~~

Civil Aviation Radionavigation Requirements

Aircraft navigation is the process of piloting aircraft from one place to another and includes position determination, establishment of course and distance to the desired destination, and determination of deviation from the desired track. Requirements for navigation performance are dictated by the phase of flight, the aircraft proximity to terrain and other aircraft, and the air traffic control process. Navigation may be achieved through the use of visual procedures during Visual Flight Rules (VFR) operations and may use sophisticated navigation avionics. Navigation avionics are required when operating under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) or VFR above Flight Level (FL) 180*. * FL: 100 ft Aircraft separation criteria, established by the FAA, take into account limitations of the navigation service, communication and surveillance available and air traffic controls intervention capabilities.
~Federal Radionavigation System 2001, DoD and DoT, 2001

Navigation system shall provide

In conjunction with other flight instruments, the navigation system shall provide information to the pilot and aircraft systems for performance of the following functions: Continuous determination of aircraft position. Continuous track deviation guidance. Continuous determination of along-track distance. Position reporting (manual or automatic). Continuous monitoring of navigation system performance. Manual or automatic flight.
The navigation system must be compatible with the overall ATC system that includes the performance requirements for communications and surveillance.

Air Navigation Phases of Flight and Current Accuracy Requirements

The phases of navigation are en route (including oceanic/remote areas), terminal, approach/landing, and surface. The typical system use accuracy and route widths for all phases of flight are summarized in Table. These route widths are based upon present capacities, separation requirements, and obstruction requirements.

En Route Phase
This phase is the portion of flight after departure and prior to the transition to approach. In addition, to facilitate aircraft navigation in this phase, the navigation system used must be operationally compatible with the system used for approach and landing. Altimeter information is also required for safe and efficient flight. The current separation requirement is 1,000 feet below FL 290, and 2,000 feet at and above FL 290. In order to permit the 1,000-foot vertical separation below FL 290, the root sum square (RSS) altitude keeping requirement is +350 feet (99.7 percent or 3 sigma). This error is comprised of +250 feet (99.7 percent or 3-sigma) aircraft altimetry system error, of which the altimeter error is limited to +125 feet by Technical Standard Order (TSO) C-10B below FL 290.

Oceanic/Remote Areas En Route

This subphase covers operations over the ocean and remote areas generally characterized by low traffic density and no independent surveillance coverage.

Domestic En Route
Operations in both the high and low altitude routes are typically characterized by moderate to high traffic densities. This necessitates narrower route widths than in the oceanic en route subphase. Independent surveillance is generally available to assist in ground monitoring of aircraft position Area navigation (RNAV) is not restricted to fixed air routes. Under VFR, area navigation is conducted direct between the origin and destination. Under IFR, area navigation can be used at any altitude; however, radar monitoring is required for operations below flight level 450. When aircraft are given an off-route clearance, separation assurance is provided by ATC.

Remote Areas
Remote areas are special geographic or environmental areas characterized by low traffic density and terrain where it has been difficult to cost-effectively implement comprehensive navigation coverage. Typical of remote areas are mountainous terrain, offshore areas, and large portions of the state of Alaska. Thus the minimum route width varies and can be greater than 10 nm. GPS and INS are approved for operations in remote areas.

Terminal Phase
Operation in the terminal area is typically characterized by moderate to high traffic densities, converging routes, and transitions in flight altitudes. Narrow route widths are required. Independent surveillance is generally available to assist in ground monitoring of aircraft position. Terminal procedures provide transition from the en route to the approach phase of flight. Surveillance facilities support controller vectoring of aircraft to intercept precision approach services in higher density terminal areas. As RNAV-equipped aircraft can support more precise navigation, new terminal procedures have been developed to support these operations.

Departure
Departure begins after reaching the departure end of the runway and continues until interception of the en route airway structure or until air traffic terminal services make a handoff to en route air traffic services.

Arrival
Arrival begins when the aircraft leaves the en route altitude and ends upon reaching the final approach fix (FAF) prior to landing.

Takeoff, Approach and Landing Phases

Altimetry accuracy requirements are established in accordance with FAR 91.411 and are the same as those for the en route and terminal phases. The minimum performance criteria currently established to meet requirements for the approach and landing phases of navigation vary between precision and nonprecision approaches.

Takeoff
Takeoff begins with initial roll and ends at the departure end of the runway.

Approach
The Basic classifications of approach include: Nonprecision Approach: Nonprecision approach aids provide a landing aircraft with horizontal position information (2-dimensional approaches). Approach with Vertical Guidance: This is a new type of operation that was adopted by ICAO in May of 2000. This approach classification allows the use of a stabilized descent, using vertical guidance, without the accuracy required for a traditional precision approach procedure. The U.S. has developed criteria for lateral/vertical navigation (LNAV/VNAV) approach procedures that meet this approach classification. The LNAV/VNAV approach provides guidance in both the lateral and vertical planes. Precision Approach: Precision approach aids provide landing aircraft with vertical and horizontal guidance and positioning information. Note: A missed approach procedure is conducted when a landing cannot be completed safely.

Nonprecision Approach (LNAV)

Nonprecision approaches are based on specific navigation systems. Minimum safe altitude, obstacle clearance area, visibility minimum, final approach segment area, etc., are all functions of the navigation accuracy available and other factors. The achieved capability for nonprecision approaches varies significantly, depending on the location of the navigation facility in relation to the fix location and type of navigation system used. VOR accuracy is based on the +4.5 degrees VOR system accuracy. The integrity time-to-alarm requirement for nonprecision approaches provides the pilot with either a warning or a removal of signal within 10 seconds of the occurrence of an out-of-tolerance condition.

Approach with Vertical Guidance (LNAV/VNAV Criteria)

The U.S. is developing RNAV approaches that provide benefits for aircraft with vertical navigation (VNAV). LNAV/VNAV approaches provide both lateral and vertical guidance for the approach. Some flight management systems (FMS) have this capability by incorporating lateral guidance and deviations and barometric aided (vertical) guidance and deviation information.

Precision Approach
A precision approach aid provides an aircraft with vertical and horizontal guidance and position information. The current worldwide standard systems for precision approach and landing are the Instrument Landing System (ILS), Microwave Landing System (MLS), Ground Based Augmentation Systems (GBAS), and Space Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS). International agreements have been made to achieve an all-weather landing capability through an evolutionary process, reducing landing weather minima on a stepby-step basis as technical capabilities and operational knowledge permit. ILS has an angular error characteristic and has both low frequency and highfrequency components. The 95 percent accuracy for ILS at a 200-foot decision height is 4.1 meters. The Category II and III accuracy requirement is being evaluated. Aircraft use a combination of the precision approach guidance from the ILS, MLS, GLS, and a radar altimeter to accomplish a Category III approach. Precision approach and landing systems must warn the pilot of an out-oftolerance condition during precision approaches by removing these signals from service. The response time for providing these warnings is six seconds for Category I and two seconds for Category II and III.

Landing
The landing phase begins at the final approach fix (FAF) and continues through touchdown and rollout. The final approach can be based on: Precise lateral and vertical positive course guidance/deviation information (precision approach). Lateral and vertical positive course guidance/deviation information derived from an area navigation system (e.g., LNAV/VNAV). Lateral course guidance/deviation information and minimum descent altitudes (i.e.,nonprecision approaches).

Electronic Navigation

Electrical Navigation
Loran-C Aeronautical Nondirectional Beacons VOR, VOR/DME, and TACAN ILS MLS GPS GPS Augmentations

Radio frequency, or RF, is a frequency or rate of oscillation within the range of about 3 Hz and 300 GHz.

Modulation methods

FM

AM

Four-Course Radio Range

Implemented early in the late 1920s 1500-watt transmitter operational frequency using 190 and 565 kHz. Morse code (N: -. / A: .-) A-N range provides the pilot with only bearing and course information. Impossible to determine which of the four legs Signal could easily be distorted by obstructions or disrupted by lightning induced static. Marker beacons are installed along the oncourse legs to determine the aircraft position.

Nondirectional Beacon
First installed in 1924 in U.S. Uniform and omnidiretional signal 190-540 kHz Receiver on the aircraft is called direction finder (DF) Loop-type antenna Manually operation Using magnetic compass and NDB receiver, the pilot can determine the aircrafts bearing from the beacon. En route navigation Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

NDB for ILS

NDBs are most commonly used as markers for an instrument landing system (ILS) approach and standard approaches. NDBs may designate the starting area for an ILS approach or a path to follow for a standard terminal arrival procedure, or STAR. In the United States, an NDB is often combined with the outer marker beacon in the ILS approach (called a Locator Outer Marker, or LOM); in Canada, low-powered NDBs have replaced marker beacons entirely.

Common adverse effects

Navigation using an ADF to track NDBs is subject to several common effects:
Night effect: radio waves can be reflected back by the ionosphere can cause fluctuations 30 to 60 nautical miles (approx. 54 to 108 km) from the transmitter, especially just before sunrise and just after sunset (more common on frequencies above 350 kHz) Terrain effect: high terrain like mountains and cliffs can reflect radio waves, giving erroneous readings; magnetic deposits can also cause erroneous readings Electrical effect: electrical storms, and sometimes also electrical interference (from a ground-based source or from a source within the aircraft) can cause the ADF needle to deflect towards the electrical source Shoreline effect: low-frequency radio waves will refract or bend near a shoreline, especially if they are close to parallel to it Bank effect: when the aircraft is banked, the needle reading will be offset

Rotatable Compass Card

The Rotatable Compass Card Indicator was a big step over the fixed-card indicator. The pilot can now rotate the compass card with the heading knob to display the aircrafts magnetic heading "straight up." Then the ADF needle will directly indicate the magnetic bearing to the NDB. For example, again the aircraft is on a 345 heading. The pilot manually rotates the ADF card to show a 345 heading as shown here. The magnetic bearing to the beacon now correctly shows as 060. Now, to track to the beacon simply turn the aircraft to a heading of 060ignoring any wind correction requirements for the moment ... just remember to rotate the compass card to the new aircraft heading of 060 after the turn.

Single-needle Radio Magnetic Indicator

The Single-Needle Radio Magnetic Indicator is the best of all worlds. The Radio Magnetic Indicator, as its name implies, is an instrument that combines radio and magnetic information to provide continuous heading, bearing, and radial information. It is an extremely simple indicator. The Indicators compass card is a directional gyro and so it rotates automatically as the aircraft turns. Thus it always accurately indicates the magnetic heading of the aircraft as well as the magnetic bearing to the beacon. Although it's a "hands-off" instrument, its compass card should be checked against the magnetic compass every fifteen minutes or so and adjusted with the heading knob to correct for any precession errors common to directional gyros. The face of the single-needle RMI is similar to that of the rotatable card ADF just shown. The ADF gauge on the C182 Nav Trainer panel is a single-needle Radio Magnetic Indicator. The illustration here includes the digital display added to the RMI which indicates the bearing to the station. The digital display is not a standard feature on an RMI. It was included here because precisely reading the RMI is such an integral part of the practice flights.

Dual-needle Radio Magnetic Indicator

The dual-needle RMI is similar to the single-needle RMI except that it has a second needle. The instrument here presents the same information as the two previous instances: aircraft heading is 345, and the magnetic bearing to the NDB is 060the yellow needle. The second needle, green here, typically points to a VOR station tuned in on the Navigation Receiverin this case, fly 303 to get to the VOR. The dual-needle indicator is particularly useful in fixing the location of an aircraft. The two lines of position appear right on the face of the gauge. Sophisticated RMIs show magnetic bearing to any two nav stations chosen by the pilot: ADF and VOR#1, ADF and VOR#2, or VOR#1 and VOR#2. Military pilots routinely navigate with an RMI and wonder why the rest of us fool around with a standard VOR indicator.

Airways
A bearing is a line passing through the station that points in a specific direction, such as 270 degrees (due West). NDB bearings provide a charted, consistent method for defining paths aircraft can fly. In this fashion, NDBs can, like VORs, define 'airways' in the sky.

Fixes
The ability to intercept fixes is a longused application of NDBs. A fix is, literally, a point in the sky. These fixes are computed by drawing lines through navigation stations until they intercept, creating a triangle with the fix as one vertex: Plotting fixes in this manner allows a pilot to determine his rough horizontal location. This usage is important in situations where other navigational equipment, such as VORs with distance measuring equipment (DME), have failed.

Visual Aural Range

In 1937, the Radio Development Section of the Bureau of Air Commerce demonstrated an improved radio range called the visual aural range (VAR) from A-N range Operated in very high frequency ~63MHz Like A-N range First operational VAR installed at New Jersey in 1944 Never gain wide acceptance

VHF Omnidirectional Range

First operational VOR installed in 1946 operated in 125 MHz. VOR also selected as the international civil navigation standard in 1949 by ICAO. 200 Watts Infinite number of navigation courses transmitted. Each VOR is assigned a frequency between 108.10 ~ 117.9 MHz Modulation with two signals : reference-phase signal (constant) and variable-phase signal (varying with azimuth) The reference 30 Hz signal is frequency modulated (FM) on a 9960 Hz sub-carrier. A second 30 Hz signal is derived from the electronic rotation of a directional antenna array 30 times a second. two 30 Hz signals are then compared to determine the phase angle between them. The phase angle is equal to the direction from the station to the airplane, in degrees from local magnetic north, and is called the "radial." At the magnetic north, two signals are in phase. The radial to be flown by the pilot is selected on the aircrafts VOR indicator using the omni bearing selector (OBS). Used for en route navigation (200miles) Terminal VORs used solely for instrument approach have effective power of 50 watts and are assigned a frequency between 108.1and 111.8MHz. (25 nm)

Accuracy
The predictable accuracy of the VOR system is 1.4. However, test data indicates that 99.94% of the time a VOR system has less than 0.35 of error. VOR systems are internally monitored so that it will shut down if the station error exceeds 1.0.[1] ARINC 711-10 January 30, 2002 states that receiver accuracy should be within 0.4 degrees with a statistical probability of 95% under various conditions. Any receiver compliant to this standard should meet or exceed these tolerances.

D-VOR (Doppler VOR) ground station, co-located with DME

Using a VOR
If a pilot wants to approach the VOR station from due east then the aircraft will have to fly due west to reach the station. The pilot will use the OBS to rotate the compass dial until the number 27 (270 degrees) aligns with the pointer (called the Primary Index) at the top of the dial. When the aircraft intercepts the 90-degree radial (due east of the VOR station) the needle will be centered and the To/From indicator will show "To". Notice that the pilot set the VOR to indicate the reciprocal; the aircraft will follow the 90-degree radial while the VOR indicates that the course "to" the VOR station is 270 degrees. This is called "proceeding inbound on the 090 radial." The pilot needs only to keep the needle centered to follow the course to the VOR station. If the needle drifts off-center the aircraft would be turned towards the needle until it is centered again. After the aircraft passes over the VOR station the To/From indicator will indicate "From" and the aircraft is then proceeding outbound on the 270 degree radial. The CDI needle may oscillate or go to full scale in the "cone of confusion" directly over the station but will recenter once the aircraft has flown a short distance beyond the station.

R V 315 radial

V 360 radial

R 45 radial V

R 270 radial V R R 225 radial 180 radial VOR

R 90 radial V R 135 radial

R: Reference signal V: Variable signal

V V

A and B received

A received No signal

B received

VOR A

VOR B

Reception Range vs. Altitude of VORs VOR Class Terminal (T) Low Altitude (L) High Altitude (H) Range nm 25 40 40 100 130 within Altitude feet 1000 12,000 1000 18,000 1000 14,500 14,500 60,000, 18,000 45,000

Data is from the Aeronautical Information Manual, AIM.

The VOR display has four elements:

A Rotating Course Card, calibrated from 0 to 360, which indicates the VOR bearing chosen as the reference to fly TO or FROM. Here, the 345 radial has been set into the display. This VOR gauge also digitally displays the VOR bearing, which simplifies setting the desired navigation track. The Omni Bearing Selector, or OBS knob, used to manually rotate the course card. The CDI, or Course Deviation Indicator. This needle swings left or right indicating the direction to turn to return to course. When the needle is to the left, turn left and when the needle is to the right, turn right, When centered, the aircraft is on course. Each dot in the arc under the needle represents a 2 deviation from the desired course. This needle is morefrequently called the left-right needle, with the CDI term quickly forgotten after taking the FAA written exams. Here, the pilot is doing well, and is dead-on courseor maybe lazy and with the autopilot activated in the "NAV" mode. The TO-FROM indicator. This arrow will point up, or towards the nose of the aircraft, when flying TO the VOR station. The arrow reverses direction, points downward, when flying away FROM the VOR station. A red flag replaces these TO-FROM arrows when the VOR is beyond reception range, has not been properly tuned in, or the VOR receiver is turned off. Similarly, the flag appears if the VOR station itself is inoperative, or down for maintenance. Here, the aircraft is flying TO the station.

This aircraft is north of the Omni station, flying on the 345 radial away FROM the station. The left-right needle shows the aircraft on course and the FROM flag is present, pointing down, toward the station behind.

This aircraft is south of the Omni station. Its magnetic course is 345.

VORs, Airways and the Enroute Structure

VOR and the older NDB stations were traditionally used as intersections along airways. A typical airway will hop from station to station in straight lines. Navigational reference points can also be defined by the point at which two radials from different VOR stations intersect, or by a VOR radial and a DME distance. This is the basic form of RNAV and allows navigation to points located away from VOR stations. As RNAV systems have become more common, in particular those based upon GPS, more and more airways have been defined by such points, removing the need for some of the expensive ground-based VORs.

Victor Airways
When VOR airways are designated, their identifying numbers are preceded with the letter V and are called victor airways.

The VOR provides only bearing information to the pilot (known as rho), not the distance from the station (known as theta).

Aircraft Positioning Method

Distance Measuring Equipment

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) is a transponder-based radio navigation technology that measures distance by timing the propagation delay of VHF or UHF radio signals. DME is similar to Secondary Radar, except in reverse. The system was a post-war development of the IFF (Identification Friend or Foe) systems of World War II. To maintain compatibility, DME is functionally identical to the distance measuring component of TACAN. Aircraft use DME to determine their distance from a land-based transponder by sending and receiving pulse pairs - two pulses of fixed duration and separation. The ground stations are typically colocated with VORs. A typical DME ground transponder system for enroute or terminal navigation will have a 1 kW peak pulse output on the assigned UHF channel. A low power DME can also be colocated with an ILS localizer where it provides an accurate distance function, similar to that otherwise provided by ILS Marker Beacons. DME provides the pilot with the aircraft's "slant" distance from the ground station (i.e. the direct distance, not the distance along the ground from a point directly below the aircraft (which can be calculated using the Pythagorean theorem and the aircraft's altitude)); except very close to the station, the difference between direct and slant distance is negligible.

Timing
The aircraft interrogates the ground transponder with a series of pulse-pairs (interrogations), The ground station replies with an identical sequence of reply pulse-pairs with a precise time delay (typically 50 microseconds). The DME receiver in the aircraft searches for pulse-pairs (X-mode= 12 microsecond spacing) with the correct time interval between them. The correct time between pulse pairs is determined by each individual aircraft's particular interrogation pattern. The aircraft interrogator locks on to the DME ground station once it understands that the particular pulse sequence is the interrogation sequence it sent out originally. Once the receiver is locked on, it has a narrower window in which to look for the echoes and can retain lock.

Distance calculation
A radio pulse takes around 12.36 microseconds to travel one nautical mile to and from, this is also referred to as a radar-mile. The time difference between interrogation and reply minus the 50 microsecond ground transponder delay is measured by the interrogator's timing circuitry and translated into a distance measurement in nautical miles which is then displayed in the cockpit.

A typical DME transponder can provide concurrent distance information to about 100 aircraft.[1] Above this limit the transponder avoids overload by limiting the gain of the receiver. Replies to weaker more distant interrogations are ignored to lower the transponder load. In many cases the VOR stations have colocated DME (Distance Measuring Equipment) or military TACAN (TACtical Air Navigation -which includes both the distance feature, DME, and a separate TACAN azimuth feature that provides military pilots data similar to the civilian VOR). A co-located VOR and TACAN beacon is called a VORTAC. A VOR with co-located DME only is called a VOR-DME. A VOR radial with DME distance allows a one-station position fix. Both VOR-DMEs and TACANs share the same DME system.

Radio frequency and modulation data

DME frequencies are paired to VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) frequencies. A DME interrogator is designed to automatically tune to the corresponding frequency when the associated VOR is selected. An airplanes DME interrogator uses frequencies from 1025 to 1150 MHz. DME transponders transmit on a channel in the 962 to 1150 MHz range and receive on a corresponding channel between 962 to 1213 MHz. The band is divided into 126 channels for interrogation and 126 channels for transponder replies. The interrogation and reply frequencies always differ by 63 MHz. The spacing of all channels is 1 MHz with a signal spectrum width of 100 kHz. Technical references to X and Y channels relate only to the spacing of the individual pulses in the DME pulse pair, 12 microsecond spacing for X channels and 36 microsecond spacing for Y channels. DME facilities identify themselves with a 1350 Hz morse code three letter identity. If collocated with a VOR or ILS it will have the same identity code as the parent facility. Additionally, the DME will identify itself between those of the parent facility. DME identity is 1350 Hz to differentiate itself from the 1020 Hz tone of the VOR or the ILS localizer.

Accuracy
Accuracy of DME is 185 m (0.1 nm).[1] One important thing to understand is that DME provides the physical distance from the aircraft to the DME transponder. This distance is often referred to as 'slant range' and depends trigonometrically upon both the altitude above the transponder and the ground distance from it. For example, an aircraft directly above the DME station at 6000 feet altitude would still show one mile on the DME readout. The aircraft technically is a mile away, just a mile straight up. Slant range error is most pronounced at high altitudes when close to the DME station.

Tactical Air Navigation

Tactical Air Navigation, or TACAN, is a navigation system used by military aircraft. It provides the user with a distance and bearing from a ground station. It is a more accurate version of the VHF omnidirectional range / Distance Measuring Equipment (VOR/DME) system that provides range and bearing information for civil aviation. At VORTAC facilities, the DME portion of the TACAN system is available for civil use.

Operation
TACAN in general can be described as the military version of the VOR/DME system. It operates in the frequency band 960-1215 MHz. The bearing unit of TACAN is more accurate than a standard VOR since it makes use of a two frequency principle, with 15 Hz and 135 Hz components. The distance measurement component of TACAN operates with the same specifications as do civil DMEs. Therefore to reduce the number of required stations, TACAN stations are frequently colocated with VOR facilities. These co-located stations are known as VORTACs. This is a station composed of a VOR for civil bearing information and a TACAN for military bearing information and military/civil distance measuring information. The TACAN transponder performs the function of a DME without the need for a separate, collocated DME.

Accuracy
Theoretically a TACAN should provide a ninefold increase in accuracy compared to a VOR but operational use has shown only a 1.5 to 2 fold increase. Accuracy of the 135 Hz azimuth component is 1 or 63 m at 3.47 km.[1] Accuracy of the DME portion is 185 m (0.1 nautical mile).[1]

Area Navigation

Loran-C
Loran-C was developed to provide DoD with a radionavigation capability having longer range and much greater accuracy than its predecessor, Loran-A. It was subsequently selected as the Federally provided radionavigation system for civil marine use in the U.S. coastal areas. Loran-C is also certified as an en route supplemental navigation aid for civil aviation. Three stations are required (master and two secondaries) to obtain a position fix in the normal mode of operation. Loran-C can be used in the Rho-Rho mode and accurate position data can be obtained with only two stations. RhoRho requires that the user platform have a precise clock.

Signal Characteristics
Loran-C is a pulsed, hyperbolic system operating in the 90 to 110 kHz frequency band. The system is based upon measurement of the difference in time of arrival of pulses of radio frequency (RF) energy radiated by a chain of synchronized transmitters that are separated by hundreds of miles. The measurements of time difference (TD) are made by a receiver which achieves high accuracy by comparing a zero crossing of a specified RF cycle within the pulses transmitted by master and secondary stations within a chain. Making this signal comparison early in the ground wave pulse assures that the measurement is made before the arrival of the corresponding sky waves. Precise control over the pulse shape ensures that the proper comparison point can be identified by the receiver. To aid in preventing sky waves from affecting TD measurements, the phase of the 100 kHz carrier of some of the pulses is changed in a predetermined pattern. Envelope matching of the signals is also possible but cannot provide. The advantage of cycle comparison in obtaining the full system accuracy.

Accuracy
Within the published coverage area, Loran-C provides the user who employs an adequate receiver with predictable accuracy of 0.25 nm (2 drms) or better. The repeatable accuracy of Loran-C is usually between 18 and 90 meters. Accuracy is dependent upon the Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDOP) factors at the users location within the coverage area.

Coverage

ILS
ILS is a precision approach system normally consisting of a localizer facility, a glide slope facility, and associated VHF marker beacons. It provides vertical and horizontal navigation (guidance) information during the approach to landing at an airport runway.

Signal Characteristics
The localizer facility and antenna are typically located 1,000 feet beyond the stop end of the runway and provide a VHF (108 to 111.975 MHz ARNS band) signal. The glide slope facility is located approximately 1,000 feet from the approach end of the runway and provides a UHF (328.6 to 335.4 MHz ARNS band) signal. Marker beacons are located along an extension of the runway centerline and identify particular locations on the approach. Ordinarily, two 75 MHz beacons are included as part of the instrument landing system: an outer marker at the final approach fix (typically four to seven miles) from the approach end of the runway) and a middle marker located 3,500 feet plus or minus 250 feet from the runway threshold. The middle marker is located so as to note impending visual acquisition of the runway in conditions of minimum visibility for Category I ILS approaches. An inner marker, located approximately 1,000 feet from the threshold, is normally associated with Category II and III ILS approaches.

Localizer (LOC, or LLZ in Europe)

A localizer (LOC, or LLZ in Europe) antenna array is normally located beyond the departure end of the runway and generally consists of several pairs of directional antennas. Two signals are transmitted on a carrier frequency between 108.10 MHz and 111.975 MHz. One is modulated at 90 Hz, the other at 150 Hz and these are transmitted from separate but co-located antennas. Each antenna transmits a fairly narrow beam, one slightly to the left of the runway centerline, the other to the right. The localizer receiver on the aircraft measures the Difference in the Depth of Modulation (DDM) of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz signals. For the localizer, the depth of modulation for each of the modulating frequencies is 20 percent. The difference between the two signals varies depending on the position of the approaching aircraft from the centerline. If there is a predominance of either 90Hz or 150Hz modulation, the aircraft is off the centerline. In the cockpit, the needle on the Horizontal Situation Indicator, or HSI (The Instrument part of the ILS), will show that the aircraft needs to fly left or right to correct the positional error to fly down the center of the runway. If the DDM is zero the receiver aerial and therefore, the aircraft, is on the centerline of the localizer coinciding with the physical runway centerline.

Glideslope
A glideslope or Glidepath (GP) antenna array is sited to one side of the runway touchdown zone. The GP signal is transmitted on a carrier frequency between 329.15 and 335 MHz using a technique similar to that of the localizer. The centerline of the glideslope signal is arranged to define a glideslope of approximately 3 above horizontal (ground level). The glideslope transmits no identification signal and therefore airborne ILS equipment relies on the localizer for identification.

Marker beacons
On most installations marker beacons operating at a carrier frequency of 75 MHz are provided. When the transmission from a marker beacon is received it activates an indicator on the pilot's instrument panel and the modulating tone of the beacon is audible to the pilot. The correct height the aircraft should be at when the signal is received in an aircraft is promulgated.

Outer marker
The outer marker should be located 7.2 km (3.9 NM) from the threshold except that, where this distance is not practicable, the outer marker may be located between 6.5 and 11.1 km (3.5 and 6 NM) from the threshold. The modulation is repeated Morse-style dashes of a 400 Hz tone. The cockpit indicator is a blue lamp that flashes in unison with the received audio code. The purpose of this beacon is to provide height, distance and equipment functioning checks to aircraft on intermediate and final approach. In the United States, an NDB is often combined with the outer marker beacon in the ILS approach (called a Locator Outer Marker, or LOM); in Canada, low-powered NDBs have replaced marker beacons entirely.

Middle marker
The middle marker should be located so as to indicate, in low visibility conditions, the missed approach point, and the point that visual contact with the runway is imminent, Ideally at a distance of 1050m from the threshold. It is modulated with a 1300 Hz tone as alternating dots and dashes. The cockpit indicator is an amber lamp that flashes in unison with the received audio code.

Inner marker
The inner marker, when installed, shall be located so as to indicate in low visibility conditions the imminence of arrival at the runway threshold. This is typically the position of an aircraft on the ILS as it reaches Category II minima. The modulation is Morse-style dots at 3000Hz. The cockpit indicator is a white lamp that flashes in unison with the received audio code.

DME
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) is replacing markers in many installations. This provides more accurate and continuous monitoring of correct progress on the ILS to the pilot, and does not require an installation outside the airport boundary. The DME is frequency paired with the ILS so that it is automatically selected when the ILS is tuned. It gives pilots a slant range measurement of distance to the runway in nautical miles.

Approach lighting
Some installations include medium or high intensity approach light systems. Most often, these are at larger airports. The Approach Lighting System (abbreviated ALS) assists the pilot in transitioning from instrument to visual flight, and to align the aircraft visually with the runway centerline. At many non-towered airports, the intensity of the lighting system can be adjusted by the pilot. The flashing sequenced strobe leads towards the runway and is nicknamed "the rabbit." Pilots break out of the clouds and announce to the tower, "I have the rabbit

Use of the Instrument Landing System

At large airports, air traffic control will direct aircraft to the localizer via assigned headings, making sure aircraft do not get too close to each other (maintain separation), but also avoiding delay as much as possible. Several aircraft can be on the ILS at the same time, several miles apart. An aircraft that has intercepted both the localizer and the glideslope signal is said to be established on the approach. Typically, an aircraft will be established by 6 nautical miles from the runway, or just after reaching the Final Approach Fix.

Aircraft deviation from the optimal path is indicated to the flight crew by means of display with "needles" (a carry over from when an analog meter movement would indicate deviation form the course line via voltages sent from the ILS receiver).

Decision Altitude/Height
Once established on an approach, the Autoland system or pilot will follow the ILS and descend along the glideslope, until the Decision Altitude is reached (for a typical Category I ILS, this altitude is 200 feet above the runway). At this point, the pilot must have the runway or its approach lights in sight to continue the approach. If neither can be seen, the approach must be aborted and a missed approach procedure will be performed. This is where the aircraft will climb back to a predetermined altitude. From there the pilot will either try the same approach again or divert to another airport. Aborting the approach (as well as the ATC instruction to do so) is called a go around, although this refers to any aborted approach and is not exclusive to ILS approaches.

ILS categories
Category I - A precision instrument approach and landing with a decision height not lower than 60 m (200 ft) above touchdown zone elevation and with either a visibility not less than 800 m or a runway visual range not less than 550 m. An aircraft equipped with an Enhanced Flight Vision System may, under certain circumstances, continue an approach to CAT II minimums. [14 CFR Part 91.175 amendment 281]

ILS categories
Category III is further subdivided Category III A - A precision instrument approach and landing with:
a) a decision height lower than 30 m (100 ft) above touchdown zone elevation, or no decision height; and b) a runway visual range not less than 200 m.

Category III B - A precision instrument approach and landing with:

a) a decision height lower than 15 m (50 ft) above touchdown zone elevation, or no decision height; and b) a runway visual range less than 200 m but not less than 50 m.

Category III C - A precision instrument approach and landing with no decision height and no runway visual range limitations. A Category III C system is capable of using an aircraft's autopilot to land the aircraft and can also provide guidance along the runway surface.

ILS categories
Category II - Category II operation: A precision instrument approach and landing with a decision height lower than 60 m (200 ft) above touchdown zone elevation but not lower than 30 m (100 ft), and a runway visual range not less than 350 m.

Accuracy
For typical air carrier operations at a 10,000-foot runway, the course alignment (localizer) at threshold is maintained within 25 feet. Course bends during the final segment of the approach do not exceed 0.06 o (2 sigma). Glide slope course alignment is maintained within 7.0 feet at 100 feet (2 sigma) elevation and glide path bends during the final segment of the approach do not exceed 0.07o (2 sigma).

Coverage
Coverage for individual systems is as follows: Localizer: 2o centered about runway centerline. Glide Slope: Nominally 3o above the horizontal. Marker Beacons: 40o (approximately) on minor axis (along approach path) 85o (approximately) on major axis.

The advent of the Global Positioning System (GPS) provides an alternative source of guidance for aircraft. The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) will provide guidance to Category I standards beginning 2007. Other methods of augmentation are in development to provide for Category III minimums or better, such as the Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS).

MLS
In the 1970s there was a major US & European effort to establish the Microwave Landing System, which are not similarly limited and which allow curved approaches. However, a combination of slow development, airline reluctance to invest in MLS, and the rise of GPS has resulted in its failure to be widely adopted. MLS provides a common civil/military landing system to meet the full range of user operational requirements, as defined in the ICAO list of 38 operational requirements for precision approach and landing systems, to the year 2000 and beyond. It was originally intended to be a replacement for ILS, used by both civil and military aircraft, and the Ground Controlled Approach (GCA) system used primarily by military operators. However, augmented GPS systems are now envisioned to satisfy the majority of requirements originally earmarked for MLS.

Signal Characteristics
MLS transmits signals that enable airborne units to determine the precise azimuth angle, elevation angle, and range. The technique chosen for the angle function of the MLS is based upon Time-Referenced Scanning Beams (TRSB). All angle functions of MLS operate in the 5.00 to 5.25 GHz ARNS band. Ranging is provided by DME operating in the 962 1215 MHz ARNS band. An option is included in the signal format to permit a special purpose system to operate in the 15.4 to 15.7 GHz ARNS band.

Coverage
Current plans call for the installation of systems with azimuthal coverage of 40oon either side of the runway centerline, elevation coverage from 0o to a minimum of 15o over the azimuthal coverage area, and out to 20 nm. A few systems will have 60o azimuthal coverage. MLS signal format has the capability of providing coverage to the entire 360o area, but with less accuracy in the area outside the primary coverage area of +60o of runway centerline. There will be simultaneous operations of ILS and MLS during the transition period.