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Taylor,
was an American mechanical engineer who sought to improve industrial efficiency. He is
regarded as the father of scientific management, and was one of the first management
consultants.[1]
Taylor was one of the intellectual leaders of the Efficiency Movement and his ideas, broadly
conceived, were highly influential in the Progressive Era.
Biography
Taylor was born in 1856 to a wealthy Quaker family in Germantown, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania. Taylor's ancestor, Samuel Taylor, settled in Burlington, New Jersey, in 1677.
Taylor's father, Franklin Taylor, a Princeton educated lawyer, built his wealth on mortgages.[2]
Taylor's mother, Emily Annette Taylor (née Winslow) was an ardent abolitionist and a coworker
with Lucretia Mott. Educated early by his mother, Taylor studied for two years in France and
Germany and traveled Europe for eighteen months.[3] In 1872, he entered Phillips Exeter
Academy in Exeter, New Hampshire.
Upon graduation, Taylor was accepted at Harvard Law. However, due to rapidly deteriorating
eyesight, Taylor had to consider an alternative career. After the depression of 1873, Taylor
became an industrial apprentice patternmaker, gaining shop-floor experience at a pump-
manufacturing company Enterprise Hydraulic Works, Philadelphia. Taylor's career progressed in
1878 when he became a machine shop laborer at Midvale Steel Works. Taylor was promoted to
gang-boss, foreman, research director, and finally, chief engineer at Midvale. Taylor took night
study at Stevens Institute of Technology and in 1883 obtained a degree in Mechanical
Engineering through a highly unusual, for the time, series of correspondence courses.[4] While at
Stevens Institute of Technology, Taylor was a Brother of the Gamma Chapter of Theta Xi. On
May 3, 1884, he married Louise M. Spooner of Philadelphia.
From 1890 until 1893 Taylor worked as a general manager and a consulting engineer to
management for Manufacturing Investment Company, Philadelphia, a company that operated
large paper mills in Maine and Wisconsin. In 1893, Taylor opened an independent consulting
practice in Philadelphia. His business card read "Systematizing Shop Management and
Manufacturing Costs a Specialty". In 1898, Taylor joined Bethlehem Steel, where he, Maunsel
White, and a team of assistants developed high speed steel. For his process of treating high speed
tool steels he received a personal gold medal at the Paris exposition in 1900, and was awarded
the Elliott Cresson Medal that same year by the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia. Taylor was
forced to leave Bethlehem Steel in 1901 after antagonisms with other managers. In 1901,
Frederick and Louise Taylor adopted three orphans Kempton, Robert and Elizabeth.
On October 19, 1906, Taylor was awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Science by the
University of Pennsylvania.[5] Taylor eventually became a professor at the Tuck School of
Business at Dartmouth College.[6] Late winter of 1915 Taylor caught pneumonia and one day
after his fifty-ninth birthday, on March 21, he died. He was buried in West Laurel Hill Cemetery,
in Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania.
Work
Taylor was a mechanical engineer who sought to improve industrial efficiency. Taylor is
regarded as the father of scientific management, and was one of the first management consultants
and director of a famous firm. In Peter Drucker's description,
Frederick W. Taylor was the first man in recorded history who deemed work deserving of systematic
observation and study. On Taylor's 'scientific management' rests, above all, the tremendous surge of
affluence in the last seventy-five years which has lifted the working masses in the developed countries
well above any level recorded before, even for the well-to-do. Taylor, though the Isaac Newton (or
perhaps the Archimedes) of the science of work, laid only first foundations, however. Not much has been
added to them since - even though he has been dead all of sixty years.[7]
Taylor was also an accomplished tennis player, who won the first doubles tournament in the
1881 U.S. National Championships, the precursor of the U.S. Open, with Clarence Clark.[8]
[edit] Scientific management
Taylor believed that the industrial management of his day was amateurish, that management
could be formulated as an academic discipline, and that the best results would come from the
partnership between a trained and qualified management and a cooperative and innovative
workforce. Each side needed the other, and there was no need for trade unions.
Future U.S. Supreme Court justice Louis Brandeis coined the term scientific management in the
course of his argument for the Eastern Rate Case before the Interstate Commerce Commission in
1910. Brandeis debated that railroads, when governed according to the principles of Taylor, did
not need to raise rates to increase wages. Taylor used Brandeis's term in the title of his
monograph The Principles of Scientific Management, published in 1911. The Eastern Rate Case
propelled Taylor's ideas to the forefront of the management agenda. Taylor wrote to Brandeis "I
have rarely seen a new movement started with such great momentum as you have given this
one." Taylor's approach is also often referred to, as Taylor's Principles, or frequently
disparagingly, as Taylorism. Taylor's scientific management consisted of four principles:
1. Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific
study of the tasks.
2. Scientifically select, train, and develop each employee rather than passively
leaving them to train themselves.
3. Provide "Detailed instruction and supervision of each worker in the
performance of that worker's discrete task" (Montgomery 1997: 250).
4. Divide work nearly equally between managers and workers, so that the
managers apply scientific management principles to planning the work and
the workers actually perform the tasks.
[edit] France
In France, Le Chatelier translated Taylor's work and introduced scientific management
throughout government owned plants during World War I. This influenced the French theorist
Henri Fayol, whose 1916 Administration Industrielle et Générale emphasized organizational
structure in management. In the classic General and Industrial Management Fayol wrote that
"Taylor's approach differs from the one we have outlined in that he examines the firm from the
"bottom up." he starts with the most elemental units of activity – the workers' actions – then
studies the effects of their actions on productivity, devises new methods for making them more
efficient, and applies what he learns at lower levels to the hierarchy..."[15] He suggests that Taylor
has staff analysts and advisors working with individuals at lower levels of the organization to
identify the ways to improve efficiency. According to Fayol, the approach results in a "negation
of the principle of unity of command."[16] Fayol criticized Taylor's functional management in this
way: In Shop Management, Taylor said[17] « ... the most marked outward characteristics of
functional management lies in the fact that each workman, instead of coming in direct contact
with the management at one point only, ... receives his daily orders and help from eight different
bosses... these eight were (1) route clerks, (2) instruction card men, (3) cost and time clerks, (4)
gang bosses, (5) speed bosses, (6) inspectors, (7) repair bosses, and the (8) shop
disciplinarian. »[17] This, Fayol said, was an unworkable situation, and that Taylor must have
somehow reconciled the dichotomy in some way not described in Taylor's works.
[edit] Switzerland
In Switzerland, the American Edward Albert Filene established the International Management
Institute to spread information about management techniques.
[edit] USSR
In the USSR, Lenin was very impressed by Taylorism, which he and Stalin sought to incorporate
into Soviet manufacturing. Taylorism and the mass production methods of Henry Ford thus
became highly influential during the early years of the Soviet Union. Nevertheless "[...]
Frederick Taylor's methods have never really taken root in the Soviet Union.".[18] The
voluntaristic approach of the Stakhanovite movement in the 1930s of setting individual records
was diametrically opposed to Taylor's systematic approach and proved to be counter-productive.
[19]
The stop-and-go of the production process - workers having nothing to do at the beginning of
a month and 'storming' during illegal extra shifts at the end of the month - which prevailed even
in the 1980s had nothing to do with the successfully taylorized plants e.g. of Toyota which are
characterized by continuous production processes (heijunka) which are continuously improved
(kaizen).[20]
"The easy availability of replacement labor, which allowed Taylor to choose only 'first-class
men,' was an important condition for his system's success."[21] The situation in the Soviet Union
was very different. "Because work is so unrythmic, the rational manager will hire more workers
than he would need if supplies were even in order to have enough for storming. Because of the
continuing labor shortage, managers are happy to pay needed workers more than the norm, either
by issuing false job orders, assigning them to higher skill grades than they deserve on merit
criteria, giving them 'loose' piece rates, or making what is supposed to be 'incentive' pay, premia
for good work, effectively part of the normal wage. As Mary Mc Auley has suggested under
these circumstances piece rates are not an incentive wage, but a way of justifying giving workers
whatever they 'should' be getting, no matter what their pay is supposed to be according to the
official norms."[22]
Taylor and his theories are also referenced (and put to practice) in the 1921 dystopian novel We
by Yevgeny Zamyatin.