eorie des Geset*es der E!er5ie8erteilu!5 i% Nor%als+e6tru% = *erhandlungen der 0eutschen Physi&alischen "esellschaft K,1&&L *: (.0. RAO H. An Introduction to Thermodynamics4 U!i8ersit7 Press 97dera-ad (&&/. RHNASIE$ICQ R. :Ne#to!Gs Eie#s o! S+ace Ti%e a!d Motio! = The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy >$all AB99 Edition? Ed#ard N. Qalta Ked.L "tt+:>>+lato.sta!ford.edu>arc"i8es>fall(&,,>e!tries>!e#to!Dst%> A,'>&1>,(B. SC9Rc)INGER E. :T"e Prese!t Situatio! of Pua!tu% Mec"a!ics: A Tra!slatio! of Sc"radi!5erMs UCat Parado4 Pa+er M= tra!s. -7 J. Tri%%er i! Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society ,(/ K,13&L .(.D ..3. S;LAR L. :P"iloso+"7 of Statistical Mec"a!ics = i! E. QALTA Ked.L The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy >Summer ABB; Edition? o!li!e +u-licatio! "tt+:>>+lato.sta!ford.edu>arc"i8es>su%(&&1>e!tries>stat+"7sD stat%ec" A&/>&'>(&&1B.

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