ABSTRACT

An abstract is a brief summary of a research article, thesis, review, conference proceeding or any indepth analysis of a particular subject or discipline, and is often used to help the reader quickly ascertain the paper's purpose.[1] When used, an abstract always appears at the beginning of a manuscript or typescript, acting as the point-of-entry for any given academic paper or patent application. Abstracting and indexing services for various academic disciplines are aimed at compiling a body of literature for that particular subject Structure An academic abstract typically outlines four elements relevant to the completed work: The research focus (i.e. statement of the problem(s)/research issue(s) addressed); The research methods used (experimental research, case studies, questionnaires, etc.); The results/findings of the research; and The main conclusions and recommendations It may also contain brief references,[4] although some publications' standard style omits references from the abstract, reserving them for the article body (which, by definition, treats the same topics but in more depth). Abstract length varies by discipline and publisher requirements. Typical length ranges from 100 to 500 words, but very rarely more than a page and occasionally just a few words. Purpose and limitations Academic literature uses the abstract to succinctly communicate complex research. An abstract may act as a stand-alone entity instead of a full paper. As such, an abstract is used by many organizations as the basis for selecting research that is proposed for presentation in the form of a poster, platform/oral presentation or workshop presentation at an academic conference Abstract Types 1. Informative 2. Descriptive 3. Graphical 4. Quality assessment

BROCHURE
A brochure (also referred to as a pamphlet) is a leaflet. Brochures are advertising pieces mainly used to introduce a company or organization, and inform about products and/or services to a target audience. Brochures are distributed by mail, handed personally or placed in brochure racks.They are usually present near tourist attractions and hotels. The most common types of single- sheet brochures are the bi-fold (a single sheet printed on both sides and folded into halves) and the tri-fold (the same, but folded into thirds). A bi-fold brochure results in four panels (two panels on each side), while a tri-fold results in six panels (three panels on each side). Other folder arrangements are possible: the accordion or "Z-fold" method, the "C-fold" method, etc. Larger sheets, such as those with detailed maps or expansive photo spreads, are folded into four, five, or six panels. When two card fascia are affixed to the outer panels of the z- folded brochure, it is commonly known as a "Z-card".[1] Booklet brochures are made of multiple sheets most often saddle stitched (stapled on the creased edge) or "perfect bound" like a paperback

book, and result in eight panels or more. Brochures are often printed using four color process on thick gloss paper to give an initial impression of quality. Businesses may turn out small quantities of brochures on a computer printer or on a digital printer, but offset printing turns out higher quantities for less cost. Compared with a flyer or a handbill, a brochure usually uses higher-quality paper, more color, and is folded.

BUSINESS LETTER
A business letter is usually used when writing from one company to another, or for correspondence between such organizations and their customers, clients and other external parties. The overall style of letter will depend on the relationship between the parties concerned. There are many reasons to write a business letter. It could be to request direct information or action from another party, to order supplies from a supplier, to identify a mistake that was committed, to reply directly to a request, to apologize for a wrong or simply to convey goodwill. Even today, the business letter is still very useful because it produces a permanent record, is confidential, formal and delivers persuasive, well- considered messages. General Format There are two main styles of business letters: 1. Full block style : Align all elements on the left margin. 2. Modified block style with other elements on the left page margin. Margins Side, top and bottom margins should be 1 to 1 1/4 inches (the typical default in programs such as Microsoft Word). One-page letters and memos should be vertically centered. Font Formatting No special character or font formatting is used, except for the subject line, which is usually underlined. Punctuation The salutation/greeting is generally followed by a comma in British style, whereas in the United States a colon is used. The valediction/closing is followed by a comma. Example Template [SENDER'S ADDRESS] (optional) [SENDER'S PHONE] (optional) [THE SENDER'S E-MAIL] [DATE] [RECIPIENT W/O PREFIX] [RECIPIENT'S COMPANY] [RECIPIENT'S ADDRESS] (Optional) Attention [DEPARTMENT/ PERSON], Dear [RECIPIENT W/ PREFIX]: [First Salutation then Subject in Business letters] [CONTENT.] [CONTENT.] [COMPLIMENTARY CLOSING (Sincerely, Respectfully, Regards, etc.)], [SENDER] [SENDER'S TITLE+ Enclosures (*face+) Indentation Formats Business letters conform to generally one of six indentation formats: Standard, Open, Block, Semi-Block, Modified Block, and Modified Semi- Block. Put simply, "Semi-" means that the first lines of paragraphs are indented; "Modified" means that the sender's address, date, and closing are significantly indented. Standard In a standard format letter, (1) uses a colon after the salutation, (2) uses a comma after the complimentary closing. Open In an open format letter, (1) uses no punctuation after the salutation, (2) uses no punctuation after the complimentary closing. Block In a Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, (2) paragraphs are not indented. (3) no leaving of spaces Semi-Block In a Semi-Block format letter (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, (2) paragraphs are indented. (3) paragraphs are separated by double or triple spacing. Modified Block In a Modified Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, except for the author's address, date, and closing; and (2) paragraphs are not indented. The author's address, date, and closing begin at the center point. Modified Semi-Block In a Modified Semi-Block format letter, (1) all text is aligned to the left margin, and closing; and (2) paragraphs are indented. The author's address, date, and closing are usually indented in same position

GRAPHIC AIDS
Content Think about what information to use. Be selective. Organize the material into its main points. Put text or graphics on a visual aid to enhance what you say in your presentation and to help guide the audience through your major points. Continuity All slides, transparencies, posters, or Web pages in one presentation must have the same graphic elements (e.g., font, color scheme, and background art). Changing design or style during a presentation causes a jarring effect upon the viewers. Text size Readability is the key. Letters should be huge. Make type 26, 36 or even 48 point type. Text font Use one font per visual aid. Use a plain, easy to read font. Helvetica, Univers, & Arial are recommended. Software programs provide many fonts, but very few of them are readable on a visual aid. Dont use them just because they are available! Sans serif fonts (those without the little lines at the end of the letters) are generally easier to read on visual aids. Text style Use italic type for titles of complete works only. Never underline text. On Web pages, text hyperlinks are automatically underlined, so underlining any other text causes confusion. Avoid using all CAPS. You are not screaming at your audience. Use boldface type or a different color type or to indicate emphasis. Amount of text on one visual aid Fewer than 25 words per visual aid The rule of thumb is 4 to 6 lines of text per visual aid. Use 4 to 6 words per line. The text must be large enough to read from the back of the room. Avoid putting so much information on your visual aid that your audience is busy reading your poster or transparency and not listening to you speak. Maintain wide margins. Text or graphics very close to the bottom of the visual aid may not be visible from the back of the room. Graphics, colors and animations Contrast is vital. Use dark text on a light background or vice versa. Choose colors that coordinate and complement each other. Add appropriate background texture or design. Do not use more than 2 graphics on one visual aid. Make sure graphics and colors are appropriate to the topic. If using animation make sure it is appropriate. Too much animation is distracting and diminish the effectiveness of the presentation.. Proofreading and editing Make bulleted text parallel in structure (e.g., all bullets start with verbs or all bullets are subject- verb). Be consistent with verb tenses (e.g., all in present or all in past). Use consistent punctuation. Doublecheck data

HANDBOOK
A handbook is a type of reference work, or other collection of instructions, that is intended to provide read reference [citation needed]. A handbook is a treatise on a special subject. Nowadays it is often a simple but all-embracing treatment, containing concise information and being small enough to be held in the hand. A handbook is sometimes referred to as a vade mecum (Latin, "go with me") or pocket reference that is intended to be carried at all times. It may also be referred to as an enchiridion.

INSTRUCTIONAL MANUALS
An owner's manual (also called an instruction manual) is an instructional book or booklet that is supplied with almost all technologically advanced consumer products such as vehicles, home appliances and computer peripherals. Information contained in the owner's manual typically includes: Safety instructions; for liability reasons these can be extensive, often including warnings against doing things that no intelligent person would consider doing. Assembly instructions; for products that arrive in pieces

for easier shipping. Installation instructions; for productions that need to be installed in a home or workplace. Setup instructions; for devices that keep track of time or which maintain user accessible state. Normal usage instructions. Programming instructions; for microprocessor controlled products such as VCRs, programmable calculators, and synthesizers. Maintenance instructions. Troubleshooting instructions; for when the product does not work as expected. Service locations; for when the product requires repair by a factory authorized technician. Regulatory code compliance information; for example with respect to safety or electromagnetic interference. Product technical specifications. Warranty information; sometimes provided as a separate sheet.

MEMORANDA
A memorandum (abbrev.: memo) was from the Latin verbal phrase memorandum est, the gerundive form of the verb memoro, "to mention, call to mind, recount, relate",[1] which means "It must be remembered (that) ...". It is therefore a note, document or other communication that helps the memory by recording events or observations on a topic, such as may be used in a business office. The plural form of the Latin noun memorandum so derived is properly memoranda, but if the word is deemed to have become a word of the English language, the plural memorandums, abbreviated to memos, may be used. (See also Agenda, Corrigenda, Addenda)

MONOGRAPH
A monograph is a specialist work of writing on a single subject or an aspect of a subject, usually by a single author. The term 'monographia' is derived from Greek (mono, single+grapho, to write), meaning 'writing on a single subject'. Unlike a textbook, which surveys the state of knowledge in a field, the main purpose of a monograph is to present primary research and original scholarship. This research is presented at length, distinguishing a monograph from an article. For these reasons, publication of a monograph is commonly regarded as vital for career progression in many academic disciplines. Intended for other researchers and bought primarily by libraries, monographs are generally published as individual volumes in a short print run.[1][dead link] Librarians consider a monograph to be a nonserial publication complete in one volume (book) or a finite number of volumes. Thus it differs from a serial publication such as a magazine, journal, or newspaper.[2] Book publishers use the term "artist monograph" to indicate books consisting of reproductions of works of art by a single artist, as opposed to surveys of art from multiple artists. Usage Taxonomy (systematic biology) In biological taxonomy a monograph is a comprehensive treatment of a taxon. Monographs typically revise all known species within a group, add any newly discovered species, and collect and synthesize available information on the ecological associations, geographic distributions, and morphological variations within the group. Example: Lent & Wygodzinsky, 1979, Revision of the Triatominae (Hemiptera, Reduviidae), and their significance as vectors of Chagas' disease. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History v. 163, article 3, pp. 125-520.[3] The first ever monograph of a plant taxon was Robert Morison's 1672 Plantarum Umbelliferarum Distributio Nova, a treatment of the Apiaceae.

ORAL REPORTS

Oral reports are often a form of advertising--either internally, within a company, where people from different departments see projects displayed by their creators, or externally, where a company presents something to people from outside the company in an attempt to sell it. Oral presentations are often an opportunity for people who read your reportssenior engineers, managers, sales staffto see who you are and how you work. This means they're as interested in you, and how you handle yourself, as in the material you present. Therefore, present a problem and a solution with just enough technical detail to make your point. What you want to do is let these people know how competent you are, and what sorts of work you do. You will be showing them your thinking style, your working patterns, and your problemsolving ability. With this in mind, try to put on the most professional, persuasive, confident display of your project that you can.

POLICY
A policy is a principle or rule to guide decisions and achieve rational outcomes. A policy is a statement of intent, and is implemented as a procedure[1] or protocol. Policies are generally adopted by the Board of or senior governance body within an organization whereas procedures or protocols would be developed and adopted by senior executive officers. Policies can assist in both subjective and objective decision making. Policies to assist in subjective decision making would usually assist senior management with decisions that must consider the relative merits of a number of factors before making decisions and as a result are often hard to objectively test e.g. work-life balance policy. In contrast policies to assist in objective decision making are usually operational in nature and can be objectively tested e.g. password policy Content A purpose statement, outlining why the organization is issuing the policy, and what its desired effect or outcome of the policy should be. An applicability and scope statement, describing who the policy affects and which actions are impacted by the policy. The applicability and scope may expressly exclude certain people, organizations, or actions from the policy requirements. Applicability and scope is used to focus the policy on only the desired targets, and avoid unintended consequences where possible. An effective date which indicates when the policy comes into force. Retroactive policies are rare, but can be found. A responsibilities section, indicating which parties and organizations are responsible for carrying out individual policy statements. Many policies may require the establishment of some ongoing function or action. For example, a purchasing policy might specify that a purchasing office be created to process purchase requests, and that this office would be responsible for ongoing actions. Responsibilities often include identification of any relevant oversight and/or governance structures. Policy statements indicating the specific regulations, requirements, or modifications to organizational behavior that the policy is creating. Policy statements are extremely diverse depending on the organization and intent, and may take almost any form. Some policies may contain additional sections, including: Background, indicating any reasons, history, and intent that led to the creation of the policy, which may be listed as motivating factors. This information is often quite valuable when policies must be evaluated or used in ambiguous situations, just as the intent of a law can be useful to a court when deciding a case that

involves that law. Definitions, providing clear and unambiguous definitions for terms and concepts found in the policy document

PROPOSAL
A business proposal is a written offer from a seller to a prospective buyer. Business proposals are often a key step in the complex sales process i.e., whenever a buyer considers more than price in a purchase.[1] A proposal puts the buyer's requirements in a context that favors the sellers products and services, and educates the buyer about the capabilities of the seller in satisfying their needs. A successful proposal results in a sale, where both parties get what they want, a win-win situation.[2] The professional organization devoted to the advancement of the art and science of proposal development is The Association of Proposal Management Professionals .[3] Types of Proposals There are three distinct categories of business proposals: 1.Formally Solicited 2.Informally Solicited 3.Unsolicited 1. Rf qoutation 2.bid 3info Components Formally solicited proposal 1. Requirements Matrix, which matches customer requirements with the paragraph and page numbers of where those requirements are addressed in the proposal 2. Executive Summary, which outlines the primary benefits of the vendors's solutions to the customer's requirements 3. Technical Volume, which demonstrates how each requirement will be met 4. Management Volume, which describes how the program will be managed 5. Cost Volume, which provides all costing data, as well as implementation plans and schedules[1] Informally solicited business proposal 1. A description of the seller's capabilities or products 2. A discussion of key issues 3. A description of the buyer's specifications and how they will be met 4. The cost of the offering 5. A schedule for delivery of the products or services 6. Proof of prior experience i.e. Testimonials from previous customers, Descriptions of previous projects The process of proposal management Proposal management is an inherently collaborative process. It often consists of the following basic roles and responsibilities: Creator - responsible for creating and editing content. Editor - responsible for tuning the content message and the style of delivery, including translation and localization. Publisher - responsible for releasing the content for use. Administrator - responsible for managing access permissions to documents and files, usually accomplished by assigning access rights to user groups or roles. Consumer or viewer - the person who reads or otherwise takes in content after it is published or shared.

REPORT
Short report Title page Introduction Discussion Recommendations References A report is a systematic, well organised document which defines and analyses a subject or problem, and which may include: the record of a sequence of events interpretation of the significance of these events

or facts evaluation of the facts or results of research presented discussion of the outcomes of a decision or course of action conclusions recommendations Reports must always be: accurate concise clear well structured Various courses require you to write reports (as opposed to essays), notably business and scientific or technical subjects. There are, however, different interpretations of what a report should look like, so it is important that you check with your course tutors and course documentation as to the report format and content expected. In addition, there is at times some blurring between what essays, reports and assignments are, so again check within your department. Much of the advice given in Guide 1.01, How to write an essay, also applies to reports. Initial preparation Always analyse your brief carefully, making sure that you fully understand the topic, question or case, that you know what the purpose of the report is, and who it is being written for. The clearer these things are in your mind, the easier the report will be to write and the more effective it will be. When you are researching, planning and eventually writing, continually ask yourself what the main purpose of the report is, what your objective is in writing it: is it to inform; to argue; to persuade; to evaluate? What does your reader want to see in the report and what will they do with it? Top of page Planning and research You first need to decide your basic framework. With your main topic or question as a central focus, jot down your initial thoughts and start to group these together. You may find the Mind Mapping technique useful: see Guide 2.11. Start to divide key ideas from subsidiary information, and continually ask yourself if everything is relevant; if it isnt, then delete it. From your prior knowledge (from reading and lectures), you should be able to put together a fairly basic structure. You will now be able to plan your research. Ask yourself what you need to find out, maybe in the form of questions that need to be answered, then approach your reading from this starting point. If you have specific information to look for, it will make your reading easier and less time consuming. (See Guide 2.02 Reading techniques). Try not to gather too much information. Again, keeping your topic or question in mind, reject anything which is not 100% relevant. When youre making notes, always try to summarise the main points as concisely as possible. Remember to make a comprehensive record of any sources consulted in order to be able to correctly reference these. Make a record of the research methods you used. Top of page Report structure Title page : Acknowledgements : Contents page : Terms of reference : Procedure : Materials and methods : Summary : Introduction : Main body : Results : Conclusion : Recommendations : Appendices : References : Bibliography : Glossary

SPECIFICATION
"Specification" redirects here. For other uses, see Specification (disambiguation). A specification (often abbreviated as spec) may refer to an explicit set of requirements to be satisfied by a material, design, product, or service.[1] Should a material, product, or service fail to meet one or more of the applicable specifications, it may be referred to as being out of specification;[2] the abbreviation OOS may also be used.[3] In casual usage, underspec or overspec are used when something is worse or better than specified (compare overengineering), though in general (such as for sizes) there is only a notion of "in spec" or "out of spec", not "better" or "worse". A specification is a type of technical standard. Guidance and content Sometimes a guide or a standing operating procedure is available to help write and format a good specification.[5][6][7][8] A specification might include: Descriptive title, number, identifier, etc. of the specification Date of last effective revision and revision designation A logo or trademark to

indicate the document copyright, ownership and origin[9] Table of Contents (TOC), if the document is long Person, office, or agency responsible for questions on the specification, updates, and deviations. The significance, scope or importance of the specification and its intended use. Terminology, definitions and abbreviations to clarify the meanings of the specification[10] [11] Test methods for measuring all specified characteristics Material requirements: physical, mechanical, electrical, chemical, etc. Targets and tolerances. Acceptance testing, including Performance testing requirements. Targets and tolerances. Drawings, photographs, or technical illustrations Workmanship Certifications required. Safety considerations and requirements Environmental considerations and requirements Quality control requirements, acceptance sampling, inspections, acceptance criteria Person, office, or agency responsible for enforcement of the specification. Completion and delivery. Provisions for rejection, reinspection, rehearing, corrective measures References and citations for which any instructions in the content maybe required to fulfill the traceability and clarity of the document[11][12][13] Signatures of approval, if necessary [14] Change record to summarize the chronological development, revision and completion if the document is to be circulated internally[15] Annexes and Appendices that are expand details, add clarification, or offer options

JOURNALS
The word "journal" has been derived from the French word "jour". Jour means day. So journal means daily. Transactions are recorded daily in journal and hence it has been named so. It is a book of original entry to record chronologically (i.e. in order of date) and in detail the various transactions of a trader. It is also known Day Book because it contains the account of every day's transactions. Characteristics of Journal: Journal has the following features: 1. Journal is the first successful step of the double entry system. A transaction is recorded first of all in the journal. So the journal is called the book of original entry. 2. A transaction is recorded on the same day it takes place. So, journal is called Day Book. 3. Transactions are recorded chronologically, So, journal is called chronological book 4. For each transaction the names of the two concerned accounts indicating which is debited and which is credited, are clearly written in two consecutive lines. This makes ledger-posting easy. That is why journal is called "Assistant to Ledger" or "subsidiary book" 5. Narration is written below each entry. 6. The amount is written in the last two columns - debit amount in debit column and credit amount in credit column. Advantages of Journal: The following arte the advantages of journal: 1. Each transaction is recorded as soon as it takes place. So there is no possibility of any transaction being omitted from the books of account. 2. Since the transactions are kept recorded in journal, chronologically with narration, it can be easily ascertained when and why a transaction has taken place. 3. For each and every transaction which of the two concerned accounts will be debited and which account credited, are clearly written in journal. So, there is no possibility of committing any mistake in writing the ledger. 4. Since all the debits of transaction are recorded in journal, it is not necessary to repeat them in ledger. As a result ledger is kept tidy and brief. 5. Journal shows the complete story of a transaction in one entry. 6. Any mistake in ledger can be easily detected with the help of journal. Objective of an Entry: While recording transactions in journal the following two objects must be aimed at: 1. That each entry in the journal should be so clear that at any future time we may, without the aid of memory, perceive the exact nature of the transactions. 2. That each transaction should be so classified that we may easily obtain the aggregate

effect of such transactions at the end of a certain period. Narration of an Entry: It is the remark or explanation put below each entry in the journal. The journal is a book of original entry and all possible details have to recorded in connection with each and every transaction entered there. The details are laid out in the form of a remark at the end of each journal entry, which is called narration. Form of Journal:Date (1) Particulars (2) L.F. (3) Dr. Amount Cr. Amount Column (1) is meant for writing the date of the transaction. Column (2) is used for recording the names of the two accounts affected by transactions. Column (3) is meant for noting the number of the page of the ledger on on which the particular account appears in that book. Column (4) shows the amount to be debited to the account named. Column (5) shows the amount to be credited to the account stated. Rules of Journalising: The act of recording transactions in journal is called journalising. The rules may be summarised as follows: 1. Use two separate lines for writing the names of the two accounts concerned in each transaction. 2. write the name of the debtor or account to be debited in the first line and the name of the creditor or the account to be credited in the next line 3. Write the name of the account to be debited close to the line starting the particulars column and that of the account to be credited at a short distance from this line. 4. Use "Dr" after each debit item and "To" before each credit. The term "Cr." after a credit item is unnecessary, as if one account is debtor, the other must be creditor. 5. To separate one entry from another a line is drawn below every entry to cover particulars column only. The line does not extend to amount column.

CONTRACT
A contract is an agreement having a lawful object entered into voluntarily by two or more parties, each of whom intends to create one or more legal obligations between them. The elements of a contract are "offer" and "acceptance" by "competent persons" having legal capacity who exchange "consideration" to create "mutuality of obligation." Elements At common law, the elements of a contract are offer, acceptance, intention to create legal relations, and consideration. Formation In addition to the elements of a contract: A party must have capacity to contract The purpose of the contract must be lawful The form of the contract must be legal The parties must intend to create a legal relationship The parties must consent Affirmative defenses Vitiating factors constituting defences to purported contract formation include: Mistake (such as non est factum) Incapacity, including mental incompetence and infancy/minority Duress Undue influence Unconscionability Misrepresentation or fraud Frustration of purpose