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THE RELATIONSHIP OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR IN NON-PROFIT EXECUTIVE LEADERS by Cheryl L. Meredith

CLIFFORD BUTLER, PhD., Faculty Mentor and Chair NANCY S. BOSTAIN, PhD., Committee Member DAVID MULLIGAN, PsyD., Committee Member

Kurt Linberg, Ph.D., Dean, School of Business & Technology

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Capella University December 2007

UMI Number: 3290654

UMI Microform 3290654 Copyright 2008 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.

ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346

 Cheryl L. Meredith, 2007

Abstract What characterizes an effective leader? Are there qualities of effective leaders that could be used in developmental processes for new emerging leaders? This study seeks to address these questions by examining the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership styles among executives leading in non-profit, faith-based organizations based in Colorado. A general questionnaire gathered demographic data related to the perceived importance of basic quality of life and leadership qualities. The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ Form 5X) developed by Avolio and Bass examined the leaders self-reported leadership style. Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles were compared with scores on the BarOn Emotional Quotient Inventory Test (EQ-i). Statistical cluster analysis demonstrated a strong relationship between transformational leadership behaviors and emotional intelligence. In addition, linear regression analysis revealed that five components of emotional intelligence accounted for over half of the variation in transformational leadership behavior. The five were: optimism, self-actualization, empathy, problem solving, and assertiveness. All but empathy scored higher than the general population. The study findings suggest that developing these five areas in executive leaders could increase the likelihood of the use of transformational leadership behaviors. Transformational leadership has been studied extensively and been shown to positively affect organizations. Further study would be needed to demonstrate the breadth of possible application, but it is worthy of consideration that a focus on developing emotional intelligence could result in increased transformational leadership behaviors, positively influencing an organization.

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Dedication To my familyboth those of blood and spirit; you make me who I am.

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Acknowledgments There are so many that I wish to thank. Coming to the place of submitting this study has been a culmination of so many peoples love and support. You know who you are. You know how deeply I value and appreciate your roles in my life. I am so much richer for walking this journey with you. We are writing the story together, and wow, is it beautiful to live lives interwoven with you! A handful of people must be thanked by name. Alan, you made this opportunity possible, I am forever grateful. Thanks for being someone committed to seeing those around you grow and flourish. Bob, your help with design and statistics was invaluable. Thanks for your patience, grace, and your gift of hope. Your encouragement helped me believe the finish line would come. Judie, you helped make these words readable. Your incredible commitment to detail and excellence is seen on every page. Bless you! And last, those who were first; Mom and Dad, thank-you for being my preeminent and most enduring taste of love, grace, and hope. You have given me the greatest gift possible in your example of so generously laying down your lives so that others may live and flourish. Your lives resonate into eternity. I am most blessed!

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Table of Contents Acknowledgements List of Tables List of Figures CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Introduction to the Problem Background of the Study Statement of the Problem Rationale Research Questions Significance of the Study Definition of Terms Assumptions and Limitations Nature of the Study Organization of the Remainder of the Study CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction Origins of Emotional Intelligence An Overview of the History of EI Is EI A Distinctive Construct? Critique of EI Models iv ix xi 1 1 3 6 7 8 9 9 12 13 14 15 15 15 16 37 39

History of Transaction and Transformational Leadership Leadership and Organizational Culture Possible Future Considerations Summary CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY Introduction to Methodology Research Design Assumptions and Limitations Ethical Considerations Conclusion CHAPTER FOUR: DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Introduction Descriptive Statistics Statistical Analysis Qualitative Data Comparison with Construction Executives Summary CHAPTER FIVE: RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction Study Overview Findings Comparison with Construction Executives

44 49 63 64 65 65 66 76 78 79 80 80 81 99 105 112 116 117 117 117 119 131

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Implications Study Limitations Recommendations for Further Study and Research Conclusions REFERENCES APPENDICES Appendix A: General Questionnaire Appendix B: Sample List of Organizations Appendix C: Study Website Screen Shots Appendix D: Job Responsibility Appendix E: Job Contribution Appendix F: Greatest Challenge

135 137 139 144 145 161 161 164 165 170 174 179

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List of Tables Table 1: Position by Gender Table 2: Years in Position, with Organization, with Non-Profits Table 3: Education Table 4: Descriptive Statistics: EI and Components Table 5: Descriptive Statistics: MLQ and Components Table 6: Time for Presidents and CEOs in Organization and Position Table 7: Education Level of Presidents and CEOs Table 8: Average Age of Presidents and CEOs by Gender Table 9: EQ-i Scores of Presidents and CEOs Table 10: Comparison of Presidents/CEOs EQ-i scores with the Study Population Table 11: MLQ Scores of Presidents and CEOs Table 12: Education of Senior VPs and VPs Table 13: Service Times of Senior VPs and VPs Table 14: Average Age of Senior VPs and VPs by Gender Table 15: EQ Descriptive Statistics for Senior VPs and VPs Table 16: Comparison of EQ Scores of Presidents/CEOs and Senior VPs/VPs Table 17: MLQ Scores of Senior VPs and VPs: Descriptive Data Table 18: Comparison of MLQ Scores by Presidents/CEOs and Senior VPs/VPs Table 19: Average EQ-i scores by Transformational Leadership Cluster Table 20: EQ-i Versus Transformational Leadership 81 82 82 84 86 87 87 88 89 90 92 93 93 94 95 97 98 99 101 103

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Table 21: Correlation Coefficients Table 22: Life Issues Responses Table 23: Rescoring of life assessment issues, positive questions Table 24: Rescoring of life assessment issues, negative questions Table 25: Averages of life assessment issues Table 26: Life Issues Responses (rescored) Table 27: Life Issues by President/CEOs, Non-Presidents, and Total Table 28: Total Life Issue Scores Table 29: Comparison of Non-Profit Executives and Construction Executives on EI

105 106 106 107 107 108 109 110 113

Table 30: Comparison of Non-Profit Executives and Construction Executives !MLQ 114 Table 31: Comparison of Means of Non-profit and Construction Executives 115

List of Figures Figure 1: Models of Emotional Intelligence Figure 2: Three Models of Emotional Intelligence Figure 3: Personality and Its Major Subsystems Figure 4: BarOns EQ-i Components Figure 5: Cluster Analysis For Transformational Leadership Figure 6: Scatter Diagram Transformational Leadership versus EQ-I 20 23 38 73 100 102

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Introduction to the Problem Leadership qualities and what makes a good leader have taken center stage in much of current business dialogue. Concurrently, emotional intelligence (EI) has caught the popular imagination and has emerged as a skill set that enhances leadership. Emotional intelligence at its essence is the ability to use and manage ones own emotions and the ability to understand and use the emotions of others. Numerous claims have been made concerning the impact of this kind of intelligence on a vast array of life areas. Within the business context leadership behaviors are studied to discover what is most effective. Transformational leadership behaviors, including those behaviors that inspire and motivate followers, have been extensively studied. A characteristic of transformational leaders is that they challenge followers to align their contribution to their passions and to offer their highest potential to the organization. Transformational leadership behaviors have been demonstrated to positively impact organizational success more than transactional and laisse-faire leadership behaviors. This study has considered if there is a relationship between EI and the leadership styles used by non-profit executives. The selected population is executives in faith-based, non-profit organizations. The results of this study can be used to help to better equip

executive leaders for the future. A key issue is identifying future leaders for non-profit, faith-based organizations, who can respond to the needs of a rapidly shifting culture. This study has sought to meet this pressing need by asking a series of questions designed to discover if there is a relationship between emotional intelligence and the use of a transformational leadership style by non-profit executives. A description of an emotionally intelligent executive leading in a faith-based non-profit context is proposed. The findings are compared with the first in-depth, single industry research on the topic, conducted on construction executives (Butler, 2005). The population of the construction study provides a backdrop of comparison and possible contrast. Some of the specific questions addressed in the study include: 1. What is the EI composition of non-profit executives? 2. Is there a relationship between the emotional intelligence of non-profit executives and their preferred leadership style? 3. Is there a difference between EQ-i score and choice of leadership approaches of non-profit executives with those of construction executives? If there are specific EI qualities related to increased transformational leadership in executives, then the literature suggests that the skills to become a better executive could be developed. The specific EI theory I will use breaks EI into 15 components which, when focused upon, can increase emotional intelligence. Further, if there is a relationship between EI and with the executives use of more effective leadership behaviors, then

developing these EI qualities should increase overall leadership effectiveness. These finding could also be used in the creation of leader development processes for the future.

Background of the Study Emotional intelligence burst into the public consciousness with Golemans (1995) bestselling book Emotional Intelligence, and the provocative question, why it can matter more than IQ? His book began an avalanche of interest in the influence of emotional intelligence. He claimed emotional intelligence is a far greater predictor of success than ones intellectual intelligence (IQ) (Bar-On & Parker, 2002). Its focus on both intellect and emotions combined with the advances in cognitive and affective science offer intertwining perspectives from which to study how people navigate their lives (Grewal & Salovey, 2005, p. 339). Emotional intelligence brings together head and heart, marrying intellect and emotions. The two have sometimes appeared at opposite ends of a behavioral continuum. Throughout much of history this dichotomy in western philosophical traditionspredated modern psychology, and reason and intellect were viewed as opposing forces to supposedly non-rational phenomena like passion, intuition, feeling, and emotions (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004, p. 81). Theorists had long been interested in what has now come to be called emotional intelligence. At various historic points, emotions were viewed as dangerous and unpredictable and therefore not to be trusted. Stoic philosophers stratified this division, elevating logic above emotion. Mayer, in his Field Guide to Emotional Intelligence (EI or

EQ), admits that philosophically the relationship between the mind and emotions, the head and the heart, has spanned more than 2000 years of Western culture (as cited in Grewal & Salovey, 2005). Similarly, Bar-On (2001) places EI in a broad context recognizing the contribution of Charles Darwin, who began his study in 1837 and published related work in 1872. Darwins demonstration of the major role of emotional expression in adaptive behavior continues as an important axiom of todays conception of EI. Leuner first mentioned emotional intelligence in a 1966 German article translated Emotional Intelligence and Emancipation (as cited in Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000). The first English usage came years later is in an unpublished doctoral dissertation by Payne (1986; as cited in Matthews, et al.; Ciarrochi, Fogas, & Mayer, 2001). It is against the backdrop of this long debate about passion and reason, and perhaps because of it, that the reuniting of head and heart in EI theory has struck such a cord with academics and the general population. Emotional intelligence is defined as an array of non-cognitive capabilities, competencies, and skills that influence ones ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures (Bar-On, 1997c, p.2). EI is believed to directly relate to ones ability to succeed in life and to influence an overall sense of psychological well-being (Bar-On). The genesis of the theory now known as BarOns EQ-i began when Reuven Bar-On asked Why do some people succeed in possessing better emotional well-being than others? This gradually evolved into the question Why are some individuals more able to succeed in life than others? The resulting research led to Bar-

Ons creation of the first defined theory of emotional intelligence. Bar-Ons model has five categories that are each divided into subscales. The first category, intrapersonal skills, includes self-regard, emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, independence, and self-actualization. The second category, interpersonal skills, is broken into empathy, social responsibility, and interpersonal relationship. The third category is adaptability, includes reality testing, flexibility, and problem solving. Stress management is divided into stress tolerance and impulse control. Finally, the fifth category, general mood, involves optimism and happiness. These components combine to create a theory that is multifactorial and related to potential for performance rather than performance itself and is process-oriented rather than outcome-oriented (Bar-On, 1997b, p.3). The BarOn EQ-i operationally defines and quantitatively describes emotional intelligence. The 15 components can be isolated or dealt with in combination. This allows for a description to be developed of a particular subject or population, in this case executives leading in nonprofit, faith-based organizations. Once this is created, the skills of emotional intelligence can be developed thus increasing ones EI. In addition, individuals can be trained in the elements of EI needed for a particular role or function. Emotional intelligence includes an array of skills and behaviors that many nonprofit leaders in faith-based organizations would say they value. Very little study has been done to create a specific portrait of this group of executives. Extensive research has demonstrated that transformational leadership behaviors increase organizational effectiveness (Bass, 1999b). To date there has not been a body of study in these areas

focused on this population. The study will form the basis of a leader development plan to be used with non-profit executives particularly those leading in faith-based organizations.

Statement of the Problem The literature review provides evidence that transformational leadership increases organizational effectiveness and that emotional intelligence can be measured and developed. If there is a relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership, leaders can be helped to grow in emotionally intelligent behaviors that will expand and build their leadership ability. If there are particular qualities of an emotionally intelligent executive in a non-profit, faith-based organization, then the development of these characteristics can be built into ongoing succession and development plans. Also, if there are areas of consistently low emotional intelligence, further study could consider why this is the case and means created to address and build the specific competencies. Faith-based organizations typically align themselves to values congruent with their particular beliefs. The credibility of these leaders rests in their ability to act consistently with their words, to live what they say they believe. Increasingly questions are raised when a gap is seen between the stated values of these organizations and how their members and particularly their leaders behave. Many characteristics of emotional intelligence and transformational leadership behaviors align with values espoused in faith-based, non-profit organizations. If there is a relationship between these, there is a possible means to increase alignment to organizational values. There is a great

need for a new generation of leaders to be developed within the non-profit sector of faithbased organizations. What are the characteristics of these leaders and how can they be developed? The hope behind the questions of this study is that they may lead to some of the answers to respond to this pressing need.

Rationale Emotional Intelligence provides a series of skills that can be developed. Transformational leadership is a type of leadership that has demonstrated effectiveness to help build organizations. If there is a relationship between these two, then it is reasonable to believe that leaders can develop the skills to grow in emotionally intelligent behaviors leading to increasingly transformational styles of leadership behavior. Many of these actions strongly align with the values of faith-based organizations and could increase a leaders effectiveness in authentically modeling desired outcomes. This study will investigate these questions and compare the non-profit executives in faith-based organizations with the general population and with a similar study focused on construction executives. This research may provide further areas of discussion and development for tomorrows executive leaders.

Research Questions The focus of the research is the following question: What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership in non-profit executives? Investigative Questions: The following investigative questions are addressed in the study: 1. What is the EI composition of non-profit executives? 2. Is there a relationship between the emotional intelligence of non-profit executives and their preferred leadership style? 3. Is there a difference between EQ-i score and choice of leadership approaches of non-profit executives with those of construction executives? Null Hypotheses: The following are the research hypotheses: H0 1. There is no difference in leadership behaviors between non-profit executives with high EI scores with those having low EI scores H0 2. Non-profit executives with higher EI scores do not demonstrate more transformational leadership behaviors than those with low EI scores H0 3. Non-profit executives with lower EI scores do not demonstrate a greater propensity to use transactional and laissez-faire leadership behaviors H0 4. Non-profit executive leaders and construction executives have no differences in their EI scores

H0 5. Non-profit executive leaders and construction executives have no difference in their use of transformational leadership behaviors on the MLQ 5X

Significance of the Study This study is one of only four studies to consider a relationship between EI and transformational leadership using BarOns EQ-i and the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. The study will further the research done on construction executives (Butler, 2005) by asking this question and seeing if there are similarities or differences in the populations. The study will be formative in the development of a leader development process for non-profit executives in the researchers organization.

Definition of Terms Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence is an array of non-cognitive capabilities, competencies and skills that influence ones ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures (Bar-On, 1997a). This definition was operationalized in the BarOn Emotional Quotient Inventory Test (EQ-i), which was described earlier. This test was selected for the study because it breaks EI into five major areas with fifteen subcomponents. Leadership Behaviors There are many definitions of leadership, but one of the most extensively studied and highly validated is transformational leadership. This model of leadership is the basis

of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. (MLQ Form 5X) The questionnaire is derived from the model developed by Avolio and Bass, (2004) which grew out of the work initially conceived by Burns. The early model included transformational and transactional leadership; later laissez-faire leadership was added to complete the continuum for the current test (Avolio & Bass, 2004). Each of these leadership behaviors will be briefly defined here and discussed later in greater detail later in the study. Transformational Leadership Transformational Leadership concerns a focused attempt to arouse awareness and interest in the organization while seeking to increase the confidence of the individuals or groups. There is an emphasis on moving with subordinates from merely existing and producing, to promoting their growth and unique contributions (Gardner & Stough, 2002). The five factors of transformational leadership include: idealized influence attributed, idealized influence behavior, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration (Avolio & Bass, 2004). Transactional Leadership Transactional leadership refers to the exchange relationship between leader and follower to meet their own self-interests. This leadership expression may take the form of contingent reward and or management by exception that is either active or passive (Avolio & Bass, 2004).

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Laissez-faire Leadership Laissez-faire leaders avoid taking responsibility; they fail to follow up on requests for assistance, tend to be absent when required and resist expressing opinions on important issues (Avolio & Bass, 2002). Executive Leader For the purpose of this study executives are those holding leadership roles in the organizations at the Director, Vice President, Senior Vice President, President, and CEO level. Faith-based, non-profit organizations Faith-based, non-profit organizations are found in the volunteer sector and are distinguished by the descriptors in the title. They are in the not-for-profit sector and identify with a particular faith orientation. The work of these organizations cross are a wide array of activities and usually has a focus of helping people socially, emotional, and or spiritually. Such organizations fall under Internal Revenue Code Section 501(c)(3) and encompass the following types of organizations that are exempt from federal income taxation: religious, charitable, educational, scientific, literary, etc. organizations. Many of the organizations that qualify for exempt status share the following characteristics: the organization serves some type of common good, it is not a for-profit entity, its net earnings do not benefit the members of the organization, and the organization does not exert political influence. The Internal Revenue Code is a compilation of federal tax legislation that appears in Title 26 of the U.S. Code. Within the range of these

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organizations the researcher further limited the sample to those 501(c)(3) organizations that consider themselves to hold a Christian faith-based worldview.

Assumptions and Limitations Cost The cost of the study has been kept to a minimum through the use of technology, including the Internet and e-mail. One mailing was sent to invite participants to join the study. Prior to this mailing a postcard was sent to alert subjects of the upcoming study and all subsequent communication were by e-mail. Accessibility The choice of non-profit executives leading in faith-based organizations was driven by the possibility of access. This is a population that the researcher is a member of in her professional role. Additionally, the researchers organization is well known within these types of organizations. A further factor promoting access is the researchers membership in a senior executive roundtable with human resource executives in Colorados largest non-profit, faith-based organizations. These executives agreed to encourage the leaders in their organizations to participate.

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Time Time was a limitation in the study. The researcher, like most executives, has extensive work responsibilities and understands that the executives participating in the study may have limited time to respond. The researcher considered the time to complete the instrument to be less than one hour. Even this is substantial time for an executive leader to give to the study. The use of the Internet is another time saving element of the research design. The research was conducted on a website specifically designed for the study. Participants clicked the e-mail they received and went directly to the study website. This saved time and decreased the likelihood of difficulties in finding the study website. A further timesaving element existed in the ability of the researcher to send reminder e-mails to the subjects.

Nature of the Study Quantitative research techniques were used to compare the emotional intelligence (EI) of non-profit executives in faith-based organizations and their leadership behaviors. A questionnaire gathered demographic data and asked questions related to the leaders role. BarOns EQ-I tested for emotional intelligence and the leadership style was assessed using Basss MLQ 5X leadership questionnaire. A description of an emotionally intelligent, non-profit executive in faith-based organizations will be suggested. Findings were compared with the general population and a similar study done on construction executives (Butler, 2005).

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Organization of the Remainder of the Study The study has been set within the body of literature of emotional intelligence and transformational leadership in Chapter 2. An outline of the research methodology is presented in Chapter 3. Findings are reported in Chapter 4. The final chapter, Chapter 5, includes conclusions and recommendations for further study.

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction Emotional intelligence is one of the most discussed topics in both scientific and popular literature (Averill, 2004, p. 228). Its focus on both head and heart combined with the advances in cognitive and affective science offer intertwining perspectives from which to study how people navigate their lives (Grewal & Salovey, 2005, p. 339). An overview of this theory will be critiqued. A second body of literature focused on how people choose to lead others and the leadership behaviors they employ will then be outlined and analyzed. Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership will be the major categories discussed.

Origins of Emotional Intelligence The popularity of emotional intelligence has exponentially increased in recent years (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004). The relationship between heart and head, thinking and emotions, and reason and passion, has been debated across the history of humanity. Emotional intelligence brings these two together, marrying intellect and emotions. The two have sometimes appeared at opposite ends of a behavioral continuum. Throughout much of history this dichotomy in western philosophical traditions

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predated modern psychology, and viewed reason and intellect as opposing forces to supposedly non-rational phenomena like passion, intuition, feeling, and emotions (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004, p. 81). At various historic points, emotions were viewed as dangerous and unpredictable and therefore not to be trusted. Stoic philosophers stratified this division, elevating logic above emotion (Grewal & Salovey, 2005). It is against this backdrop, and perhaps because of it, that the reuniting of head and heart in EI theory has struck such a cord with academics and the general population. The theory finds its roots in a long debate about passion and reason, but for the purposes of this discussion, the more recent elements shaping the development of EI theory will be the focus.

An Overview of the History of EI Mayer (2001), in his Field Guide to Emotional Intelligence (EI or EQ) admits that philosophically the relationship between the mind and emotions, the heart and the head, have spanned more than 2000 years of Western culture. Similarly, Bar-On (2001) seeks to place EI in a broad context recognizing the contribution of Charles Darwin, who began his study in 1837 and published related work in 1872. Darwins demonstration of the major role of emotional expression in adaptive behavior continues as an important axiom of todays conception of EI. Against this vast backdrop, Mayer (2001) clustered the most recent evolution of emotional intelligence theory into five eras. In period one, 1900-1969, intelligence and

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emotions were considered distinct and separate fields. During period two, 1970-1989, the precursors of emotional intelligence were identified. From 1990-1993 emotional intelligence emerged as an identifiable area of focus. The construct was then substantially broadened and popularized between 1994-1997. In the final period, continuing from that point until today, Mayer identifies a period of extensive research and the institutionalization of the construct of emotional intelligence. Thorndike and Wechsler Filling in Mayers overview, most theorists agree that Robert Thorndike (1920), was the first to delineate various elements to intelligence, including three forms: mechanical, abstract and social. Social Intelligence was defined as the capacity to understand and to manage others, and to act wisely in interpersonal relationships. Thorndike, Bergman, Cobb, and Woodyard (1926), mentioned the possibility that people have social intelligence- the ability to perceive their own and others internal states, motivation, and behavior, and act accordingly. Once Thorndike delineated social intelligence, he launched a twenty-year endeavor to measure this dimension of intelligence. Finally, in exasperation, he expressed doubt that a verbally derived instrument could be developed to measure social intelligence (Zirkel, 2000). A few years following this admission, Wechsler, in 1940, concurred with Thorndikes belief that there are non-intellectual factors, such as affective and cognitive abilities that should be included in the measure of total intelligence. The study of social intelligence gradually shifted away from assessing behavior to linking behavior in the

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social context and the individuals understanding of that social context, while prioritizing their potential for change and adaptability (Zirkel, 2000, p. 5). Key theorists giving definition to social intelligence include Kelly, Rogers, Rotter, Corbach, Cantor, and Kihlstrom (Zirkel, 2000). It is Bar-Ons (2001) conviction that what has evolved into todays versions of emotional intelligence is one and the same with the construct of social intelligence. His preference would be to refer to the wider construct as emotional and social intelligence (Bar-On, 2001 p. 85). First Use of Emotional Intelligence Leuner first mentioned emotional intelligence formally in a 1966 German article with the English translation of Emotional Intelligence and Emancipation. The author studied women separated from their mothers at an early age, and hypothesized that due to the resultant low emotional intelligence, they tended to reject their social roles. (as cited in Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004; Mayer, Salovey et al., 2000; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000) Emotional intelligence is believed to be first used in English, in an unpublished doctoral dissertation by Payne (1985; as cited in Matthews, et al.; Ciarrochi, Fogas, & Mayer, 2001) With the current level of interest in emotional intelligence, this may be the most quoted, never published, dissertation in academic history (Matthews et al.)! Gardner Gardner seizes the concept of social and emotional intelligence to develop a theory of multiple intelligences (Ciarrochi, Fogas, & Mayer, 2001). His theoretical

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foundation was not rooted on factor-analytic evidence, but rather in the analysis of information from various sources, including areas where he found exceptional degrees of talent or giftedness, or the opposite ends of the spectrum with deficits in brain damaged individuals (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004). Gardner subjectively classified human abilities within seven intelligences: linguistic intelligence, spatial intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, a musical intelligence, bodily kinesthetic intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and intrapersonal intelligence (Gardner, 1983; Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004). Gardners categories of multiple intelligences prepared the theoretical groundwork for Salovey and Mayer to first define emotional intelligence. They have proceeded to be some of the most prolific advocates of EI in the scientific community (Matthews et al.; Mayer & Salovey, 1990, 1997; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000, 2004). The Mixed Model Theories The next evolution came as Daniel Goleman (1995), Reuben Bar-on (1997), and Cooper & Sawof (1997), each proposed different mixed models of emotional intelligence that included elements ranging from motivation, cognition, neurobiology, personality, social operation, character, and disposition (Mathews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004). These theories came to be known as the Mixed Models of the emotional intelligence, in contrast to the predecessor, which was an Ability Model. Figure one describes the various models of EI and gives each models definition of emotional intelligence:

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Figure 1. Models of Emotional Intelligence (as adapted from Vitello-Cicciu, 2001) The two main groupings of EI theory, as either ability models or mixed models continues until today. At their essence, all theories of EI deal with the ability to regulate emotions in oneself and in others in various ways (Goleman, 2001 p. 14). Within the ability model, emotional intelligence is intelligence that is defined and measured as a set of testable abilities. This is in contrast to mixed conceptions that combine personality

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character and social skills. Mayer and Salovey believe restricting EI to an ability model, focused on the emotionally related processes, allows for a purer examination of the degree to which EI impacts a persons behavior, beyond the traditional elements of personality (Salovey, Brackett, & Mayer, 2004). This contrasts with the mixed model theorists who believe EI arises from diverse roots and can only be fully described and assessed with a broader range of elements. Mixed Methods combine a variety of components including personality, skills, and emotional competencies. Golemans original model had five major components for personal competencies. These determine how individuals will manage themselves. They included: 1. self-awareness: knowing ones internal states, preferences, resources, and intuitions, 2. self-regulation: managing ones internal states, impulses and resources, 3. motivation: emotional tendencies that guide or facilitate reaching goals. 4. empathy: awareness of others feelings, needs and concerns, and finally 5. social skills: being adept at inducing desirable responses in others (Goleman, 1995, 1998, 2001, 2002). As Golemans theory evolved, he divided the competencies into personal and social competencies. Self-awareness and self-management considered a persons ability to understand their own emotions and manage or control them. The social competencies included social awareness such as empathy, organizational awareness, and service; and relational management, including some elements such as inspirational leadership, influence, change catalyst, and conflict management (Goleman, 2002). A number of similarities exist with the mixed model created by (Cooper & Sawaf, 1997). This

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construct includes the four cornerstones of 1. emotional literacy: being real or true to ones self, 2. emotional fitness: being clear and getting along, 3. emotional depth: character and influence, and finally, 4. emotional alchemy: sensing opportunities and creating a future. This model also combines emotions with character traits and motivational aspects. Both Goleman (2002) and Cooper and Sawaf (1997) have a high value on recognizing emotions as a signal informing a person of some significant occurrence in or around them. The authors have a high value on taking responsibility for ones emotions and learning to manage them. In fact, this is also seen as a core competency in Golemans model. The following figure, Figure 2, compares two mixed-models and one abilitymodel, demonstrating the similarities and differences between them. Each of these models contains the common area of identifying and managing emotions. Similarly, the ability to recognize emotions in others and apply them is seen in all of the models. The way qualities are described varies and may be broken into more categories, but these elements are present in each of the three models. There are also a number of differences in the models. Mayer & Salovey (1997), as well as Bar-on (2001), specifically highlight how emotions can be used in productive thinking and problem solving. In the first model there is an identified area of assimilating emotions in thought, while in the later model these elements are found in the adaptability scale.

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Mayer & Salovey Ability Model Overall Definition

Emotional intelligence is the set of abilities that account for how peoples emotional perception and understanding vary in their accuracy. More formally, we define emotional intelligence as the ability to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in the self and others. Mayer & Salovey (1997)

Bar-On Mixed Model Overall Definition

Emotional intelligence isan array of non-cognitive capabilities, competencies, and skills that influence ones ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures. Bar-On (1997)

Goleman Mixed Model Overall Definition

The abilities called here emotional intelligence, which include self-control, zeal and persistence, and the ability to motivate oneself. There is an old-fashioned word for the body of skills that emotional intelligence represents: character. Goleman, (1995a)

Major areas of Skills and Specific Skills

Perception and Expression of Emotion: * Identifying and expressing emotions in ones physical states, feelings, and thoughts. * Identifying and expressing emotions in other people, artwork, language, etc. Assimilating Emotion in Thought: * Emotions prioritize thinking in productive ways. * Emotions generate aids to judgment and memory. Understanding and Analyzing Emotion: * Ability to label emotions and simultaneous feelings. * Ability to understand relationships associated with shifts of emotion. Reflective Regulation of Emotion: * Ability to stay open to feelings * Ability to reflectively monitor and regulate emotions.

Major areas of Skills and Specific Skills

Intrapersonal Skills: * Emotional self-awareness, * Assertiveness, * Self-Regard * Self-Actualization, * Independence Interpersonal Skills: * Interpersonal Relationships * Social Responsibility * Empathy Adaptability Scales: * Problem Solving * Reality Testing * Flexibility Stress-Management Scales: * Stress Tolerance * Impulse * Control General Mood: * Happiness * Optimism

Major areas of Skills and Specific Skills

Knowing Ones Emotions: * Recognizing a feeling as it happens * Monitoring feelings from moment to moment Managing Emotions * Handling feelings so they are appropriate, ability to soothe oneself, ability to shake off rampant anxiety, gloom, or irritability Motivating Oneself: * Marshalling emotions in the service of a goal. * Delaying gratification and stifling impulsiveness, being able to get into the flow state Recognizing Emotions in Others: *Empathic awareness and attunement to what others need or want Handling Relationships: * Skill in managing emotions in others. * Interacting smoothly with others

Figure 2. Three Models of Emotional Intelligence

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The Popularization of Emotional Intelligence Golemans name (1995) will be forever linked with the concept of emotional intelligence. His bestselling book Emotional Intelligence (EI) asked on the cover Why it (EI) can matter more than IQ? His claim that emotional intelligence is a far greater predictor of success than ones intellectual intelligence (IQ) captured the worlds imagination (Bar-On & Parker, 2002). His book quickly became a bestseller and began an avalanche of interest in emotional intelligences influence. In the midst of this popularity, EI miscellaneous applications have earned it the scholars dubious designation of being the most protean of all psychological constructs, a virtual tower of Babel and a present day zeitgeist (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004, p. 9; Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso, 2000, p. 92). There are a number of possible reasons why Goldmans theory struck such a note of resonance with the general populace. Just prior to the publication of Emotional Intelligence the book The Bell Curve was published (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2000). Herrnstein and Murrays book touts intelligence as the best predictor of success. This seemingly pessimistic message of a cognitive elite, may have laid the groundwork for the immediate acceptance and widespread embracing of Golemans more utopian, classless society, unconstrained by biological heritage (Matthews et al., 2004, p. 6, 7). Golemans theory brought the hope of an intelligence that could be developed and was directly linked to success.

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The EI issue also took center stage in a Time (Gibbs, 1995) magazine cover story in the year following Golemans book (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004). During this same time frame, a Harvard Business Review (HBR) article summarizing Golemans theory of EI was published and has since had the highest percentage of readers of any article published by HBR in the past 40 years (as cited in Cherniss, 2000). The popularity of Golemans theory in such a respected business journal put the question of EIs potential impact in the forefront of business leaders thinking. Goleman claims EI is related to ones success and is in fact, the most critical of all capacities for engaging in lifes challenges (Goleman, 1995). The potential for increased effectiveness as proposed by Goldman would cause most reasonable business leaders to at least consider the possible applications of emotional intelligence theory within their business context. Two-thirds of companies linked superior performance to emotional or social qualities such as self-confidence, flexibility, persistence, empathy, and the ability to get along with others (Cherniss, 2000 p.449). In addition, Cherniss says ninety percent of the necessary competencies for leadership positions are emotional and social in nature. This has resulted in the willingness of companies within the American context to spend $50 billion annually on training, much of it in the areas of social and emotional capacities. Four out of five companies reported spending training dollars to promote emotional intelligence. The areas believed most essential for training include developing greater emotional self-

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awareness, self-management, and empathy as well as building social skills (Cherniss, 2000, p. 449). Golemans Theory Golemans theory of emotional intelligence has continued to evolve since it was first introduced in 1995 (Goleman, 1995, 1998, 2002). The evolution has simplified and focused the theory, as well as specifically applying EI to leadership and leadership styles. The previous model included five domains. These have now been simplified to include four domains: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relational management, with eighteen competencies instead of the original twenty-five (Goleman, 2002). The most striking shift in this evolution is the departure from elements of the framework categorized as social skills and empathy. The criticisms of Golemans model, as an eclectic mixture of various constructs, may have influenced the shifts present in his current construct. It appears to more cleanly delineate between elements of EI relating to the individual and those relating with others. The factors previously grouped as social skills and empathy have been recast under the broad categories of social awareness and relational management (Goleman, 2002). These categories provide a more defined umbrella than the previous components, and may well simplify the theory, making it more memorable and readily accessible particularly in a business setting. Golemans current iteration of the theory has personal and social competencies, each divided into awareness and management. The personal competencies focus on the capacity essential to manage oneself. These are grouped in

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two categories, that of self-awareness and of self-management. Similarly, the social competencies, those capacities that determine how one manages relationships, are divided into social awareness, and relational management (Goleman, 1998, 2002). These broad categories seem to provide a much more easily managed and clearly delineated construct. EI can now be described in a relatively simple sentence such as Emotional Intelligence is about how we read and manage our emotion, and how well we read and engage with the emotion of those around us. Goleman summarizes the body of EI theory as the abilities to recognize and regulate emotions in ourselves and in others (Goleman, 2001b, p.14). Though this simplification may potentially heighten criticism, it has similarly decreased barriers for popular engagement and consideration. The big idea of Golemans theory may be readily grasped, and this simplicity is reinforced by a well thought out theory and a contextualized expression of EI in leadership. The theory of emotional intelligence domains and their associated competencies focus around four major areas: self-awareness and self-management as the personal competencies and social awareness and relationship management as social competencies (Goleman, 2002). Each of these competencies has a series of components. The first element of the personal competencies is self-awareness, which is reading ones own emotions and recognizing their impact for using ones gut sense in making decisions. Secondly, there is accurate self-knowledge, the ability to know ones own strengths and limitations. The final component of self-awareness includes self-confidence, where one has an accurate or

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sound sense of ones capacities and worth. Goleman (2002) begins his theory with the leader developing the capacity to know him or herself. A wise leader once said be a student of life, a student of others, and a student of yourself (W. Wiersbe in a personal conversation, 1978). Golemans theory reflects this same sentiment. The degree to which the leader understands his or her own internal workings will directly relate to their ability to understand others. Self-management is made up of six competencies, including the ability to control ones emotions; here one needs to keep disruptive emotions and impulses under control. Second is transparency, the ability to display integrity and honesty in ones emotions, which creates a sense of trustworthiness. Adaptability follows with flexibility in dealing with changes in situations and overcoming obstacles. Achievement includes the ability or drive to improve performance to meet ones internal standard of excellence. The readiness to act and take advantage of opportunities is considered initiative. A final quality of self-management is optimism, the ability to see the positive elements in events. The second domain of emotional intelligence is social competence. These capabilities relate to how one manages relationships. The two areas of social awareness and relational management similarly have a variety of competencies. Social awareness includes empathy, which is the ability to sense others emotions, truly gaining an understanding of their perspective, and actively engaging in their concerns. Organizational awareness includes knowledge of current events, networks, where

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decisions are created, and politics at the organizational level. Finally, service is ones response to customer, client, and followers needs (Goleman, 2002). Relational management includes the capacity to be an inspirational leader, able to give guidance and motivation, generated by a compelling vision. Influence flows from an ability to persuade others with a variety of methods. The ability to develop others focuses on recognizing abilities and providing opportunities to use these, while providing feedback and guidance. Being a change catalyst, able to lead in a new direction, and initiate, and manage the process is the next competency. Next, conflict resolution includes managing disagreements, as well as being able to build bonds and cultivate a web of relationships. Finally, the capacity for collaboration and teamwork makes up the relational management cluster (Goleman, 2002). The applications of the social competencies are at the core of much of a leaders key functions. Goleman (2002) has provided clarity to the elements that are readily grasped and interacted over. The social awareness area is somewhat truncated and could have included other components, but again, this may have excessively complicated the theory decreasing potential utilization. Now that the basic components of Golemans theory have been clarified, an overview of Bar-Ons EI model will be provided. BarOn EQ-i Theory Bar-Ons model of emotional intelligence was initially developed before Goleman popularized the concept (Bar-On, 1997c). The major elements of the theory will be discussed with the connection to Golemans model of emotional intelligence for leaders.

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Reuven Bar-On defines EI as an array of non-cognitive capabilities, competencies, and skills that influence ones ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures (BarOn, 1997a, 2004). Bar-Ons model has five categories that are each divided into subscales. Intrapersonal skills include self-regard, emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, independence, and self-actualization. Interpersonal skills are broken into empathy, social responsibility, and interpersonal relationship. Adaptability includes reality testing, flexibility, and problem solving. Stress management is divided into stress tolerance and impulse control. Finally, general mood involves optimism and happiness. The BarOn EQ-i Technical Manual (Bar-On, 2002, p. 15-18) describes each of the factorial components of the model as follows: Intrapersonal Skills Subscales: Self-Regard (SR): Self regard is the ability to respect and accept oneself as basically good. Respecting oneself is essentially liking the way one is. Self-acceptance is the ability to accept ones perceived positive and negative aspects as well as ones limitations and possibilities. This conceptual component of emotional intelligence is associated with general feelings of security, inner strength, self-assuredness, selfconfidence, and feelings of self-adequacy. Feeling sure of oneself is dependent upon selfrespect and self-esteem, which are based on a fairly well-developed sense of identity. A person with good self-regard feels filled and satisfied with him or herself.

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Emotional Self-Awareness (ES): Emotional self-awareness is the ability to recognize ones feelings. It is not only the ability to be aware of ones feelings and emotions, but also to differentiate between them, to know what one is feeling and why, and to know what caused the feelings. Assertiveness (AS): Assertiveness is the ability to express feelings, beliefs, and thoughts and to defend ones right in a nondestructive manner. Assertiveness is composed of three basic components: (1) the ability to express feelings, (2) the ability to express beliefs and thoughts openly, and (3) the ability to stand up for personal rights. Assertive people are not overly controlled or shy- they are able to outwardly express their feelings outwardly, without being aggressive or abusive. Independence (IN): Independence is the ability to be self-directed and selfcontrolled in ones thinking and actions and to be free of emotional dependency. Independent people are self-reliant in planning and making important decisions. They may, however, seek and consider other peoples opinions before making the right decision for themselves in the end; consulting others is not necessarily a sign of dependency. Independence is essentially the ability to function autonomously versus needing protection and support -independent people avoid clinging to others in order to satisfy their emotional needs. The ability to be independent rests on ones degree of selfconfidence, inner strength, and desire to meet expectations and obligations, without becoming a slave to them.

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Self-Actualization (SA): Self-actualization pertains to the ability to realize ones potential capacities. This component of emotional intelligence manifests through becoming involved in pursuits that lead to a meaningful, rich, and full life. Striving to actualize ones potential involves developing enjoyable and meaningful activities and can mean a lifelong effort and an enthusiastic commitment to long-term goals. Selfactualization is an ongoing, dynamic process of striving towards maximum development of ones abilities, capacities, and talents. This factor is associated with persistently trying to do ones best and trying to improve oneself in general. Excitement about ones interests energizes and motivates him or her to continue these interests. Interpersonal Skills: Empathy (EM): Empathy is the ability to be aware of, to understand, and to appreciate the feelings of others. It is tuning in to what, how, and why people feel the way they do. Being empathetic means being able to emotionally read other people. Empathetic people care about others and show interest in and concern for others. Social Responsibility (RE): Social responsibility is the ability to demonstrate oneself as a cooperative, contributing, and constructive member of ones social group. This ability involves acting in a responsible manner even though one may not benefit personally. Socially responsible people have social consciousness and a basic concern for others, manifested by being able to take on community-oriented responsibilities. This component relates to the ability to do things for and with others, accepting others, acting in accordance with ones conscience, and upholding social rules. These people possess

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interpersonal sensitivity and are able to accept others and use their talents for the good of the collective, not just the self. People who are deficient in this ability may entertain antisocial attitudes, act abusively toward others, and take advantage of others. Interpersonal Relations (IR): Interpersonal relations skill involves the ability to establish and maintain mutually satisfying relationships that are characterized by intimacy and by giving and receiving affection. Mutual satisfaction includes meaningful social interchanges that are potentially rewarding and enjoyable. Positive interpersonal relationship skill is characterized by the ability to give and receive warmth and affection and to convey intimacy to another human being. This component is not only associated with the desirability of cultivating friendly relations with others, but with the ability to feel at ease and comfortable in such relations and to possess positive expectations concerning social intercourse. This emotional skill generally requires sensitivity toward others, a desire to establish relations, and feeling satisfied with relationships. Adaptability: Reality Testing (RT): Reality testing is the ability to assess the correspondence between what is experienced and what objectively exists. Reality testing involves a search for objective evidence to confirm, justify, and support feelings, perceptions, and thoughts. Reality testing involves turning in to the immediate situation, attempting to keep things in the correct perspective, and experiencing things as they really are, without excessively fantasizing or daydreaming about them. The emphasis is on pragmatism, objectivity, the adequacy of ones perception and authenticating ones ideas and thoughts. An important

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aspect of this factor is the degree of perceptional clarity evident when trying to assess and cope with situations; it involves the ability to concentrate and focus when examining ways of coping with situations that arise. Reality testing is associated with a lack of withdrawal from the outside world, a tuning into the immediate situation, and lucidity and clarity in perceptions and thought processes. In simple terms, reality testing is the ability to accurately size up the immediate situation. Flexibility (FL): Flexibility is the ability to adjust ones emotions, thoughts, and behavior to changing situations and conditions. This component of emotional intelligence refers to ones overall ability to adapt to unfamiliar, unpredictable, and dynamic circumstances. Flexible people are agile, synergistic, and capable of reacting to change, without rigidity. These people are able to change their minds when evidence suggests that they are mistaken. They are generally open to and tolerant of different ideas, orientations, ways, and practices. Problem Solving (PS): Problem solving aptitude is the ability to identify and define problems as well as to generate and implement potentially effective solutions. Problem solving is multiphasic in nature and includes the ability to go through a process of (1) sensing a problem and feeling confident and motivated to deal with it effectively, (2) defining and formulating the problem as clearly as possible, (3) generating as many solutions as possible, and (4) making a decision to implement one of the solutions. Problem solving is associated with being conscientious, disciplined, methodical, and

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systematic in persevering and approaching problems. The skill is also linked to a desire to do ones best and to confront problems, rather than avoiding them. Stress Management: Stress Tolerance (ST): Stress tolerance is the ability to withstand adverse events and stressful situations without falling apart by actively and positively coping with stress. It is the ability to weather difficult situations without getting too overwhelmed. This ability is based on (1) the capacity to choose courses of action for coping with stress, (2) an optimistic disposition toward new experiences and change in general, and towards ones ability to successfully overcome the specific problem at hand, and (3) a feeling that one can control or influence the stressful situation. This component of emotional intelligence is very similar to what has been referred to as ego strength and positive coping. Stress tolerance includes having a repertoire of suitable responses to stressful situations. It is associated with the capacity to be relaxed and composed and to calmly face difficulties, without getting carried away by strong emotions. People who have good stress tolerance tend to face crises and problems, rather than surrendering to feelings of helplessness and hopelessness. Anxiety often results when this component of emotional intelligence is not functioning adequately, which has an ill effect on general performance because of poor concentration, difficulty in making decisions, and somatic problems like sleep disturbance. Impulse Control (IC): Impulse control is the ability to resist or delay an impulse, drive, or temptation to act. It entails a capacity for accepting ones aggressive impulses,

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being composed, and controlling aggression, hostility, and irresponsible behavior. Problems in impulse control are manifested by low frustration tolerance, impulsiveness, anger control problems, abusiveness, loss of self-control, and explosive and unpredictable behavior. General Mood: Optimism (OP): Optimism is the ability to look at the brighter side of life and to maintain a positive attitude even in the face of adversity. Optimism assumes a measure of hope in ones approach to life. It is a positive approach to daily living. Optimism is the opposite of pessimism, which is a common symptom of depression. Happiness (HA): Happiness is the ability to feel satisfied with ones life, to enjoy oneself and others, and to have fun. Happiness combines self-satisfaction, general contentment, and the ability to enjoy life. This component of emotional intelligence involves the ability to enjoy various aspects of ones life and life in general. Happy people often feel good and at ease in both work and leisure; they are able to let their hair down and enjoy opportunities to have fun. Happiness is associated with a general feeling of cheerfulness and enthusiasm. Happiness is a by-product and/or barometric indicator of ones overall degree of emotional intelligence and emotional functioning. A person who demonstrates a low degree of this factor may possess symptoms typical of depression, such as a tendency to worry, uncertainty about the future, social withdrawal, lack of drive, depressive thoughts, feelings of guilt, dissatisfaction with ones life and, in extreme cases, suicidal thoughts and behavior (Bar-On, 2002, p. 15-18).

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Bar-Ons theory of emotional intelligence can be tested using the BarOn EQ-i. The EQ-i is scored similarly to the IQ test. The average score of 100 with a standard deviation of 15 and is based on 3831 participants in the North American sample (Bass, 2000, p. 26). A score of 130 and above is considered markedly high and atypically well developed. 90-100 is average and less than 70 is considered markedly low and may indicate impaired emotional capacity. More details of the test will follow in the methodology section, but first a discussion of the validity of the concept of emotional intelligence must be considered.

Is EI a Distinctive Construct? This overview of the models highlights the similarities and differences of the four models. A major question confronting the various theories of emotional intelligence relates to the overall distinctiveness of emotional intelligence. Is it merely a new label for existing constructs or is it indeed a new construct (Neubauer and Freudenthaler, 2005, p. 48)? Historically, personality theory is one of the best-defined constructs, so the relationship of EI to personality theory is a helpful place to begin a discussion of its distinctiveness. Salovey and Sluyter (1997) overlay the three major EI models with personality theory, and its major subsystems. Figure 3 highlights the overlap of Bar-On, Goleman, and Mayer and Salovey theories with the established qualities of personalitys intrapersonal and interpersonal qualities (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004). In the figure

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each theorist is given a symbol to identify elements from their respective theories. BarOn uses a , Goleman a !, and Mayer-Salovey a " . This allows for the elements of the major theories to be identified with components of personality theory.

Purpose of Subsystem
Satisfying Internal Needs High: Learned Models Intrapersonal Qualities Interpersonal Skills ! Motivating Oneself Motivational and Emotions Interactions Stress Managements Skill Responding to the External World Interpersonal Qualities Interpersonal Skills ! Handling Relationships Emotional and Cognitive Interactions
" " " "

Middle: Interactive Functions

Perception of Emotion Facilitating Emotion in Thought Understanding Emotion Regulating Emotions

Knowing Ones Emotion ! Recognizing Emotions in Others ! Managing Emotions

!

Low: Biologically Related Mechanism

Motivational Directions

Emotional Qualities General Mood

Cognitive Abilities Adaptability Skills

Bar-On (1997)

! Goleman (1995)

"

Mayer-Salovey (1997)

Figure 3. Personality and Its Major Subsystems A lack of substantial overlap between the three theories is evident to some degree. The greatest overlap with personality theory is in the emotional and cognitive interactions. Here Goleman, Bar-On, as well as Mayer and Salovey, have major theoretical components commonly associated with personality. Bar-On and Goleman

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both have included intra and interpersonal qualities, overlapping with personality theory, while Mayer and Saloveys theory is more associated with the middle interactive function, where personality skills are defined. There is overlap with Goleman in some of the acknowledged lower biologically related personality mechanisms. EI theories have significant overlap with personality theory, but it would not be accurate to view them as lacking distinctiveness. EI theory may include personality qualities but EI is broader and more inclusive. The question of EI being a distinct construct is only one of a variety of criticisms confronting the EI theories. These criticisms will now be considered in more depth.

Critique of EI Models EIs exuberant following has led to a similar burst of critics. An overarching concern is the number of measures, practices, and interventions that have emerged before critical questions have been answered though empirical research (Wilhelm, 2005). The most comprehensive criticism of EI and the various models has come from Matthews, Zeidner, and Roberts highlighting of seven myths of EI theory (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004). These so called seven myths of EI will serve as an outline for the broader criticisms of the EI construct. The authors believe that there are major conceptual, psychometric, and applied problems and issues to be overcome, before EI can be considered a genuine, scientifically validated construct, with real life practical significance (Matthews et al.). These authors have categorized EI as primarily a

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cheerleading function, focused on whipping up support for interventions based on cognitive, emotional, and behavioral skills (Matthews et al.). The So-called Seven Myths of EI The first myth considers the conceptual coherence of EI definitions. Mathews, Roberts, and Zeidner (2004), see a number of different and divergent definitions that vary in their internal cohesion. They identify the need for consensus between researchers on a definition of emotional intelligence and a greater connection to the existing body of theory for emotion, personality, and intelligence. Myth two questions the standardization of the psychometric criteria in the measurement of EI. There is little convergence between the ability based and self-report based tests. Content validity is questionable due to conceptual problems, similar constructs and predictive validities. These theorists believe EI has demonstrated some promising beginnings, but believe the validity is limited as yet (Matthews, Roberts, & Zeidner, 2004; Neubauer & Freudenthaler, 2005). A related concern focuses on EI tests bypassing critical steps to arbitrarily defined sampling domains and processes (Perez, Petrides, & Furnham, 2005). Myth three highlights the distinction of personality constructs from self-report emotional intelligence tests. Personalitys Big Five, particularly optimism, empathy, and self-esteem demonstrate substantial overlap. This lack in discriminate validity with personality theory substantially diminishes the usability of a self-report test (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004). Similarly, Brody finds that there is no convincing evidence

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that the MSCEIT provides incremental predictive validity over and above standard measures of intelligence and personality (Brody, 2004, p. 237). Various combinations of constructs are discussed with the common theme of delineating one from the other and highlighting areas of overlap. Some have recommended the need to establish discriminate and convergent validity of crystallized and fluid abilities in the major domains of emotional, academic, and social intelligence (Kang, Day, & Meara, 2005). Other theorists add the category of practical intelligence (Austin & Saklofske, 2005). The fourth myth questions if emotional intelligence ability tests meet the criteria of cognitive intelligence. The substantial challenges in standardizing vertical criteria, and in scoring EI ability tests, leave questions regarding the measure of a true ability (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004). The self-report tests appear to largely index personality traits rather than abilities (MacCann, Mathews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2003), and remain rather contained to a psychometrically driven focus (Neubauer & Freudenthaler, 2005). Myth five focuses on the assumption that emotional intelligences relationship with emotion is similar to IQs relationship with cognition. Mathews, Zeidner, and Roberts find the separation of the emotional and cognitive systems as distinctive intelligence to be conceptually confusing and in conflict with substantial bodies of theory related to self-regulation and emotion (Matthews et al.). They highlight four defined constructs worthy of further delineation: temperament, information processing, emotional

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self-confidence and emotional knowledge and skills (Zeidner, Roberts, & Matthews 2004). The sixth myth queries the predictive ability of EI on adaptive coping. In question are the veracity of correlations between coping skills and various outcome measures. The authors question as simplistic a single continuum to differentiate individual adaptation (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004). Finally, myth seven focuses on the assertions of EI as essential for success in the real world. The lack of applied studies to support this belief is highlighted, in addition to the costly nature of EI training interventions, with their proposed benefit (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004). Specific to the issue of leader effectiveness, Antonakis states the empirical evidence of EIs impact on leader emergence or effectiveness as nonexistent, or very weak at best, and contradictory at worst (Antonakis, 2003, p. 359). Further concern focuses on the increasingly common EI educational programs in the academic setting that lack a scientifically and theoretically sound base (Goetz, Frenzel, Pekrun, & Hall, 2005). A Response Despite such harsh criticism, emotional intelligence is a topic that transcends disciplines and fields (Schmidt, 2004, p. 442). EI provides an important conceptual framework for guiding research on emotional phenomena (Barrett & Salovey, 2002, p. 7). Emotional intelligence is viewed as an intelligence that operates on and with emotional information, such as the meaning of emotions, emotional patterns, and

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sequences, and the appraisals of the relationships they reflect (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004, p. 209). These authors had two responses to the criticism of Mathews, Zeidner, and Roberts. First, they sought to separate themselves from Golemans claims of EIs as the best predictor of success in life (Goleman, 1995, p. 34) by stating such claims do a disservice to the field and by reminding the reader of their frequent arguments against such claims (Mayer, et al., 2004 b, p. 206). Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso also have a number of comments on their MSCEIT test countering the criticism leveled against them (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004). They conceded that some of the criticism is indeed legitimate, especially in the near infinite list of desirable, but possibly unattainable criteria for just about any measurement procedure (Mayer, et al., 2004 b, p. 211). Other theorists suggest there is hope in using consensus based scoring as way forward to measure validity (Legree, Psotka, Tremble, & Bourne, 2005). A general affirmation of the MSCEIT as the most ambitions and, to date, the most appropriate approach to the broad assessment of emotions related capabilities, furthers the dialogue on EI testing in the positive direction (Wilhelm, 2005, p. 149). With full recognition of some of the testing challenges, a number of theorists affirm the promising nature of EI. Researchers are considering applications of EI within the field of clinical psychology for possible applications in treatment of disorders such as those associated with alexithymia (Parker, 2005). Others go as far as viewing EI as the most promising of the new constructs emerging from psychological science that is directed towards improving the human condition (Roberts, Schulze, Zeidner, &

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Mathews, 2005, p. 312). What is most striking about this affirmation is that three of the authors now affirming EI were the very ones to scathingly highlight the Seven Myths of EI (Matthews, Zeidner, & Roberts, 2004). This concludes the overview of emotional intelligence. Despite challenges to the theory, most agree that the relevance and application of the theory has significant potential benefits in business and everyday life. Next an overview of transformational leadership theory will be provided.

History of Transaction and Transformational Leadership Burns first introduced the model of transactional and transformational leadership in 1978. In the intervening years, this seminal work has spawned extensive research, supporting the distinction between, and the impact of, these expressions of leadership (Bass, 1999a). Transformational leadership theory finds its roots in the Socratic and Confucian typologies advocacy of moral character and virtue (Bass). This moral character forms the foundation for a transformational leader to motivate followers towards transcendent goals and higher levels of self-actualized needs, rather than a simple exchange relationship with followers (Burns, 1978). Transformational leadership occurs when leaders broaden and elevate the interests of employees, while generating awareness and acceptance of the purposes and mission of the group, they stir their employees to look beyond their own self-interest for the good of the group (Bass, 1990).

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The Model Bass originally conceived transactional and transformational leadership to include seven leadership factors including: charisma, inspiration, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration, contingent rewards, management-by-exception, and laissezfaire leadership (Bass, 1985). Gradually, the lack of empirical distinction between charismatic and inspirational leadership led to collapsing these two factors into one, and the current six-factor model of transformational and transactional leadership (Bass, 1988, 1997, 1997 Summer; Bass & Avolio, 1990). In spite of this shift, charismatic leadership is seen as central in the transformational leadership process, and has resulted in the model at times being called Charismatic/Transformational Leadership (Bass, 1985). Transformational leadership is built on an augmented expression of transactional leadership, as it contributes to subordinate effort, satisfaction, and effectiveness (Seltzer & Bass, 1990, p. 695). Transactional leadership focuses on the elements of contingent rewards, management-by-exception, and laissez-faire leadership. The four components of transformational leadership include: idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration (Bass, 1988, 1997; Bass & Avolio, 1990). These elements are in contrast with pseudo-transformational leadership by demonstrating: 1. moral character and genuine concern for others and self, 2. deeply embedded ethical values as the foundation for the leaders vision and articulation of programs that followers are free to embrace or reject, and 3. the foundational morality for

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processing social and ethical actions or choices, where followers and the leaders collectively engage (Bass & Steidimeier, 1999). The two models of transformational leadership and EI have tremendous relevance for each other. The transformational leadership models emphasis on clearly articulating a vision as well as explaining how it can be reached, overlaps with Golemans visionary leadership style. A visionary style has been demonstrated as the most effective of the six leadership styles. The capacity to continually remind people of the larger picture and gain meaning, amidst the dailies of the work world, results in shared objectives and connections with peoples own motivations and interests. Visionary leadership tends to result in inspired work (Goleman, 2002). Visionary leaders do well in a variety of business situations, particularly when changes are needed. The visionary mode comes naturally to transformational leaders who seek to radically change an organization (Goleman, 2002 p.58). This leadership style draws on the EI competencies such as self-confidence, empathy, and acting as a change agent. Bass identifies the highest expression of transformational leadership as charismatic or idealized influence, followed by inspirational influence. The latter may also involve Golemans affiliative leadership. Both are involved in the process of vision casting and realization.

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Trust and the Scope of Todays Business Context The transformational leadership style effectively confronts many of the current shifts in todays business world. These shifts include: the elimination of middle management positions to create a flatter organization, the increased levels of integration and interdependency, and the need to build trust and motivation for retention and optimization of work force capacity (Avolio, Bass, & Jung, 1999). With the seemingly ever-increasing pace of change in the business arena, a leader needs to be flexible, adaptable, and readily able to provide creative solutions in dynamic situations (Bass, Avolio, Jung, & Berson, 2003). An emotionally intelligent leader is well equipped to flourish in this type of business setting. These leaders demonstrate organizational awareness in their sensitivity to the shifts occurring in the business setting. They are adaptable and readily able to flex as changes or challenges arise. They are well connected in supportive networks that alert them to issues, and provide mentoring, coaching and possible job opportunities if warranted (Goleman, 2002). Transactional leaders are able to build a baseline level of trust by establishing clear expectations and standards of performance. The development of internally based trust seems to be associated with the followers personal identification with a charismatic-transformational leader. The combination of this identification and commensurate trust is believed to sustain performance by followers over time (Bass,

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Avolio, Jung, & Berson, 2003). The emotional awareness of an emotionally intelligent leader facilitates the development of this type of trust. The accurate self-assessment and self-confident approach in combination with a humble, genuine transparency builds this sense of trustworthiness in the hearts of followers. At times the leaders empathy and willingness to serve those he or she leads may further develop this trust (Bass, 1997; Goleman, 2002). In addition to trust, the broad application of transformational and transactional leadership has even been demonstrated in the military, (Bass, Jung, Avolio, & Berson, 2003) and trans-cultural settings (Bass, 1997). Todays increasingly globalized marketplace and military theatre are prime contexts for transformational and transactional leadership application. One study placed world-class industrial, political, and military leaders along a continuum from transformational to transactional leadership. Transformational leadership factors included charismatic, individualist consideration, and intellectual stimulation, while the transactional leaders were characterized by a focus on contingent reward and management by exception. Each of these leaders was given a mean factor score. The extensive list of world leaders living and dead could provide a provocative foundation for a study projecting emotional intelligence with these transactional and transformational designations (Bass, Avolio, & Goodheim, 1987). In these varied settings, a leader would need to show many of the competencies in the relationship management domain. The need to act as a catalyst for change, to work through conflict, to build strong networks, to

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develop future leaders and to influence and inspire, would most likely be characteristics of the leaders most strongly identified as transformational (Goleman, 2002).

Leadership and Organizational Culture The Organizations culture develops in large part from its leadership (Bass & Avolio, 1993, p.112). Cultures that are highly satisfying and innovative will tend to see more transformational leaders demonstrating foundational presuppositions such as: people are trustworthy and purposeful; everyone has a unique contribution to make; and complex problems are handled at the lowest possible level (Bass & Avolio, 1993, p. 113). These leaders inspire ownership in a clearly stated vision and readily empower others to attain their shared vision. Transformational leaders delight to teach and develop people, with recognition of their strengths and unique motivations or contributions. These leaders promote a dynamic, nimble environment that readily adapts and views change positively (Bass & Avolio, 1993). The resonance created by a strongly emotionally intelligent leader can be one of the strongest influences on corporate culture (Abraham, 2005). Goleman cites a Hays Group study that found a leaders EI may be the most important driver in the corporate climate. The organizations climate is believed to be responsible for twenty to thirty percent of its performance (Goleman, 2001a). A transformational leader can use this ability to influence the environment along the values and mission of the organization. Clearly emotional intelligence competencies are highly

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relevant to a leader modeling a transformational style (Dulewicz & Higgs, 1999, 2000, 2003). This summary places transformational leadership within its historical setting and demonstrates the many parallels with emotional intelligence. The literature seems to promote the view that an emotional intelligent leader leads in a transformational manner. Studies of Emotional Intelligence and Leadership The number of books, programs, and companies focused on helping leaders understand and develop emotional intelligence has grown exponentially in the last ten years (Matthews, Roberts, & Zeidner, 2004). Unfortunately, very little of this activity is based in scholarly academic research specifically focused on executive leaders. A consideration of possible reasons for the current gap in research among executive leaders will be proposed. Despite this lack of research, substantial theoretical writings have been developed, although only limited research findings are readily available. The theoretical and research literature will be analyzed and synthesized for relevance to emotional intelligences impact on executive leader effectiveness. The broader body of research will also be considered for relevant findings. The majority of the studies involving leadership and Emotional Intelligence have focused on a population outside of the executive boardroom (Bryson, 2005; Cavallo & Brienza, n.d.; Antonakis, 2003; Prati, Douglas, Ferris, Ammeter, & Buckley, 2003). Research has been done within the military, (Abraham, 2005) executive nursing leaders, (Maggs-Rapport, 2000, 2001) government officials, (Athanasaw, 2003) physicians,

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(Johansson, Risberg, Hamberg, & Westman, 2002; Oginska-Bulik, 2005) middle management, (Prati et al.) and individuals categorized by a variety of definitions as leaders. This latter category may include anything from participation in student leadership groups or campus government, to individuals who enjoy filling in online surveys, who also hold some role of leadership in a job, social, or religious group. The definitions of leaders in studies such as this are broad and generously inclusive. Most of the studies have little or no executive level participation. Despite these challenges, there are numerous references to studies of executives and substantial discussion in the wide range of popular books focused on emotional intelligence (Cooper & Sawaf, 1997; Goleman, 1995, 1998, 2001; Merlevede & Birdoux, 2004; Merlevede, Bridoux, & Vandamme, 2001; Ryback, 1998; Weisinger, 1998). Many of these studies would not pass as scholarly contributions to the field of study. There are also a number of studies mentioning executives, but the findings are not published for academic consideration. Some of these are found on consulting company websites or in promotional materials. With some high end consulting groups it may be understandable to limit access to research findings, as proprietary knowledge could be set forth in interviews or results with senior executives. A search of online academic and business databases with the key words emotional intelligence and executive, give zero full text, peer-reviewed findings. There is one short article from Australia dealing with IQ of executives, but this was not an extensive study with academic veracity (Calzoni, 2003). Previous discussions have highlighted the 51

challenges of construct validity and the numerous criticisms of the lack of scholarly studies (Matthews, Roberts, & Zeidner, 2004). In the area of emotional intelligence this is dramatically evident within the executive population. The ways emotional intelligence impacts an executives effectiveness is worthy of scholarly focus. Possible reasons for this apparent gap in the study of emotional intelligence may be due to issues of access and motivation. The challenge of gaining access to executive leaders who are busy and possibly unwilling to participate in academic studies may be a primary reason why so few research studies exist. Additionally, the time required to complete testing and or interviews, apart from a personal commitment or interest in the topic, may be very difficult to secure. The economic gap and/or social strata disparity with students or academics likely to pursue studies in the area of emotional intelligence and the executive may be highly challenging to overcome. These are a number of possible reasons for the gap in academic research in the area of EIs affect on executive leader effectiveness. With this acknowledgement of the limitations within the research, the current theories and research findings will be synthesized and other general research will be incorporated in examining the effect of emotional intelligence on executive leader effectiveness. Emotional intelligence theorists passionately believe EI is critical to executive leader effectiveness (Boyatzis & McKee, 2005; Cherniss & Goleman, 2001; Ciarrochi, Fogas, & Mayer, 2001; Goleman, 1995, 1998, 2001; Weisinger, 1998). When a broad view of EI is considered, substantial research will demonstrate support of this belief. The 52

various elements of most leadership models from the transformational period until today, demonstrated a strong linkage between the constructs of EI and leadership (Dulewicz & Higgs, 2003). The related theories and research findings specific to EI will be discussed, followed by the broader body of leadership literature with its potential applications to executive EI. The interaction between feelings and thinking, passion and reason, emotion and cognition is found throughout the body of emotional intelligence literature (Caruso & Salovey, 2004). The importance of emotions to provide data that assists us in making rational decisions and behaving in adaptive ways (Caruso & Salovey, 2004), is at the root of why emotional intelligence is vital for an executive leader. Todays business world is in many ways the jungle of our day: survival of the fittest often determines which executive or businesses will survive to fight another day. Emotional intelligence is believed to help an executive adapt and excel in the midst of a highly competitive, dynamic environment. Emotional intelligence at its most general level, refers to the abilities to recognize and regulate the emotion in ourselves and others (Goleman, 2001). These two broad categories are viewed as foundational to what will enable a leader to function effectively. The major areas dealing with the self include self-awareness and self-esteem (Goleman). Areas more focused in dealing with others include: interpersonal and social skills, organizational commitment, leadership, performance, conflict management, vision casting, and decision-making (Abraham, 2005; Goleman, 2002). 53

Many of the EI theorists believe EI elements strongly support and often parallel qualities of effective leadership. EI, when compared to the six leadership models of Bass, Alimo-Metcalfe, Goffee and Jones, Kouznes & Posner, Kotter, and Bennis, demonstrates significant commonalities (Dulewicz & Higgs, 2003). The major qualities of EI are represented in one or more of these leadership theories. It is this overlap of EI with acknowledged leadership qualities that supports its potential relationship with executive leadership. Not only is there evidence of EIs overlap with leadership theory, but some believe EI is essential in confronting the core challenges of leadership. These have been identified as: building effective teams, planning and deciding effectively, motivating people, communicating vision, promoting change, and creating effective interpersonal relationships (Caruso & Salovey, 2004). EI plays a vital role in each of these critical competencies of leadership. EI has been affirmed as highly relevant to the broader body of leadership literature and the core skills of leading. Now some of the specific EI theories of leadership will be discussed. The importance of a leaders connection with those he or she leads became the focus of Golemans application of EI to leadership. Emotional resonance with followers is distilled as the essence of what an emotionally intelligent leader does. Leadership that creates this resonance with followers is described as primal (Goleman, 2002). These leaders are able to generate excitement, passion, optimism, and cultivate an environment of trust and cooperation (Goleman). 54

The theory deals with the biological interplay at the limbic system level between leaders and followers (Goleman, 2002). Emotionally intelligent leaders are believed to have a knack for acting as limbic attractors exerting a palpable force on the emotional brains of people around them. This contagious interplay is at the basis of what the authors describe as primal- as both the original and most important act to of leadership. Primal leaders serve as a groups emotional guide. They have the capacity to establish norms, optimize collaboration, and harmony, while orchestrating each members opportunity to offer their talent to the team (Goleman). The issues of resonance and a leaders impact on the work setting were found to significantly impact overall effectiveness in a study by (Abraham, 2005). The findings demonstrated how the leaders emotions impact the overall emotional climate in their respective sphere. The affect extends to both individuals and teams. A leaders positive mood was associated with stimulating creativity, promoting flexible decision-making, heightening embracing of the firms transcendent goals, and increasing motivation (Abraham). The leader is shown to play a key role in the relationship of EI and organizational commitment. As previously demonstrated, there is a broad dialogue around emotional intelligence within this debate; some question Abrahams admirable attempts at seeking to demonstrate this connection, but suggest, the scientific evidence supporting workplace applications is often equivocal (Roberts, Schulze, Zeidner, & Mathews, 2005). Here again the need for further investigation is clearly demonstrated.

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In todays business organization the primordial emotional task of leadership is driving the collective emotions in a positive direction and clearing of the smog created by toxic emotions (Goleman, 2002). This is true for executive leaders as well as for any leader across the organization (George, 2000), proposed a similar concept believing EI facilitated various elements of leadership including: building engagement around unified objectives and goals, promoting the value of work, developing a climate of enthusiasm, excitement, optimism, cooperation, and trust, and helping to foster adaptability in change (George, 2000). CEOs with higher levels of EI competencies demonstrated higher levels of financial effectiveness in both profit and growth (Williams, 1994 as cited in Goleman, 2001a). There was also a direct relationship with the ability to predict profits of the whole organization based on how the senior executive scored on EI testing (Goleman). A similar Hay/McBer study of 3781 executives demonstrated that 50 to 70 percent of employees perceptions of working climate is linked to the EI characteristics of the leader (Goleman). These studies also considered the leadership style used by leaders and concluded that leaders with the highest level of profit and growth utilized the widest range of leadership styles and did so in highly contextualized ways (Goleman, 2001). The Hays study found that a leaders EI may be the most important driver on the working climate and that climate is believed to account for 20 to 30 percent of organizational performance (Goleman). Goleman himself admits that there is a need for further research in these areas (Goleman, 2001b). The challenge with a number of the findings is 56

that they are not available in academic settings so it is difficult to evaluate how the research was conducted. Despite these concerns it seems that an executive leader who is able to use emotions to influence themselves, others, and the environment will have a powerful impact. Two of Golemans co-authors have further developed the concept of a leaders resonance with his or her followers (Boyatzis & McKee, 2005). These leaders have high levels of emotional intelligence and are described as being awake, attuned to themselves and others, and the world around them. They live passionately from strongly held beliefs and values and share three preeminent qualities. They are mindful, seeking to live fully conscious lives with themselves, others, society, and the world around them. Secondly, daily they step into lifes uncertainties with hope and optimism with deep convictions of an individuals capacity to see their dreams become reality. They have clarity of vision and the capacity to inspire others to pursue their dreams. Finally, they are compassionate, with a deep sense of empathy for the people they lead and serve. Not only are these leaders in tune with themselves and others, they regularly practice a conscious process of renewal to maintain their level of internal resonance and attunement to those they lead (Boyatzis & McKee, 2005). A leaders understanding of their own internal emotional workings provides the bedrock capacity to create resonance with those they lead and to engage in the extensive demands of their role. Self-awareness is associated with the three competencies of selfconfidence, accurate self-assessment, and emotional self-awareness (Estep, 2004). Self57

awareness has been found to moderate transformational leadership and performance within the military context (Abraham, 2005). Individuals with high self-monitoring capacity have demonstrated superior performance within a military context. Unfortunately, it may not be feasible to generalize these findings to the corporate setting (Abraham). Self-awareness has been suggested to increase a leaders ability to manage interpersonal relationships (Abraham). This awareness has been linked to a leaders ability to self-monitor, and has been identified as a foundational relational skill in enabling a leader to deal with superiors, subordinates, and peers. The literature describes this concept of monitoring oneself as self-regulation. It is seen as a form of problem solving, in the sense of reducing the difference between the actual value and the target value of a given interval state. Practically speaking, once an emotional state has been identified it involves the ability to bring that emotion into alignment with a desired state (Goetz, Frenzel, Pekrun, & Hall, 2005). Various EI practitioners train individuals and groups in techniques for regulating emotions. Most of these practices lack a theoretical or scientifically sound basis, despite their popularity (Goetz et al., 2005). Initial studies of emotional regulatory strategies have failed to provide conclusive connections with adaptive success, although this continues to be upheld as a potential application (Gross & John, 2002). There would seem to be a broad scope of applications for emotional regulation in an executives role. These could include the ability to manage emotions in the decisionmaking or negotiating process, as well as managing disappointment, frustration, anxiety, 58

and excitement in day-to-day operations. It seems reasonable that an executive would need to have developed at least a baseline function of self-regulation to manage in an organization. Emotional outbursts are not unheard of with leaders, from the American president to major corporate CEOs, but these leaders must maintain his or her cool if they are to sustain ongoing effectiveness. This ability to manage their temper directly affects leadership effectiveness (Kleinman, 2004). Self-esteem may be defined as the effect of the evaluation of the self occurring as and in a characteristic or a more transcendent state (Abraham, 2005). Individuals with high Emotional Intelligence have the ability to understand and regulate their emotions, leading to positive mood arousal and raised self-esteem. Often these individuals have a reservoir of positive experiences to draw upon in sustaining motivation (Abraham, p.266). A basic level of self-esteem is required to confront challenges, take initiative, set direction, and to respond to relational demands. Some debate the degree to which learning impacts the development of self-esteem and question if it may be predominantly adaptive (Roberts, Schulze, Zeidner, & Mathews, 2005). It is recognized to substantially impact self-report style emotional intelligence tests (Perez, Petrides, & Furnham, 2005), and is believed to be positively correlated with EI (Abraham). The ability to minimize unhelpful self-concepts is perceived to be a strength in the emotional intelligence model. Low self-esteem is believed to develop from negative evaluations of the entire self such as a statement I am worthless and the fusing of this belief to the identity of the person (Ciarrochi & Godsell, 2005). For a leader, the ability to deal with criticism and 59

failure has a potentially substantial impact on ones self-esteem. The ability to deal with these elements as an executive could play a major role in long-term success. Making statements about the relationship of self-awareness and self-management to success seems reasonable and logical. The question of proving these claims remains open. EIs impact on success has been discussed in most EI theories. One dissertation study found contrasting data with much of the previously considered thinking of emotional intelligences positive impact on executive effectiveness (Collins, 2001). Emotional intelligence was found to not directly play a significant role in the success of the executive participants (Collins). Ninety-one senior executives from large international production and service organizations completed personality inventories, cognitive testing, 360 degree feedback, and developmental planning. In addition to these tests, some archival test data, along new emotional intelligence, and Big 5 personality dimension testing was completed (Collins). The studys six hypotheses proposed that EI would predict leadership success as measured by ratings on multi-rater feedback, position, and salary (Collins, 2001). Not only was EI not found to predict leadership success but further analysis failed to show a significant role for personality or ability measurement with emotional intelligence, beyond that of personality traits and cognition (Collins). The study identified a possible relationship with personality based EI and leadership success through self-rating (Collins). The other noteworthy finding demonstrated the impact of gender on the multirater feedback and Emotional Intelligence (Collins). 60

The lack of significant results may be due to a number of reasons. The relatively small sample size must be considered. There may also be a more complex relationship between success, emotional intelligence, and the factors tested (Collins, 2001). The design of the study in the field environment may have also played a role in the findings. Here the organizational culture was one source of uncontrolled variants in the research process. The cultural values around participation and the complex work relationships may have had an impact on the multi-rater questionnaires (Collins). In addition to the specific studies on emotional intelligence there are a number of findings from the broader leadership theories that may have relevance to the study of executive leaders. A potential doorway to gain access may be through the substantial body of literature in the area of transformational and transactional leadership (Bass, 1985, 1988, 1990, 1999a, 1999b; Bass, Avolio, Jung, & Berson, 2003; Dulewicz & Higgs, 2003). As previously discussed, (response to question 3) the numerous similarities with emotional intelligence may be a potential area to gain engagement from executives for participation in studies in the area of emotional intelligence. These are a vast number of studies that could be referenced, but for the purpose of this discussion a few of the most salient will be highlighted. One of the studies focused on Community College CEOs, where the issue of accessibility and motivation of participants was directly affected by these CEOs functioning within an academic context. The study did not deal directly with emotional intelligence but did find that CEOs need self-confidence, ambition, drive, persistence, 61

consistency, a sense of humor, and a positive orientation. They also needed to demonstrate to the group a level of interpersonal sensitivity, compassion, people orientation, trustworthiness, integrity, and honesty (Duncan & Harlacher, 1991). Critical competencies related to emotional intelligence included the capacity to cast and revitalize vision, political astuteness, leading ethically, and the ability to bring transformation and empowerment to their respective institutions (Duncan & Harlacher, 1991). A study considering Chief Executive Officers impact on team effectiveness, related to their use of consensus decision-making, demonstrated that the transformational style of leadership was significantly and positively related, while the laissez-faire style was significantly negatively related to team effectiveness (Flood et al., 2000). The critical nature of vision casting for executive leaders has been demonstrated in numerous studies (Duncan & Harlacher, 1991; Muczyk & Steel, 1998). A study of 250 CEOs of major American firms demonstrated a positive relationship between CEOs levels of charisma and CEOs performance (Agle & Sonnenfield, 1994). Similarly, studies have focused on personality and executive leaders with related findings of an overall increased effectiveness with a more transformational leadership style and with individuals who demonstrate higher levels of intuition, perceptiveness, innovation, and enthusiasm (Church & Waclawski, 1997). There is often substantial overlap in characteristics within the studies and the broader emotional intelligence models. Some studies include character and personality together, focusing on

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issues such as self-direction, self-transcendence, and cooperativeness (Peterson, Martorana, Smith, & Owens, 2003; Sperry, 1997). Two-thirds of companies linked superior performance to emotional or social qualities such as self-confidence, flexibility, persistence, empathy, and the ability to get along with others. In addition, ninety percent of the necessary competencies for leadership positions are emotional and social in nature; hence the willingness of companies within the American context to spend $50 billion annually on training, much of it in the areas of social and emotional capacities (Cherniss, 2000, p. 434). Four out of five companies reported spending training dollars to promote emotional intelligence. The areas most believe essential for training includes developing greater emotional selfawareness, self-management, and empathy as well as social skills (Cherniss, 2000, p. 449). These studies demonstrated the possible ways that emotional intelligence may affect an executive leaders functioning. As has been discussed, there is still much room for specific studies and as will be highlighted, a more comprehensive model in addressing the area of emotional intelligence.

Possible Future Considerations The field of emotional intelligence is still very much in the early stages of development. Much of the early research and theory development has been based on work with readily accessible populations. This has led to the more limited findings

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specifically based on academic research with executive leaders. As a group these individuals represent some of the most influential people in the global community. The executive population will undoubtedly remain a challenging group to access for firsthand academic research, but it is nonetheless significant and worthy of pursuit. Emotional intelligence is increasingly being appreciated as bearing the potential to organize what we know and stimulate new questions about how emotional phenomena serve adaptive personal and social functioning (Barrett & Salovey, 2002, p. 7). Applying the questions of an emotional intelligence profile to the context of executive leadership and particularly that of transformational leadership is an area ripe for study.

Summary The body of literature of emotional intelligence and transformational leadership has been highlighted, synthesized and critiqued. The area of future study to discover if there is a profile for emotionally intelligent executives and if this may relate to their selection of leadership behaviors has been discussed. Next a research methodology to pursue this area will be outlined.

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CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY

Introduction to Methodology The study measured and compared emotional intelligence (EI) and transformational leadership in executive leaders. Executive leaders are often a challenging population to study because of their busy schedules and extensive responsibilities, yet executives are often one of the most influential members in any work environment. An understanding of factors related to their use of transformational leadership could have an overall positive impact on the workplace. Executive leaders in the faith-based, non-profit sector are a population of interest to the researcher and one with no study on record considering if there is a relationship between emotional intelligence, using the BarOn EQ-I, and transformational leadership. Many non-profit organizations were highly value-driven, and the executive leaders congruence with these values can significantly impact alignment throughout the organization. If there is a relationship between emotional intelligence and the use of transformational leadership, then leaders could be encouraged and developed in EI skills that increase transformational leadership. This should have an overall positive affect on the organization.

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These tools used to measure EI and leadership style were the BarOn EQ-i and the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire 5X. The researcher secured rights to use both tests from their perspective owners. Further data were collected using a general questionnaire. (Appendix A) Statistical analysis was done to determine the relationship between EI and transformational leadership. These data were compared with the findings of a study focused on a population of construction industry leaders (Butler, 2005). This study replicated much of the methodological design of research on construction industry leaders, extending the finding to a new population, thus providing comparison of the findings between samples.

Research Design Two guiding principles in this study design were to lower the threshold on any challenges that would prevent executives from participating and to motivate them by focusing on the possible contribution to the next generation of leaders. The research designed flowed from these principles. The three vehicles used to gather research data, the questionnaire, the BarOn EQ-i, and Basss MLQ 5X leadership questionnaire, were accessed using a website expressly created for the study. The site was called Tomorrows-Executive.com. The website gathered and organized the data. Communication with the participants used the title TheLeadershipStudy@Tomorrows-Executive.com. The banner phrase was Invest Today in Tomorrows Executives. Participants were directed to the website through an

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e-mail. They entered demographic data and answered a series of questions related to their work history, experience, and current role. Next the respondents completed the MLQ Form 5X to indicate their leadership attributes information. Finally, the website linked participants to Multi Health Systems (MHS) BarOn EQ-i assessment. Tests were scored and the results posted on the secure MHS website. Statistical analysis was used to determine the significant emotional intelligence components of faith-based, non-profit executives in this sample. The use of a website was designed to simplify the data collection, giving the respondents one place where all tests were located. Once at the site the participants completed the informed consent form and then were guided through each step of the process. There was no paper to deal with or any need to return items by mail. Two main approaches to deal with the challenge of securing executive participation were employed. First, well known fellow executives wrote a message to encourage executives to participate and secondly, brightly colored mailings were used to get the attention of the executives and inform them of the study. The initial contact was through a fuchsia colored postcard sent to announce the study. The postcard informed the executives that a letter would be coming with more information about the upcoming study. Two days after the postcard, a letter with the same brightly colored envelope invited the executives to be a part of the study. The purpose and scope of the research was outlined. As an introduction to the study invitation, the International President Emeritus and U.S. President of the researchers organization encouraged respondents to

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be a part of the study. These leaders were both well known within the selected population and their letters were used to increase the executives sense of the importance of their participation in the study. The letters were followed two days later by an e-mail with a link to the research website. Upon entering the Tomorrows Executive.com website, the participants were asked to complete an informed consent form indicating their willingness to participate in the study. The subjects then entered demographic details such as how long they have been in their current role, how long they have been with the organization, and what their age and level of education is. They also answered a series of questions in the general questionnaire. (Appendix A) The researcher, in consultation with Dr. Carina FiedeldeyVan, a BarOn EQ-i research expert, created the general questionnaire. The researcher completed the BarOn EQ-i certification course to better understand and interpret the test. Next participants answered the MLQ 5X to indicate their leadership preferences. The answers from the questionnaire and the MLQ 5X were sent directly to the researcher. Once the participants completed these two tests, the website directed them to the MHS website where they completed the EQ-i. Their instruments were scored by the site and posted to a secure site accessible to the researcher. The MLQ was purchased from Mindgarden.com and cost seventy cents per test. The BarOn EQ-i was purchased from Multi-Health Systems for the student special rate of five dollars per test.

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Field Test Prior to beginning the study a field test was completed to ensure the website and test functioned effectively. The study began with a pilot study using five executives to ensure that the e-mail link and website functions as expected. Upon completion of the study, each pilot study participant was interviewed to determine if the various pieces of the website functioned appropriately. The study website and link to MHS worked as required. Once the pilot study was completed the postcards were sent, followed two days later by the letters. This was followed by the e-mail and the launch of the research study. The pilot study participants results were included in the findings, since no modification was required to the research design. Sampling Design The focus of the study was executive leaders. There are very few studies on emotional intelligence and transformational leadership using the BarOn EQ-i and the MLQ 5X. Executives are a population that has not been examined extensively and yet they are often highly influential in the work setting. With the acknowledgement that this is a population worthy of study came the recognition of certain limitations. The researcher had limitations including time, accessibility, and finances. In addition, executives are typically a challenging population to gain access to. The combination of these realities led to a purposeful, convenience sample. The researcher is an executive in a non-profit, faith-based organization and believed this inside connection would be a

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substantial asset in accessing executive leaders. Further is the belief that this is a population worthy of specific focus. As a result of these factors, study participants were drawn from non-profit executives leading in faith-based organizations, which fall under Internal Revenue Code Section 501(c)(3) and encompass the following types of organizations that are exempt from federal income taxation: religious, charitable, educational, scientific, literary, etc. organizations. Many of the organizations that qualify for exempt status share the following characteristics: The organization serves some type of common good, it is a not for-profit entity, its net earnings do not benefit the members of the organization, and the organization does not exert political influence. Within the range of these organizations the researcher further limited the sample to those 501(c)(3) organizations that consider themselves to hold a Christian faith-based world view. Churches are a part of this category, but for the purpose of this study non-church organizations were selected since they provide a distinct group within the broader faith-based, non-profit segment. To identify executives serving in these types of organizations, extensive web searches were performed and a list of organizations and their leaders was created. Using the two primary methods of phone contacts and searching the organizations websites, a list was created and checked to verify that the organizations were non-profit and faithbased. The Colorado area, where the researcher is located, has a significant number of organizations meeting these criteria making the organizations readily accessible. This led to Colorado-based organizations being used as the initial boundary for the list of

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participants. A list of 236 organizations was compiled. A sample of organizations is listed in Appendix B. These organizations were contacted to provide the names, and e-mail addresses of the executive leaders. The sample included Presidents, CEOs, Senior VicePresidents, Vice-Presidents, and in some cases Director level leaders. The list of names totaled 599 people with 129 women and 470 men. This was a substantial number of executives, so the search did not move beyond the initial boundary of Colorado. With a population of 599, sample size was determined using Creative Research Systems samples size calculator located at www.surveysystem.com. The calculator uses the following formula: Sample Size

z 2 " p " (1 ! p ) ss = c2
where: Z = Z value p = percentage picking a choice, expressed as decimal c = confidence interval, expressed as decimal With this population and a confidence level of 0.95, a confidence interval of +/- 0.03 would require a sample size of 384. A confidence level of +/-0.06 would have required a sample size of 185. In spite of the challenges of securing executive participation in research studies, 182 participants completed all elements of the study, giving a confidence level very close to +/-0.06.

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Data Analysis The analysis of the study data includes a range of statistical processes. The data collected from the general questionnaire allows for a richly detailed descriptive statistics section. On some responses multivariate analysis was used. Cluster analysis was used to identify the natural groupings of the variables. Finally, regression analysis was used to determine the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. The researcher was certified in use of the BarOn EQ-i and compared the statistical data with the body of research on the general population as well as a specific population of construction executives (Butler, 2005). Theoretical Framework This study drew on the two major bodies of research for emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. Each of these will be briefly outlined. Bar-Ons Model of Emotional Intelligence Reuven Bar-On defines EI as an array of non-cognitive capabilities, competencies, and skills that influence ones ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures (BarOn, 1997a, 1997b, p.14). The BarOn EQ-i test was selected because it has four validity scales, a total EQ score, five composite scale scores, and 15 EQ subscales (BarOn, 1997. p.3). Figure 4 outlines these components The EQ-i has 133 items with a five-point Likert scale and can be answered in 30 to 40 minutes. It is based on Bar-Ons multi-factorial model and tests the potential for performance rather than how the individual actually performs. Similarly, the focus is

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process-oriented as opposed to outcome-oriented (Bar-On, 2004, p.14).

Intrapersonal Self-Regard

Interpersonal Stress Skills Management Empathy

Adaptability Reality Testing Flexibility Problem Solving

General Mood Optimism Happiness

Stress Tolerance Emotional Self- Social Impulse Awareness Responsibility Control Assertiveness Interpersonal Relations Independence SelfActualization Figure 4. BarOns EQ-i Components

Scoring The EQ-i is scored similarly to the IQ test. The average score is 100 with a standard deviation of 15, based on 3831 participants in the North American sample (BarOn, 1997c). A score of 130 and above is considered markedly high and atypically well developed. 90-110 is average and less than 70 is considered markedly low and may indicate impaired emotional capacity. Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) Form 5X The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire was developed from the model of leadership first developed by Burns (Burns, 1978). It focused on transformational and transactional leadership. Later Avolio and Bass added the category of laissez-faire leadership and created the self-report MLQ 5X (Avolio & Bass, 2004). 73

The leadership model has three types of leaders, the transformational, the transactional, and the laissez-faire leader, which were described earlier. Each of the three leadership behaviors has been divided into a series of factors. Transformational factors include: (1) idealized influence attributed, (2) idealized influence behavior, (3) inspirational motivation, (4) intellectual stimulation, (5) individual consideration. Transactional factors include: (1) contingent reward, (2) management-by-exception (active), (3) management-by-exception (passive). The Laissez-Faire sole factor is laissezfaire leadership (Bass, 1988, 1997; Bass & Avolio, 1990). These nine factors form the basis of the three leadership behaviors in the model. The multifactor leadership questionnaire asks a series of questions to determine the frequency of leadership behaviors in each of the three types. Participants are asked to rate themselves on a five-point scale ranging from not as all to frequently, if not always. There are 45 items, 36 deal with the nine leadership factors and 9 items deal with leadership outcomes such as extra effort, effectiveness, and satisfaction. Multivariate techniques were applied to these factors. The focus of the research was the following question: What is the relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership in non-profit executives? Investigative Questions: The following investigative questions were addressed in the study: 1. What is the EI composition of non-profit executives?

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2. Is there a relationship between the emotional intelligence of a non-profit executive and their preferred leadership style? 3. Is there a difference between non-profit executives EQ-i score and choice of leadership approaches with those of construction executives? Null Hypotheses: The following research hypotheses were presented for the study: H0 1. There will be no difference in leadership behaviors between Nonprofit executives with high EI scores with those having low EI scores H0 2. Non-profit executives with higher EI scores will not be more likely to demonstrate transformational leadership behaviors H0 3. Non-profit executives with lower EI scores will not demonstrate a greater propensity to use transactional and laissez-faire leadership behaviors H0 4. Non-profit executive leaders and construction executives will have no differences in their EI scores H0 5. Non-profit executive leaders and construction executives will have no difference in their use transformational leadership behaviors on the MLQ 5X

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Assumptions and Limitations This research has a variety of assumptions and limitations: Sample The sample was a purposeful convenience sample in a population readily accessible to the researcher. They were local within the state of Colorado and are a grouping of executives within which the researcher is an insider. Further, it is recognized that among this population, those who responded are self-selected sample. No conclusions can be drawn as to who did or did not respond to the survey nor whether or not the respondents constitute a representative sample. Letters from the International President Emeritus and the U.S. President of the researchers organization were included, inviting the executives to be a part of the study. The underlying assumption is that this would increase the number willing to participate. There was also a belief that the researchers organization would be viewed positively by these executives and that including an invitation by the two top and best-known leaders would be well received. Further the researcher is a member of a round table of senior executives leading the Human Resources function for the largest, local organizations. These colleagues encouraged participation of the executives in their respective organizations. Cost and time further limited the sample selection. The use of a mailing and then moving to communicating through e-mail was primarily driven by the desire to keep costs at a minimum. This could have decreased the number of people who participate due

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to the sheer volume of mail and e-mail many executives receive. The paper communication was sent in brightly colored envelopes with an invitation banner specially printed on the outside of the envelope. This was to allow the letter to stand out amidst the volume of mail these leaders receive. The researcher, in consultation with Dr. Carina Fiedeldey-Van, a BarOn EQ-i research expert, created the general questionnaire. This was done with no additional cost for consulting. The MLQ was purchased from Mindgarden.com and cost 70 cents per test. The BarOn EQ-i was purchased from Multi-Health Systems for the student special rate of five dollars per test. Executives Schedules A further challenge with executives was their busy schedule. They may also be less willing to participate in a study outside of their own organization, particularly if they did not see a clear connection or relevance in their area of responsibility. This may have resulted in decreased participation. The aforementioned steps were taken to address these limitations. Values An assumption in the area of values is that faith-based organizations may be rooted in values that hold transformational leadership to be a preferred leadership model. This valuing of the person and their ultimate good and best contribution is often a stated belief in these contexts. In organizations where transformational leadership behaviors are

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more closely aligned with the organizations stated values, there may be a tendency for executives to perceive themselves as perhaps more transformational than they really are. Contrasting Populations The research has begun with an assumption that executives in the construction industry will be different from those in the faith-based, non-profit sector. This research has investigated this assumption.

Ethical Considerations Consent Subjects were asked to sign a consent form to participate in the study. This was the first page of the website following the introductory letter. After reading the informed consent document, they indicated their willingness to participate by checking the box I Agree. If they choose not to participate, they checked the box I Do Not Agree and they do not become part of the study. Confidentiality Participants were assured of the confidentially of the results. All data collected were maintained by the researcher on a password-protected computer. Results obtained from MHS were on a secure website. Upon completion of the research, the data were stored on a flash drive and will be kept in a lock box for not less then seven years. After that time the electronic data will be erased and the flash drive destroyed.

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Inducement to Participate There were no inducements to encourage participation in the study. Subjects were given a choice and were also free to stop at any time during the test. Deception The research is true and follows the standard of integrity. There was no deception.

Conclusion Capella Universitys Institutional Review Board, ensuring that these ethical considerations protected participants and met the required academic standards, approved the research design. The study findings will be presented in the following chapter.

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CHAPTER 4 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Introduction The study asked the question, is there a relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership in non-profit executives? To answer this question, 599 executives were asked to complete a general questionnaire, the BarOn EQ-i, and the Multi-Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) on the study website, TomorrowsExecutive.com/theLeadershipStudy. The questionnaire collected qualitative data and basic demographic facts. This allowed the participants to be compared by role, gender, organization, and age. The EQ-i and MLQ gave scores for emotional intelligence and leadership styles employed by the executives. Statistical analysis was done to determine if a relationship existed between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. The statistical analysis included a variety of techniques to determine the relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. The components of both constructs were compared to determine which factors had the greatest influence. Descriptive statistics describe the first group as a whole and then various sub-groupings, such as Presidents and CEOs, or Senior Vice-Presidents and VicePresidents. These findings are compared to the general populations emotional intelligence scores. Variables of interest are highlighted for both emotional intelligence

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and transformational leadership. Cluster analysis is then used to identify groupings for assessment. Finally, a series of regressions highlight the major components affecting the relationship between EQ-i and leadership behaviors.

Descriptive Statistics Non-profit executives were invited to participate in the study through an initial mailing and a series of follow up e-mails. The letters asked the executives to go to the research website Tomorrows-Executive.com. Once there, participants completed a consent form and were guided through a questionnaire, the MLQ, and then taken to the MHS website where they had to re-enter their name prior to completing the EQ-i. In the end, 599 were contacted. Of these, 234 completed some portion of the study while 182 participants completed all portions of the study. The majority were men, with a total of 138, while 44 were females. Overall there was a good distribution of positions representing CEOs through Directors and others. Table 1 shows the respondents breakdown by position and gender. Table 1. Position by Gender Position CEOs President Senior Vice-president Vice-president Director Other Note: N=182 Females % 3 01.6% 1 00.5% 2 01.0% 8 04.3% 14 07.6% 16 08.7% Males 9 22 16 26 41 24 % 04.9% 12.0% 08.7% 14.7% 22.5% 13.1% Total 12 23 19 35 55 40 % 06.5% 12.6% 10.4% 19.2% 30.2% 21.9%

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Participants held their position from under one year to over twenty years, with most having been in their current role two to five years. Over half of the respondents had been in the non-profit sector for more than 20 years, while one-third had been with their organization for that period of time. Table 2 outlines the leaders time in the position, as well as the years within the current organization and in the non-profit sector. Table 2. Years in Position, with Organization, with Non-Profits Years Less than 1 2- 5 6-10 11-20 More than 20 Note: N=182 In position 23 12% 71 39% 49 26% 33 18% 7 03% With Organization 9 04% 34 18% 34 18% 43 23% 64 35% With Non-Profits 2 01% 19 10% 20 10% 49 26% 93 51%

The majority of the 182 participants had a bachelors or masters degree, with 25 having completed a doctorate. The average education level was 3.45 where high school is equal to one and a doctorate is equal to five. Table 3 outlines the individuals educational levels. Table 3. Education Education High School Associate's Degree/some college Bachelor's Degree Master's Degree Doctoral Degree Note: N=182 Frequency 6 03% 16 08% 68 37% 67 36% 25 13%

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Emotional Intelligence The BarOn EQ-i was used to test emotional intelligence. This test has been normed to the general population where each areas average score is 100. Scores falling above or below the general average of 100 are either better or worse than the overall population. The average emotional intelligence of the executive participants in the study was 103.78, with a range from 75 to 126, out of a total possible score of 140. The overall standard deviation was 10.36. This is just above the general populations score of 100 where the standard deviation is 15. Out of the five major components, intrapersonal skills and stress management had the highest average score with 105.76, and 105.20, respectively. The other three major components were each above the general populations score but much closer to the mean of 100. In the sub-components, a greater range of scores was seen with empathy scoring the lowest of the 15 with 97.41 and assertiveness, emotional self-awareness, independence, and stress tolerance all above 105. All scores except empathy and problem solving were 100 or above. Seven subscales were at or above average (self-regard, selfactualization, social responsibility, impulse control, reality testing, flexibility, and optimism). One of the subscales, problem solving, scored only 0.12 below the average. The ranges of standard deviation for the various elements were tighter than in the general population and ranged from 9.74 to 13.42. The descriptive statistics on the various EI scales are outlined in Table 4.

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Table 4. Descriptive Statistics: EI and Components

EI Variable Total EQ Intrapersonal Skills Self-Regard Emotional Self-Awareness Assertiveness Independence Self-Actualization Interpersonal Skills Empathy Social Responsibility Interpersonal Relations Stress Management Stress Tolerance Impulse Control Adaptability Reality Testing Flexibility Problem Solving General Mood Optimism Happiness

N 184 184 184 184 184 184 184 184 184 184 184 184 184 184 184 183 184 184 184 184 184

Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation 51 52 58 70 65 61 51 47 61 52 59 56 63 77 47 60 64 63 64 64 68 75 76 65 62 65 65 71 75 62 69 66 74 68 52 78 64 68 63 58 60 55 126 128 123 132 130 126 122 122 123 121 125 130 131 129 125 124 132 126 122 124 123 103.78 105.76 102.68 105.51 106.83 105.97 103.53 100.83 97.41 101.64 100.92 105.20 106.24 102.60 102.29 103.09 102.49 99.88 101.68 102.97 100.85 10.36 10.88 11.60 12.85 11.22 10.70 11.77 11.08 12.66 9.85 12.81 11.61 11.55 13.27 9.74 10.37 12.29 11.45 12.43 11.74 13.42

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Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) is a self-report test where respondents choose descriptive statements characteristic of their leadership style. The 45 items on the test identify and measure key leadership and effectiveness behaviors shown in prior research to be strongly linked with both individual and organizational success. (Avolio and Bass, 2004, p.12) The test plots responses according to leadership styles, ranging from transformational to transactional and laissez-faire leadership behaviors. Each of the five possible responses for a question is given a numerical value of zero through four. Not at all equals zero and frequently, if not always equals four. Table 5 outlines the descriptive statistics on the MLQ Leadership Test. The group averaged 3.28 for transformational leadership behavior. On this scale the use of transformational leadership 100% of the time would score 4.0. These leaders felt they made significant use of transformational leadership behaviors. Idealized influence was the most highly scored behavior followed by individualized consideration and idealized influence (behavior). Within the transactional leadership category contingent reward behaviors scored more than two times that of the other two leadership aspects. Laissezfaire leadership scored 0.62. These leaders definitely do not consider themselves laissezfaire.

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Table 5. Descriptive Statistics: MLQ and Components Standard Range Minimum Maximum Mean Deviation 2.33 2.25 1.75 1.67 1.75 0.67 1.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.95 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.00 4.00 3.50 3.25 2.25 3.28 3.53 3.31 3.14 3.36 1.71 2.87 1.13 1.13 0.62 0.35 0.42 0.56 0.51 0.48 0.39 0.57 0.68 0.63 0.52

MLQ Variable Transformational Idealized Influence (Behavior) Inspirational Motivation Intellectual Stimulation Individualized Consideration Transactional

182 1.62 182 182 182 182 1.75 2.25 2.33 2.25

182 2.33

Contingent Reward 182 2.75 Management-by-Exception (Active) 182 3.50 Management-by-Exception (Passive) 182 3.25 Laissez-faire 182 2.25

Descriptive Statistics for Presidents and CEOs Segmenting the population by position highlights significant data within the sample. Of the 182 leaders, 35 were Presidents or CEOs. More than a third of the executives had been in their role for six to ten years. Two had led their organizations for over 20 years. Most had worked in non-profit organizations for more than 10 years. Table 6 outlines the number of Presidents/CEOs years in their position, organization, and in the non-profit segment.

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Table 6. Time for Presidents and CEOs in Organization and Position Years Less than 1 25 6 10 11 20 More than 20 Note: N=35 In Position 1 02% 9 25% 13 37% 10 28% 2 05% With Organization 1 02% 7 20% 9 25% 11 31% 7 20% With Non Profits 1 02% 3 08% 4 11% 10 28% 17 48%

The education level of the Presidents and CEOs was mostly Masters level and above. In this group, nine had doctorates while one had completed only high school. The average education was 3.63 when high school is assigned a value of one and a doctorate five. Table 7 displays the educational levels of the Presidents and CEOs. Table 7. Education Level of Presidents and CEOs Education Frequency High School 1 Associate's Degree/some College 4 Bachelor's Degree 7 Master's Degree 13 Doctoral Degree 9 Note: N=35 % 02% 11% 20% 37% 25%

The average age of male Presidents and CEOs, 56.5, was about four years older than that of the females in the group. There were only four women in this group. Table 8 provides the average age and gender of the Presidents/CEOs.

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Table 8. Average Age of Presidents and CEOs by Gender Gender Males Females All Mean 56.50 52.65 53.09 N 31 4 35 % 88% 11%

Table 9 provides the descriptive statistics for Presidents and CEOs emotional intelligence scores. The average EQ-i score for Presidents and CEOs is 103.69. This is slightly above the general populations score of 100 and very close to the overall mean of 103.78. For the major categories of the EQ-i, intrapersonal skills score above all others at 107.17. Three of the major categories scored above the general populations average (stress management, adaptability, and general mood) while interpersonal skills were just below this with 99.49. For the sub-categories, independence scored the highest with assertiveness, stress tolerance, self-actualization, and optimism close behind. In addition to these, seven other sub-categories averaged above 100 (self-regard, emotional selfawareness, social responsibility, interpersonal relations, reality testing, flexibility, and happiness). Empathy scored the lowest with 92.86. Impulse control and problem solving also scored below the general populations averages. The Presidents and CEOs scores for the EQ-i are outlined in Table 9.

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Table 9. EQ-i Scores of Presidents and CEOs N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Total EQ Intrapersonal Skills Self-Regard Emotional Self-Awareness Assertiveness Independence Self-Actualization Interpersonal Skills Empathy Social Responsibility Interpersonal Relations Stress Management Stress Tolerance Impulse Control Adaptability Reality Testing Flexibility Problem Solving General Mood Optimism Happiness 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 36 38 43 66 46 37 35 42 54 45 47 41 35 65 41 43 44 55 42 37 52 85 85 79 66 84 89 86 75 62 72 76 80 94 52 78 77 79 63 76 86 66 121 123 122 132 130 126 121 117 116 117 123 121 129 117 119 120 123 118 118 123 118 103.69 107.17 104.54 103.60 106.91 108.46 106.29 99.49 92.86 100.71 100.80 102.83 107.80 97.09 101.17 100.86 104.23 97.86 103.09 105.14 101.11 08.99 09.76 10.17 13.96 10.24 9.26 9.12 10.96 12.71 9.62 12.49 11.15 9.74 14.16 10.59 10.49 10.31 13.14 11.05 10.36 12.91

Comparison with the Larger Sample Presidents and CEOs scores are similar to the general sample in all but the intrapersonal skills area, where they had higher average scores in each subscale. Table 10 compares these scores with the entire study sample.

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Table 10. Comparison of Presidents/CEOs EQ-i scores with the Study Population Entire Respondent Difference (PresGroup Average Presidents/CEOs Total) Total EQ Intrapersonal Skills Self-Regard Emotional Self-Awareness Assertiveness Independence Self-Actualization Interpersonal Skills Empathy Social Responsibility Interpersonal Relations Stress Management Stress Tolerance Impulse Control Adaptability Reality Testing Flexibility Problem Solving General Mood 103.78 105.76 102.68 105.51 106.83 105.97 103.53 100.83 97.41 101.64 100.92 105.20 106.24 102.60 102.29 103.09 102.49 99.88 101.68 103.69 107.17 104.54 103.60 106.91 108.46 106.29 99.49 92.86 100.71 100.80 102.83 107.80 97.09 101.17 100.86 104.23 97.86 103.09 -0.09 1.41 1.86 -1.91 0.08 2.48 2.75 -1.34 -4.55 -0.93 -0.12 -2.37 1.56 -5.51 -1.12 -2.23 1.73 -2.02 1.40 2.17 0.27

Optimism 102.97 105.14 Happiness 100.85 101.11 Note: N=35 Presidents/CEOs, N=182 Total Sample Population

The Presidents/CEOs scores for impulse control and empathy were significantly lower than those of the general population, while those for self-actualization, independence, and optimism where notably higher. Overall seven subscales were lower 90

(emotional self-awareness, empathy, social responsibility, interpersonal relations, impulse control, and problem solving) while eight were higher (self-respect, independence, self-actualization, stress tolerance, flexibility, optimism, and happiness). In the major components, stress management stood out as lower in the Presidents/CEOs group versus the overall sample. There was no significant difference in the overall average score. A comparison of leadership behaviors by Presidents/CEOs with the general study population revealed little difference in their described use of transformational leadership. Similarly, the President/CEOs scores for transaction and laissez-faire were close to the general population. The Presidents/CEOs group described their style of leadership with a broad range of scores between zero and four. Some felt they never used management by exception or laissez-faire leadership and others felt they always use idealized influence (behavior), inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. Table 11 provides the descriptive statistics for the leadership behaviors of these executives.

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Table 11. MLQ Scores of Presidents and CEOs Standard N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Deviation Transformational Idealized Influence (Behavior) Inspirational Motivation Intellectual Stimulation Individualized Consideration Transactional 35 1.30 35 35 35 35 1.50 2.25 2.00 1.75 2.55 2.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 0.83 1.50 0.00 0.25 0.00 3.85 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 2.67 4.00 2.50 3.25 1.75 3.30 3.58 3.45 3.08 3.35 1.72 2.81 1.16 1.19 0.66 0.36 0.43 0.58 0.55 0.51 0.43 0.62 0.73 0.69 0.52

35 1.83

Contingent Reward 35 2.50 Management-by-Exception (Active) 35 2.50 Management-by-Exception (Passive) 35 3.00 Laissez-faire 35 1.75

The leadership behaviors of the Presidents and CEOs are very similar to that of the entire group. The order of preference followed the identical pattern of the group and scores were very close in every category. Senior Vice Presidents and Vice Presidents Descriptive Statistics A further way to compare the findings of the study is to separate the Senior Vice Presidents and Vice Presidents into a group and consider how they are different and similar to the general sample. The study group consisted of 54 Senior Vice Presidents and Vice Presidents. They had less education than the Presidents and CEOs. A handful had doctoral degrees while the majority had either a bachelors or a masters degree. Table 12 outlines the levels of education.

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Table 12. Education of Senior VPs and VPs Education Associate's Degree/some college Bachelor's Degree Master's Degree Doctoral Degree Note: N=54 Frequency 1 24 24 4 % 01% 44% 44% 07%

Many of the Senior VP and VPs were new in their role, with 12 functioning for less than one year. None had been over 20 years in the role. More than three-quarters had been in their organization for more than 11 years, and all but a few had worked in the non-profit sector for 11 or more years. Table 13 provides the descriptive statistics for Senior VPs and VPs length of service. Table 13. Service Times of Senior VPs and VPs Years Less than 1 25 6 10 11 20 More than 20 Note: N=54 In Position 12 22% 18 33% 16 29% 8 14% 0 0% With Organization 3 05% 7 12% 4 07% 14 25% 26 48% With Non Profits 1 01% 3 05% 3 05% 14 25% 32 59%

The ages of the Senior VPs and VPs were closer between men and women than that of the Presidents and CEOs. Their average age was separated by a mere 0.12 years, both right at 52. Table 14 gives their average ages.

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Table 14. Average Age of Senior VPs and VPs by Gender Gender Females Males Total N 10 42 54 % 18% 77% Average Age 52.10 51.98 52.04

Senior VPs and VPs scored an average EQ-i of 105.04. They were above the general population in all five major components (intrapersonal, interpersonal, stress management, adaptability, and mood) and in 14 of 15 subscales (self-regard, emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, independence, self-actualization, social responsibility, interpersonal relations, stress tolerance, impulse control, reality testing, flexibility, problem solving, optimism, and happiness). Only empathy was lower than the general population at 96.94. Table 15 outlines the descriptive statistics for the Senior VPs and VPs on BarOn EQ-i.

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Table 15. EQ Descriptive Statistics for Senior VPs and VPs

N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Total EQ Intrapersonal Self-Regard Emotional Self-Awareness Assertiveness Independence Self-Actualization Interpersonal Empathy Social Responsibility Interpersonal Relations Stress Management Stress Tolerance Impulse Control Adaptability Reality Testing Flexibility Problem Solving Mood Optimism Happiness 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 53 54 54 54 54 54 49 47 53 52 61 54 45 47 61 50 58 46 61 53 36 58 59 44 54 59 53 75 79 66 75 65 72 77 75 62 69 67 80 70 71 84 64 73 75 68 63 70 124 126 119 127 126 126 122 122 123 119 125 126 131 124 120 122 132 119 122 122 123 105.04 106.96 103.31 106.61 108.78 106.96 103.93 100.54 96.94 100.07 102.02 107.09 107.81 104.35 103.22 103.60 103.93 100.41 103.89 104.74 103.19 10.60 11.19 11.74 12.68 12.69 10.61 11.78 11.28 12.55 9.63 13.50 11.06 11.89 11.51 9.21 11.34 12.18 9.28 12.80 11.64 13.58

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When EQ-i scores were compared between Presidents/CEOs and Senior VP/VPs, the latter group had the higher overall EQ-i. Four of the five major categories were also higher (interpersonal, stress management, adaptability, and mood). The intrapersonal category was just slightly higher among Presidents and CEOs. On the subscales, Senior VPs/VPs scored higher on nine areas (emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, empathy, interpersonal relations, stress tolerance, impulse control, reality testing, problem solving, and happiness). Presidents and CEOs scored higher on six subscales (self-regard, independence, self-actualization, social responsibility, reality testing, and optimism). The largest area of difference was in the higher score on stress management by Senior VPs/VPs. Table 16 provides the descriptive statistics comparing the two groups.

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Table 16. Comparison of EQ Scores of Presidents/CEOs and Senior VPs/VPs Pres. and CEOs Total EQ Intrapersonal Self-Regard Emotional Self-Awareness Assertiveness Independence Self-Actualization Interpersonal Empathy Social Responsibility Interpersonal Relations Stress Management Stress Tolerance Impulse Control Adaptability Reality Testing Flexibility Problem Solving 103.69 107.17 104.54 103.60 106.91 108.46 106.29 99.49 92.86 100.71 100.80 102.83 107.80 97.09 101.17 100.86 104.23 97.86 Senior VPs and VPs 105.04 106.96 103.31 106.61 108.78 106.96 103.93 100.54 96.94 100.07 102.02 107.09 107.81 104.35 103.22 103.60 103.93 100.41

Difference (Pres-VPs) -1.35 0.21 1.23 -3.01 -1.86 1.49 2.36 -1.05 -4.09 0.64 -1.22 -4.26 -0.01 -7.27 -2.05 -2.75 0.30 -2.55 -0.80 0.40 -2.07

Mood 103.09 103.89 Optimism 105.14 104.74 Happiness 101.11 103.19 Note: Total N= 89, Presidents/CEOs N= 34, Senior VP/VP N= 54

Moving from emotional intelligence to consider this subgroups results on the Multi-Leadership Questionnaire revealed that leadership behaviors of Senior VPs and VPs are characterized by high use of transformational leadership practices. Their average 97

score was 3.36 on a scale ranging from zero through four. The most highly scored components of transformational leadership were idealized influence (behavior), inspirational motivation, and idealized consideration. The one element of transactional leadership that scored higher was contingent reward at 2.92. This subgroup averaged a low 0.56 in using laissez-faire leadership behaviors. Table 17 outlines the descriptive statistics for Senior VP/VP leadership behaviors.

Table 17. MLQ Scores of Senior VPs and VPs: Descriptive Data MLQ Dimension Transformational Idealized Influence (Behavior) Inspirational Motivation Intellectual Stimulation Individualized Consideration Transactional N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Dev 53 53 53 53 53 1.15 1.25 1.75 2.00 1.25 2.80 2.75 2.25 2.00 2.75 0.67 1.25 0.00 0.00 0.00 3.95 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 2.33 4.00 2.25 2.75 2.25 3.36 3.61 3.54 3.19 3.41 1.69 2.92 1.06 1.08 0.56 0.27 0.36 0.42 0.51 0.40 0.39 0.51 0.62 0.61 0.55

53 1.67

Contingent Reward 53 2.75 Management-by-Exception (Active) 53 2.25 Management-by-Exception (Passive) 53 2.75 Laissez-faire 53 2.25

When the Presidents/CEOs and Senior VPs/VPs were compared in their leadership styles, Senior VPs/VPs described themselves as using slightly more transformational leadership behaviors than their superiors. Both subgroups scored above

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the group average of 3.28. Senior VPs/VPs scored 3.36 with Presidents and CEOs just .06 less. Table 18 shows the comparison. Table 18. Comparison of MLQ Scores by Presidents/CEOs and Senior VPs/VPs Senior Entire Group VPs/VPs Pres and CEOs Transformational 3.28 3.36 3.30 Transactional 1.71 1.69 1.72 Laissez-faire 0.62 0.56 0.66 Note: Total N= 88, Presidents/CEOs N= 34, Senior VP/VP N= 53 Descriptive Statistics Summary The leaders in the study scored above the general population on emotional intelligence and reported a high use of transformational leadership. Empathy was the only component of EI that was below the general population. When the sample was segmented, Senior VPs and VPs scored higher than Presidents or CEOs on both the EQ-i and their use of transformational leadership. To further assess the studys findings, cluster analysis was used to determine if the data fell into any specific groupings or clusters.

Statistical Analysis Cluster Analysis Cluster analysis (CA) was performed on the transformational leadership variable. Three distinct groups were found divided by their transformational leadership scores. Figure 2 shows the cluster diagram with the three identified clusters. Group 1, the low group, had 41 individuals and an average EQ score of 92.44. Group 2, the high group, 99

had 70 people and an average EQ of 110.34. The third group is plotted in the middle and had 71 members with an average EQ of 104.23. The high group in transformational leadership was made up of those highest in all dimensions of the EQ-i. The higher two groups are slightly older than the lowest group. Figure 5 displays the three clusters.

Figure 5. Cluster Analysis For Transformational Leadership

This analysis shows a strong relationship between the two constructs. Table 19 shows the average EQ-i scores of the high, middle, and low leadership behavior (TL) groups. In every EQ-i component and sub-component, without exception, the high TL

100

groups average EQ-i scores were higher than the middle groups, and they were higher than the average low group scores.

Table 19. Average EQ-i scores by Transformational Leadership Cluster TL-High TL-Middle Group (70) Group (71) 110.34 104.23 112.21 108.21 110.83 111.90 109.47 109.43 106.39 101.99 104.81 107.11 109.47 111.79 104.34 107.16 106.63 107.61 103.49 108.83 109.66 107.37 106.27 102.14 105.55 106.73 107.42 104.97 100.70 96.59 101.79 100.99 105.66 106.45 103.14 102.93 103.56 102.25 101.14 101.97 103.13 101.15 TL-Low Group (41) 92.44 94.39 94.73 96.71 98.02 98.07 91.78 92.24 91.22 97.00 90.76 97.59 97.17 98.78 93.24 96.93 94.54 91.00 90.00 91.95 90.29

Transformational Leadership Total EQ Intrapersonal Self-Regard Emotional Self-Awareness Assertiveness Independence Self-Actualization Interpersonal Empathy Social Responsibility Interpersonal Relations Stress Management Stress Tolerance Impulse Control Adaptability Reality Testing Flexibility Problem Solving General Mood Optimism Happiness Note: N=182

All (182) 103.92 105.88 102.81 105.59 106.76 106.10 103.71 100.98 97.46 101.87 101.04 105.31 106.41 102.62 102.37 103.28 102.58 99.76 101.91 103.12 101.10

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Now that the three clusters have been identified, bivariate regression will be used to identify which components most influence the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership behaviors. Bivariate Regression The relationship between the dependent and independent variables can be demonstrated using bivariate regression. The resulting scatter diagram further illustrates the strong relationship between EQ-i and transformational leadership behaviors.

Figure 6. Scatter Diagram Transformational Leadership versus EQ-i

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Multiple Regression Analysis on Transformational Leadership A relationship between EQ-i components and leadership behaviors was demonstrated in Figure 5, but to determine which components of EQ have the greatest affect on transformational leadership a stepwise multiple regression was performed. The components of EQ-i are the independent variables while transformational leadership behavior is the dependent variable. A stepwise multiple regression enters variables in the order of their relative contribution. The R-square for the EQ-i composite is 0.478. Thus 48% of the variation in the leadership behavior data is accounted for by variation in the total EQ-i data. Stepwise linear regression using the five major EQ components and the 15 sub-components of EQ-i determine what components are having the greatest influence on the transformational leadership. Table 20 shows the results. Table 20. EQ-i Versus Transformational Leadership EQ EQ Composite Five EQ Components Intrapersonal Intrapersonal, Adaptability Intrapersonal, Adaptability, Mood 15 EQ Sub-components Optimism Optimism, Self-Actualization Optimism, Self-Actualization, Empathy Optimism, Self-Actualization, Empathy, Problem Solving Optimism, Self-Actualization, Empathy, Problem Solving, Assertiveness 0.617 0.670 0.693 0.710 0.721 0.381 0.448 0.481 0.503 0.519 0.635 0.403 0.672 0.451 0.685 0.470 R R Square 0.692 0.478

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The EQ composite score by itself has an R-square of nearly 0.48. None of the other major components improves on this. Among the major components interpersonal and stress management do not contribute to the relationship between EQ-i and transformational leadership. The highest single contributor to the relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership behavior is the intrapersonal component. Together intrapersonal, adaptability, and mood raise the R-Square to just under what the EQ-i composite R-Square is. Among the sub-components, optimism, self-actualization, empathy, problem solving, and assertiveness raise the R-Square to 0.519. These five subcomponents make up just over half of the variation in transformational leadership behavior. Among the subcomponents, these five raise the R-Square to nearly 0.04 above that of the R-Square of the EQ composite. Correlation Coefficients The strong relationship of emotional intelligence to transformational leadership has been demonstrated in the regression analysis. To further assess the relationship of EQ with each of the leadership behaviors, a correlation coefficient was performed. Table 21 shows the results. Emotional intelligence and transformational leadership were found to have a high positive correlation of 0.692, and a significantly negative correlation with laissez-faire leadership. The correlation of EQ to transaction leadership is negative, but not statistically significant at the 0.05 level.

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Table 21. Correlation Coefficients Total EQ 0.692 -0.139 -0.509

Transformational Leadership Transactional Leadership Laissez-faire Leadership

Qualitative Data In addition to the demographic data gathered by the questionnaire, a variety of questions asked the participants to identify life issues they were experiencing and what they viewed as their focal job contributions and challenges. Life Issues Analysis The overall preponderance of responses to life issues ranging from health, friendships, and success was in the positive direction, with most leaders saying they felt successful, had good relationships, excellent friendships, and health. Most felt they liked their life and were not overwhelmed by stress. Table 22 shows the responses.

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Table 22. Life Issues Responses Don't Unsuccesslike Achieving ful OverI am Excellentwhelming Excellent how Accomplish- Relation- Life is Success Health Stress Friendships I live ments ships Great ful Not at all true Slightly true Somewhat true Very true Completely true N=182 5 5 42 76 54 52 55 48 20 7 4 12 62 60 43 84 54 35 9 0 2 19 68 83 10 127 42 10 2 0 1 8 32 104 36 1 7 38 112 24

To better understand the overall responses and compare these across questions, the answers were recoded in the following way. For those questions whose favorable responses would be very true or completely true, the value of +1 was assigned. There were areas, e.g., I dont like the way I live, where favorable responses would be negative. For those questions, Not at all true and Slightly true were assigned a value of +1. The other assigned values are found in Tables 23 and 24.

Table 23. Rescoring of life assessment issues, positive questions Response Very true or Completely true Somewhat true Slightly true or Not at all true Score +1 0 1

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Table 24. Rescoring of life assessment issues, negative questions Response Very true or Completely true Somewhat true Slightly true or Not at all true Score 1 0 +1

Following the rescoring, the scores for each question were averaged. Positive averages would mean that most respondents answered positively. The closer the average is to 1, the more respondents rated that area positive. Areas scoring in the most positive range included relationships, life being great, lifestyle, and success. Areas scoring least positively include achieving, feeling stress, and friendships. The results are listed in descending order in Table 25. Table 25. Averages of life assessment issues Issue Relationships Life is Great How I Live Successful Health Friendships Feeling Stress Achieving Average score 0.923 0.724 0.709 0.703 0.659 0.481 0.440 0.396

Responses indicate that as a group, the executives feel good about their relationships, think life is great, like how they are living, and feel successful. They do

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feel stress although for most participants it was not viewed as overwhelming. It is interesting to see the difference between the high score on relationships relative to the lower scoring friendships. This may indicate that these leaders tend to view their general relationships such as those in their professional world as very positive, but with the average score of 0.481 there may be fewer close intimate or personal relationships. There also seems to be a tendency to downplay their achievements with the average score of 0.396. The average scores were broken down by responses to yield Table 26. Table 26. Life Issues Responses (rescored) Unfavorable Middle Favorable 2 10 169 9 32 140 9 35 138 8 38 136 10 42 130 27 48 107 16 62 103 21 68 93

Relationships Life is Great How I Live Successful Health Feeling Stress Friendships Achieving

Listed in descending order by number of favorable responses, it is evident that relatively few respondents see any aspect of their life negatively. These life issues responses can also be segmented by subgroups. President/CEOs and Non Presidents/CEOs is one comparison. Each of the subgroups is compared with the group as a whole. The averages by subgroup yield Table 27.

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Table 27. Life Issues by President/CEOs, Non-Presidents, and Total President/CEOs Not a President/ (35) CEOs (147) All (184) Relationships 0.886 0.932 0.923 Life Is Great 0.800 0.705 0.724 How I Live 0.657 0.721 0.709 Successful 0.657 0.714 0.703 Healthy 0.714 0.646 0.659 Friendships 0.486 0.479 0.481 Feeling Stress 0.629 0.395 0.440 Achieving 0.429 0.388 0.396 Another way to consider the group as a whole is to add up the scores across all dimensions. For those who responded positively to all seven issues, their total score would be +7. Naturally, the presence of neutral or negative responses would result in lower total scores. Note in Table 28 that over half the participants responded positively to five or more issues and in the middle for the other questions (scores of +5, +6, +7). Less than one-third of the group rated issues in the low area, causing their total score be +3 or below.

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Table 28. Total Life Issue Scores Total Score Frequency -3 2 -2 1 -1 6 0 6 1 5 2 14 3 25 4 26 5 25 6 30 7 40

Summary of Life Issues The leaders participating in the study demonstrated a very positive view of their lives. They believe they have good relationships and are choosing to live the life they desire. They feel satisfied, healthy, and successful with very few areas that are defined as negative. The Presidents and CEOs record feeling more stress than the rest of the participants and have a slightly less positive view of their success and their relationships. They are more positive on the healthiness of their lives and their overall sense of life being great. Overall the study participates communicated they are positive about their lives.

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Job Responsibilities and Contribution To better understand what leaders did, each participant was asked to provide three areas of job responsibility and three areas of contribution. The responsibilities of the participants covered a broad array of items with the most frequent responses including: vision casting, executing the strategic plan, fund-raising, championing the mission, communication, and leading. The job contributions identified by study participants ran an equally diverse range of activities, such as: modeling, problem solving, directing, leading, vision casting, strategic thinking, bringing alignment, communication, coaching, and developing leaders. A more comprehensive list for each category is provided in Appendices D and E, titled Job Responsibilities and Job Contributions. Areas of Greatest Challenge The leaders identified the three greatest challenges confronting them in their current role. The most frequent answer was leadership, with 64 respondents identifying it as their number one challenge. Their range of issues around leadership included identifying, coaching, and recruiting new leaders, younger and older leaders working together, competency, professionalism, character, job fit, and accountability. Finances were the next most common answer, with 44 participants identifying it as their greatest challenge. They highlighted the areas of resourcing the work and providing alternate sources of funding. Vision was the third greatest challenge, with 42 respondents identifying the need to cast vision and motivate personnel around the vision. A need to

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respond to change, adaptability, and relevance made up the next grouping of ideas with 30 responses. Business acumen was mentioned 20 times. Other challenges were mentioned a handful of times, but the ones above represent the most frequent challenge to leaders participating in the study. Appendix F: Greatest Challenges provides a more extensive list of the challenges executives stated he or she experienced. Leadership Skills Study participants were asked to identify the three leadership skills they used most often. The highest frequency answers in the first leadership skill area were: integrity, character, vision, humility and being a servant leader. Some of these were repeated in the second skill area with: vision, integrity or honesty, competence, servant leadership, people or relational skills, and character. The third grouping of skills included: vision, communication, listening, courage, passion, servant leadership and the relational skills of love or compassion, and understanding.

Comparison With Construction Executives Findings from this study were compared with those from an earlier study focused on construction executives (Butler, 2005; Butler and Chinowsky, 2006). Tables 29 and 30 show a comparison of the findings.

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Table 29. Comparison of Non-Profit Executives and Construction Executives on EI Non-Profit Const. Non-Profit Const. Non-Profit Const. (All) (All) (Pres/CEOs) (Pres/CEO VPs VPs (N=182) (N=130) (N=35) ) (N=18) (N=54) (N=88) 103.78 101.14 103.69 103.22 105.04 101.16 105.76 102.68 105.51 106.83 105.97 103.53 100.83 97.41 101.64 100.92 105.20 106.24 102.60 102.29 103.09 102.49 99.88 101.68 102.97 100.85 102.55 102.65 99.25 102.87 105.72 100.22 94.92 94.58 96.95 94.85 103.50 106.05 100.22 101.65 102.42 100.12 101.25 101.82 104.16 100.35 107.17 104.54 103.60 106.91 108.46 106.29 99.49 92.86 100.71 100.80 102.83 107.80 97.09 101.17 100.86 104.23 97.86 103.09 105.14 101.11 104.22 99.56 100.33 106.83 111.33 100.72 96.22 96.22 99.06 95.44 105.72 111.06 99.33 105.28 106.39 99.39 106.94 100.67 106.56 96.56 106.96 103.31 106.61 108.78 106.96 103.93 100.54 96.94 100.07 102.02 107.09 107.81 104.35 103.22 103.60 103.93 100.41 103.89 104.74 103.19 103.00 103.70 99.00 102.86 105.85 100.66 93.81 93.49 96.41 93.49 103.44 105.89 100.35 101.65 102.63 100.28 100.82 101.82 103.83 100.65

Total EQ Intrapersonal Skills Self-Regard Emotional SelfAwareness Assertiveness Independence Self-Actualization Interpersonal Skills Empathy Social Responsibility Interpersonal Relations Stress Management Stress Tolerance Impulse Control Adaptability Reality Testing Flexibility Problem Solving General Mood Optimism Happiness

Table 30. Comparison of Non-Profit Executives and Construction Executives on MLQ

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MLQ Variable Transformational Idealized Influence (Behavior) Inspirational Motivation Intellectual Stimulation Individualized Consideration Transactional Management-byException (Active) Management-byException (Passive)

NonNonProfit Construction Non-Profit Construction Profit (All) (All) (Pres/CEOs) (Pres/CEO) VPs Construction (N=182) (N=130) (N=35) (N=18) (N=53) VPs (N=88) 3.28 3.53 3.31 3.14 3.36 1.71 1.13 1.13 3.08 3.02 3.18 3.00 3.11 1.98 1.78 1.13 3.30 3.58 3.45 3.08 3.35 1.72 1.16 1.19 3.15 3.13 3.17 3.07 3.26 1.92 1.67 1.03 3.36 3.61 3.54 3.19 3.41 1.69 1.06 1.08 3.08 3.03 3.17 2.99 3.13 2.00 1.82 1.14

Laissez-faire

0.62

0.56

0.66

0.57

0.56

0.53

A t-test will determine if the difference between the two groups is due to random variation or cause by a true difference in the population. The formula used for a t-test is

t=

xNP ! xconst varNP varconst + nNP nconst

where xNP is the sample mean of the non-profit scores and xconst is the sample mean of the construction scores. The denominator is composed of the respective variances and sample 114

sizes. We are using the sample variance instead of the true variance. With this t-test, with 182 + 130 2 = 310 degrees of freedom, critical t-values become, essentially critical z-values, and any t-value above 1.96 or below 1.96 is significant at the 0.05 level. Positive t values are where the non-profit executives scored higher than the construction executives. Table 31 shows the t-values. Non-profit executives were significantly higher in Total EQ, Intrapersonal Skills, Interpersonal skills, and Transformational Leadership. They were significantly lower in the use of Transactional Leadership than the construction executives.

Table 31. Comparison of Means of Non-profit and Construction Executives Component Total EQ Intrapersonal Skills Interpersonal Skills Stress Management Adaptability General Mood Leadership Behavior Transformational Leadership Transactional Leadership Laissez-faire Leadership t statistic 2.1721 2.4495 4.0024 1.3353 0.5653 -0.1011

4.8454 -6.2746 1.0938

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Summary The study considered the relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership in faith-based, non-profit leaders. A questionnaire, the MLQ, and the EQ-i were used to collect data and a series of statistical analysis was performed including descriptive statistics, cluster analysis, and regression analysis. The leaders were found to have higher than average emotional intelligence and to use high levels of transformational leadership. A significant relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership was demonstrated with five of the sub-components of EQ-i explaining 52% of the relationship between the two constructs. When these findings were compared to those from a previous study on construction executives, faith-based, non-profit executives were found to have significantly higher emotional intelligence and use of transformational leadership behaviors. The implications of these findings will be discussed in the following chapter.

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CHAPTER 5. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction This chapter brings the study to a close by providing the study summary, conclusions, limitations, and recommendations for further study. Recommendations for research on the relationship between transformational leadership and emotional intelligence will be suggested. The study has found a strong relationship between transformational leadership and emotional intelligence. There have only been a handful of studies using the BarOn EQ-i and Basss MLQ but the findings to date would indicate a rich area for further consideration.

Study Overview The research focused on determining if a relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership exists among non-profit executive leaders. Transformational leadership has been extensively studied, and findings demonstrate a clear link between the increased use of transformational leadership and organizational effectiveness, as well as follower satisfaction Bass (1997). Emotional intelligence, in relative terms, is a newer paradigm and the confirmation of a relationship to transformational leadership strengthens its connections to helping build overall

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organizational success and promoting maximization of employee capacity. In addition, emotional intelligence has a series of skills that can be trained and developed. Thus, if there is a relationship between the proven affect of transformational leadership and the trainable skills of emotional intelligence, executive leaders could be trained, coached, and mentored in greater uses of EI, thus augmenting the likelihood of increased use of transformational leadership behaviors. The result would amplify overall organizational effectiveness and follower fulfillment. To answer the research question the study design included the choice of a specific population and tests for emotional intelligence and leadership behaviors. Within the broad category of non-profit executives the study focused on faith-based, non-profits leaders in Colorado. A further limit was that they were Judeo-Christian in their orientation. The research instruments were administered on-line to maximize executives time. On-line tests which also were valid and reliable were selected the BarOn EQ-i and the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), Form 5X. These were the best choice to meet the requirements of the study. Quantitative data from these tests were evaluated to determine if a relationship existed between EI and transformational leadership. In addition qualitative and demographic details were collected to better understand the leaders and their context.

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Findings The study provided several noteworthy results. The major finding is that there is a strong relationship between emotional intelligence and the use of transformational behavior, specifically due to a group of identifiable qualities of EI. To move through the finding sequentially the core results will be reviewed and linked to the investigative questions. EI Profile The first question asked was: What is the emotional intelligence profile of the non-profit executive? The executives in the study were found to have an overall average EQ-i of 103.78. Their average is above that of the general population, as are all of the EI components apart from empathy where the score was 97.41. These non-profit leaders had particular strength in the areas of intrapersonal skills and stress management, scoring 105.76 and 105.20 respectively. The intrapersonal components deal with the inner world of a leader. Here these leaders scored highest on assertiveness, independence, and emotional self-awareness. In the stress management category, the area of stress tolerance was the other highest score. Each of these high scores was found to be significant in the executives makeup, as was their lowest score, empathy. A review of the BarOns EQ-i definitions of the qualities will help convey the leaders profile. The EQ-I handbook articulates these five critical characteristics to a nonprofit executives profile in the following way:

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Assertiveness is the ability to express feelings, beliefs, and thoughts and to defend ones right in a nondestructive manner. Assertiveness is composed of three basic components: (1) the ability to express feelings, (2) the ability to express beliefs and thoughts openly, and (3) the ability to stand up for personal rights. Assertive people are neither overly controlling nor shy; they are able to outwardly express their feelings, without being aggressive or abusive. Independence is the ability to be self-directed and self-controlled in ones thinking and actions and to be free of emotional dependency. Independent people are self-reliant in planning and making important decisions. They may, however, seek and consider other peoples opinions before making the right decision for themselves in the end; consulting others is not necessarily a sign of dependency. Independence is essentially the ability to function autonomously versus needing protection and support -independent people avoid clinging to others in order to satisfy their emotional needs. The ability to be independent rests on ones degree of self-confidence, inner strength, and desire to meet expectations and obligations, without becoming a slave to them. Emotional social awareness is the ability to recognize ones feelings. It is not only the ability to be aware of ones feelings and emotions, but also to differentiate between them, to know what one is feeling and why, and to know what caused the feelings. Stress tolerance is the ability to withstand adverse events and stressful situations without falling apart by actively and positively coping with stress. It is the ability to weather difficult situations without getting too overwhelmed. This ability is based on (1)

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the capacity to choose courses of action for coping with stress, (2) an optimistic disposition toward new experiences and change in general, and towards ones ability to successfully overcome the specific problem at hand, and (3) a feeling that one can control or influence the stressful situation. This component of emotional intelligence is very similar to what has been referred to as ego strength and positive coping. Stress tolerance includes having a repertoire of suitable responses to stressful situations. Stress tolerance is associated with the capacity to be relaxed and composed and to calmly face difficulties, without getting carried away by strong emotions. People who have good stress tolerance tend to face crises and problems, rather than surrendering to feelings of helplessness and hopelessness. Empathy is the ability to be aware of, to understand, and to appreciate the feelings of others. It is tuning in to what, how, and why people feel the way they do. Being empathetic means being able to emotionally read other people. Empathetic people care about others and show interest in and concern for others (BarOn EQ-i Technical Manual, 1997b, p. 15-18). The profile of the non-profit executive in the study combines these five qualities of EI. It seems fitting that these leaders would be assertive and independent. These characteristics are often required of those who lead. They need to assess the situation and decide what they believe to be the best action, and then they need the independence to recommend a way forward and the assertiveness to impress upon others and their environment the direction they believe is best. They would need to be internally self-

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aware to know and use what their emotions are telling them in their decision making and assessment of people and situations. Stress is an inevitable part of leading and life in general. These executives have developed strategies to identify, manage, and use stress rather than be immobilized by it. Their capacity to lead through stressful situation may very well be why they have been raised to leadership roles in their varied settings. Alongside high scoring components of EI, these leaders were characterized by lower than average empathy. This could be due to their need to lead through situations were they must make logically right and financially sound decisions, over that which may cause the people involved to be the happiest, or most comfortable. There is sometimes a need for toughness to make hard, people decisions in these executive ranks. It may help if these leaders are less sensitive to people when they need to make difficult decisions, or when they need to lead the organization forward in a direction that they believe to be best, but which could be unpopular with followers. Although all of the rationale may not be clear, these non-profit executives have a distinctive makeup of these five qualities of emotional intelligence. Presidents/CEOs Separating the Presidents and CEOs from the overall sample provides an EI description with some noteworthy distinctives from the broader group of non-profit leaders. These leaders had a similar average EQ-i score of 103.69 but there was a difference of two or more in six sub-components with impulse control and empathy having the strongest difference from the overall group. In the major components this

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translated into the greatest difference in the area of stress management and then intrapersonal skills, followed closely by the interpersonal skills. The largest difference between Presidents and CEOs is a lower impulse control alongside a higher stress tolerance. They scored significantly below the sample average and that of the general public with 97.09 in impulse control, while being above the norm in stress tolerance at 107.80 Impulse control is the ability to resist or delay an impulse, drive, or temptation to act. It entails a capacity for accepting ones aggressive impulses, being composed, and controlling aggression, hostility, and irresponsible behavior. Problems in impulse control are manifested by low frustration tolerance, impulsiveness, anger control problems, abusiveness, loss of self-control, and explosive and unpredictable behavior (BarOn EQ-i Technical Manual 1997b, p. 15-18). The President/CEOs group differed from the sample by 5.51 points. A number of questions arise in considering what may be involved in this lower impulse control. Do these leaders give into their anger when they are frustrated? Or do they feel a sense of entitlement to act out? Or do they give into temptations due to their perceived levels of pressure? It is beyond the scope of this study to explain why this is a part of their EI description, but this would be a fascinating area for further study. The Presidents/CEOs were also significantly lower on empathy at 92.86 versus 97.41 in the overall group. This may relate to their need to make decisions that incorporate competing demands such as finances, strategic priorities, and personnel. Leaders at the top of organizations are often called upon to make decisions that please

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certain people while disappointing others. This lower empathy score may help these leaders stay in these roles longer and may help them make difficult personnel decisions. Does this lower empathy score influence their ability to read and understand what is happening in the lives of those they lead? These leaders have a high intrapersonal intelligence which indicates a strong internal ability to trust their gut, but when this is combined with less ability to understand what others are feeling, it could lead to decisions and processes that disenfranchise followers and decrease overall moral. This lack of ability to understand others could increase a leaders sense of isolation, as those around the leader do not feel connected with on an emotional level. If they feel missed in relationship, they may have less motivation or desire to connect with the leader. This same experience could cause them to mistrust the leader and question the decisions made. Following the areas of impulse control and empathy, self-actualization, and independence were the next greatest difference separating the Presidents/CEOs group from the broader sample. Both of these areas would help a top leader stand firm in areas of ultimate responsibility as the top leader in their organization. These two areas are defined by Bar-On in the following ways: Independence is the ability to be self-directed and self-controlled in ones thinking and actions and to be free of emotional dependency. Independent people are self-reliant in planning and making important decisions. The ability to be independent rests on ones degree of self-confidence, inner strength, and desire to meet expectations and obligations, without becoming a slave to them.

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Self-actualization pertains to the ability to realize ones potential capacities. This component of emotional intelligence manifests by becoming involved in pursuits that lead to a meaningful, rich, and full life. Striving to actualize ones potential involves developing enjoyable and meaningful activities and can mean a lifelong effort and an enthusiastic commitment to long-term goals. Self-actualization is an ongoing, dynamic process of striving towards maximum development of ones abilities, capacities, and talents. This factor is associated with persistently trying to do ones best and trying to improve oneself in general. Excitement about ones interests energizes and motivates him/her to continue these interests (BarOn EQ-i Technical Manual, 1997b, p. 15-18). The functions of leading as a President or CEO require these qualities of independence as they must at times stand alone. In the area of self-actualization it is conceivable that the leaders who reach the peak of organizations have striven within themselves to reach their ultimate capacity and that they continue to push themselves to excel. The overall group of leaders in the study reported a high level of satisfaction in their lives, which may have been influenced by these leaders views of feeling highly self-actualized. The overall area of adaptability is very similar between the two groups, but within the sub-components the top leaders were lower in reality testing and problem solving, and higher in flexibility. Their flexibility may help them with the variety of problems, needs, opportunities and people that they are required to respond to in their function leading the organization. The EQ-i description flexibility fits with what would be required of Presidents/CEOs: flexibility is the ability to adjust ones emotions, thoughts, and

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behavior to changing situations and conditions. This component of emotional intelligence refers to ones overall ability to adapt to unfamiliar, unpredictable, and dynamic circumstances. Flexible people are agile, synergistic, and capable of reacting to change, without rigidity. These people are able to change their minds when evidence suggests that they are mistaken. They are generally open to and tolerant of different ideas, orientations, ways, and practices (BarOn EQ-i Technical Manual, 1997b, p. 15-18). Reality testing is the ability to assess the correspondence between what is experienced and what objectively exists. Reality testing involves a search for objective evidence to confirm, justify, and support feelings, perceptions, and thoughts. Reality testing involves turning in to the immediate situation, attempting to keep things in the correct perspective, and experiencing things as they really are, without excessively fantasizing or daydreaming about them. The emphasis is on pragmatism, objectivity, the adequacy of ones perception and authenticating ones ideas and thoughts. In simple terms, reality testing is the ability to accurately size up the immediate situation (BarOn EQ-i Technical Manual, 1997b, p. 15-18). Problem Solving: Problem-solving aptitude is the ability to identify and define problems as well as to generate and implement potentially effective solutions. Problem solving is multiphasic in nature and includes the ability to go through a process of (1) sensing a problem and feeling confident and motivated to deal with it effectively, (2) defining and formulating the problem as clearly as possible, (3) generating as many solutions as possible, and (4) making a decision to implement one of the solutions.

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Problem solving is associated with being conscientious, disciplined, methodical, and systematic in persevering and approaching problems. The skill is also linked to a desire to do ones best and to confront problems, rather than avoiding them. The President/CEOs group was significantly higher in optimism with a score of 105.14, compared with the general population norm of 100. Optimism is the ability to look at the brighter side of life and to maintain a positive attitude even in the face of adversity. Optimism assumes a measure of hope in ones approach to life. It is a positive approach to daily living. Optimism is the opposite of pessimism, which is a common symptom of depression (BarOn EQ-i Technical Manual, 1997b, p. 15-18). This ability to stay optimistic may be key for these leaders as they confront the range of challenges that their roles entail. Being able to continue when the situation looks bleak and to promote a positive attitude can influence the whole corporate environment. Senior Vice Presidents/Vice Presidents The EI profile of Senior VP/VPs has its own series of distinctives when compared with that of the Presidents/CEOs. They had a higher average EQ, scoring 105.04. The largest individual difference in the profiles is a higher score for Senior VP/VPs in impulse control. This group of leaders scored over seven points above that of the Presidents/CEOs. Here again it is primarily conjecture to suggest a rationale, but the reason may be that these leaders do not have the latitude in their role to give into their impulses without more obvious consequences than the top leader in an organization. They feel they must keep their desires in greater check than their superiors.

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Empathy is the next greatest area of difference between the profiles of the two groups. It still falls below the general populations norm but is it over four points higher than the President/CEOs average score. The samples overall average below the norm may be related to the need to make difficult decision but in their role as VP these leaders could be required to demonstrate greater empathy in connecting with those they lead. In addition, their role requires them to manage both up and down, as they lead various functions and must interface with the President/CEOs as well as subordinates. There is an emotional sophistication that is required in their position between the two bodies. The Vice President group scored higher in emotional self-awareness but lower in self-actualization. It is possible that vice presidents use their higher emotional awareness to monitor behavior and their environment to navigate its complexity, but these may not feel as self-actualized because they are sacrificing certain desires to function in their role. Presidents and CEOs may feel they have reached a higher expression of their potential in a top organizational role and this view them selves as more self-actualized. The other noteworthy difference between the Senior VP/VP group and that of the Presidents/CEOs is the higher score in the area of adaptability, particularly in the subcomponents of reality testing and problem solving. As mentioned above, the role of VP may require greater ability to work within a fixed setting where others have greater power. Adaptability may allow these leaders to flourish rather than fail. The ability to test reality and then have strong problem solving abilities may practically aid in navigating the complex contexts within which they function.

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The EI profiles of the President/CEOs and Senior VP/VP groups are distinctive in a number of ways from the overall group of non-profit leaders. Possible reasons for these differences have been proposed but this represents an area for further study. These EI profiles will now be related to the leadership behaviors of the executives in the study. Relationship of EI and Leadership Behavior The second set of questions focused on whether a relationship exists between EI and the type of leadership behaviors executives use. The three leadership behaviors identified by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire are transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership. Avolio and Basss distinctives in these leadership behaviors are clarified in following statements: Transformational leadership concerns a focused attempt to arouse awareness and interest in the organization while seeking to increase the confidence of the individuals or groups. There is an emphasis on moving with subordinates from merely existing and producing, to promoting their growth and unique contributions (Gardner & Stough, 2002). The five factors of transformational leadership include: idealized influence attributed, idealized influence behavior, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration (Avolio & Bass, 2004). Transactional leadership refers to the exchange relationship between leader and follower to meet their own self-interests. This leadership expression may take the form of contingent reward and or management by exception that is either active or passive (Avolio & Bass, 2002). Laissez-faire leaders avoid taking responsibility: they fail to

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follow up on requests for assistance, tend to be absent when required, and resist expressing opinions on important issues (Avolio & Bass, 2004). The study found that non-profit executives with higher EI were more likely to use transformational leadership behaviors than those with lower EI scores. The leaders with higher EI scores reported using transformational leadership most frequently: where 4.0 equals 100% use, their average score was 3.28. Of the elements of transformational leadership they used idealized influence the most frequently, followed by individual consideration, and inspirational motivation. They made very little use of laissez-faire leadership but did use some contingent reward in the transactional leadership style. By contrast, the leaders with the lowest EI scores were more likely to use transactional and laissez-faire leadership behaviors. Three of the null hypothesis focused on the relationship of EQ to leadership behaviors. The first null hypothesis stated that there is no difference in leadership behaviors between non-profit executive with high EQ scores and those with low EI scores. The second null hypothesis was non-profit executive with higher EI scores do not demonstrate more transformational leadership behaviors than those with low EI scores. Both null hypotheses were rejected. The cluster analysis demonstrated three distinct groups. High emotional intelligence was grouped together with the high use of transformational leadership. The third null hypothesis stated non-profit executives with lower EI scores do not demonstrate a greater propensity to use transactional and laissezfaire leadership behaviors. The correlation coefficient demonstrated a significantly

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negative correlation between EQ and laissez-faire leadership, thus rejecting this part of the null hypothesis. The correlation of EQ to transactional leadership is negative, but not statistically significant at the 0.05 level. This does not mean that it is not significant, but it does mean that there is not adequate data to reject the null hypothesis that there is no difference in emotional intelligence and the use of transactional leadership.

Comparison with Construction Executives This studys findings were compared with those from previous research done on executives in the construction industry highlighting a number of areas of difference and similarity (Butler, 2005; Butler and Chinowsky, 2006). Tables 29 and 30 show a comparison of the scores. Non-profit executives had higher EI scores than their construction counterparts. They had an average score of 103.78 while executives in the construction industry study had an average score of 101.14. The non-profit executive scored higher on all components except problem solving, general mood, and optimism. The differences were slight, ranging from 0.14 to 1.37. Presidents/CEOs and Senior VPs/VPs When comparing the two groups at the President and CEOs level there were more and larger differences. The non-profit executives average EQ-i score is only 0.47 higher than those in the construction industry. The construction industrys Presidents/CEOs were most notably higher in the area of adaptability, scoring 4.11 above their counterparts. The greatest difference was in problem solving and reality testing with

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+9.08 and +5.53 points respectively. Empathy was the next largest variance where the construction leaders scored 3.36 higher than the non-profit Presidents/CEOs. In addition, the construction executives scored higher on stress management, impulse control, and optimism (+2.89, +2.24, +1.42). With the group of Senior Vice Presidents/Vice Presidents, the non-profit executive, scored higher across the test, apart from two areas where there was a 0.4 difference (self-regard, problem solving). The non-profit VPs had an EQ-i score 3.88 above that of the construction industry VPs. The two greatest areas of difference were interpersonal relationships (+8.56) and emotional self-awareness (+7.61). All of the following were also three or more points higher in the non-profit executives: interpersonal (+6.73), assertiveness (+5.92), impulse control (+4.00), intrapersonal (+3.96), stress management (+3.65), flexibility (+3.65), empathy (+3.45), and selfactualization (+3.27). The greatest difference in EI is thus seen with the much higher scores with the non-profit Senior VP/VP segment of the study, although the Presidents/CEOs scored slightly higher as did the whole group of non-profit leaders. Non-profit executives in this study group demonstrated higher emotional intelligence than their counterparts in the construction industry. The t-test revealed a tvalue of 2.1721, well above the +/- 1.96 to be significant at the 0.05 level. This finding demonstrates the fourth null hypothesis to be false. Non-profit executive leaders and construction executives do have a difference in their EI scores. The non-profit executives were significantly higher in total EQ, as well as in the components of intrapersonal and interpersonal skills. Table 31 shows the specific t-values. As a group non-profit leaders

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generally deal more with people and issues in relationships. They are often required to work with volunteers and are in settings that may be more values driven than production or bottom line driven. These are of course generalizations, and it would require further study to identify if certain groupings within the non-profit segment have higher EI because of the specific relational demands of their mission. The striking difference in this comparison is with the two groups of Senior VP/VPs. Earlier, in comparing scores within the non-profit context, it was suggested that these leaders had a complexity in their roles requiring them to manage up and down and this may require a higher level of emotional intelligence. It does not seem to be the case with the construction Senior VP/VPs. Is it possible that there is more pressure in their industry around production rather than areas represented by EI? Here also, additional study may be able to reveal why these difference are evident, but clearly with the populations represented by these two studies, non-profit executives have been shown to have higher emotional intelligence. Transformational Leadership The final question asked if there is a difference between non-profit executive leaders and construction executives in their use of transformational leadership behaviors on the MLQ 5X. The non-profit leaders scored higher in their use of transformational leadership behaviors. They scored 3.28 on transformational leadership while the construction leaders scored 3.02. When a t-statistics was computed, the non-profit executives demonstrated significantly higher use of transformation leadership, scoring 4.8454 and significantly lower use of transactional leadership (-6.2746) than the

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construction executives. The difference in their use of lasses-faire leadership did not have a t-value outside the +/- 1.96 threshold to designate significance at the 0.05 level. These findings show the fifth null hypothesis to be false. It stated non-profit executive leaders and construction executives have no difference in their use of transformational leadership behaviors on the MLQ 5X. Non-profit leaders were shown to significantly use transformational leadership more than their construction counterparts. These overall tendencies held true when the populations were broken down and compared by Presidents/CEOs and Senior VP/VPs. There is therefore only a slight difference in the non-profits leaders greater use of transformational leadership. Summary of Findings The findings demonstrate that non-profit leaders have a higher emotional intelligence than the general population and that this relates to a greater use of transformational leadership. Non-profit leaders have a preference for transformational leadership with particular use of idealized influence, individual consideration, and inspirational motivation. They made very little use of laissez-faire leadership but did use some contingent reward in the transactional leadership style. Over half of the relationship between EI and transformational leadership is accounted for by five sub-components of EI: optimism, self-actualization, empathy, problem solving, and assertiveness. When considering the major components, the intrapersonal area has the greatest influence and when it is combined with adaptability and general mood, the effect is equal to the relationship of the EI composite score. The non-profit leaders reported a high level of

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satisfaction in their lives and believed they had good health, relationships and were accomplishing their goals. This seems to indicate a relationship between higher EI, and a more positive view of ones life but further study is needed to conclude this. In comparing non-profit executives with those from the construction industry, non-profit leaders had a higher average emotional intelligence score at 103.78 versus 101.14 and a significantly higher use of transformational leadership behaviors.

Implications Higher emotional intelligence is related to higher uses of transformational leadership behavior in non-profit leaders. This finding from the study indicates that if leaders can develop in their EI they will be more likely to use transformational leadership behaviors. Transformational leadership practices have been proven to increase organizational effectiveness and follower satisfaction. The skills of EI can be developed in leaders. Thus, if leaders are trained in EI and helped to build and manage these skills they will most likely use more transformational leadership and as a result help to further organizational effectiveness and follower satisfaction. The study found that executive leaders had lower than average empathy scores. This is an area of emotional intelligence that may give an executive leader needed toughness in people management. As has been stated previously, this would need to be proven in a more extensive study, but the finding to date would indicate the worthiness of developing these EI skills in non-profit executives.

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Both the models of transformational leadership and EI have a degree of complexity that could affect leaders engagement and ability to focus their development. The findings of this study highlight five areas that account for 51% of the relationship between EI and transformational leadership. This allows for a focus on these five areas and with the narrower focus, a greater likelihood for leaders to retain the ideas and be able to develop the specific components. The five are: optimism, self-actualization, empathy, problem solving, and assertiveness. All but empathy scored higher than the general population. Building these areas will affect the intrapersonal area, adaptability, and general mood. If a person scores too high in empathy, a leader may need help to work around high empathy. They need not lose the empathy, but make good organizational decisions in spite of it. This study would indicate that the leadership development process in non-profit organization should include training, coaching and development in these areas. Each setting will need to contextualize how best to address these elements in an integrated manner, but developing these qualities in leaders should increase their use of transformational leadership and have an overall positive influence on the organization. With the apparent overlap of the two constructs a focus on these five elements of EI may be a highly cost effective way to positively affect the whole organization. There also seems to be an overall positive outlook on life in those that evidence these qualities in the study. This could have implications on employee turnover, overall corporate morale, and even health issues. The clear implication from this study is

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that executive leaders in the non-profit setting should receive development in the five areas of emotional intelligence that most affect the use of transformational leadership.

Study Limitations This study has a number of limitations that must be clearly reviewed. Some of these limitations could be addressed in further studies or by changing the research design. Suggestions will be discussed in this and the following section. The limitations of this study include but are not limited to the test selection, study design, and sample issues. Test Selection and Study Design The study considered the relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership using BarOn EQ-i and the Multi Leadership Questionnaire. With the choice of any test there are advantages and disadvantages. Both tests have been well validated and demonstrate good reliability and can be self-administer remotely in a minimum amount of time. These advantages led to their selection. However, in both tests the participants respond with no external, objective assessment to confirm their perceptions. In the MLQ, the leader states how often they use a particular leadership behavior. There could be a tendency to select more positive leadership practices in the testing process than one would do if observed in a real life setting. The reported leadership behaviors may or may not be the behaviors the leaders in fact use, but are rooted in their self-perception and reporting of their behavior.

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The MLQ tests past experience or recollections of the leader, rather than current, real-time responses. Given more resources and access to these executive leaders, these limitations could be addressed with the addition of a case study, ethnographic study, or by incorporating a peer review. Similarly, the affect of self-perception can affect the EQ-i. Higher EI scores are associated with a higher overall level of optimism. Could this cause a leader to be overly positive on their rating of their leadership behavior? Any test has advantages, disadvantages, and limitations that may influence this breadth to which the study can be applied. Sample The sample in the study was a convenience sample limited by time, finances, and capacity. As a result, the participants were restricted to Colorado and those that could be identified through multiple publicly available means. This researcher attempted to gather a comprehensive list, but there may have been organizations that were not included. There was also no attempt to segment organizations by size, focus, or effectiveness in their stated mission. This could have led to further comparisons and may have shown differences between organizations and their leadership. The sample reported in the study was from 182 complete responses from all the leaders invited to participate. No assumptions can be drawn that these 182 leaders are representative of the population as a whole, and that the findings are representative of all faith-based, non-profit leaders. Similarly, no assumption can be made and nothing can be construed regarding those who did not respond. A further limitation of the sample is that

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it was dependent on self-selection by the leaders who participated. This may have skewed the sample if for example, those leaders more interested in leadership development or growth chose to participate rather than those not interested in growing as a leader. If we could have studied a randomly selected study population from the overall population of non-profit leaders in Colorado, some of these issues could have been addressed. Finally, the category of faith-based, non-profit organizations from a JudeoChristian perspective is a very limited segment of the non-profit category. This study is significant in its focus, but it cannot be expected to speak conclusively beyond the boundaries of this context. Any generalizations made from the study will be limited in their application due to the specific sample and could not be made to all faith-based, nonprofits or those outside of Colorado.

Recommendations for Further Study and Research The area of emotional intelligence and its relationship to transformational leadership affords a rich landscape of possibilities for further study. These will be discussed and some of the possible questions raised for consideration. Replicating the study is one of the simplest ways to test and validate the findings. In addition, possible areas of study could include issues of gender, the use of self-reported results versus observable behavior or rater feedback, organizational assessment, effect of training and the relationship to life satisfaction.

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The first consideration for further study is to replicate the study on the same population and to see if the findings are similar. This would strengthen the conclusions and could eliminate some of the limitations mentioned above. These limitations led to a research design that was cost, capacity, and time effective. If these limitations were removed, the options expand for possible research considerations. A larger, more diverse and segmented sample in a case study or ethnographic approach would result in helpful correctives to the limitations of this study. Specifically, it would be helpful to have a much larger sample of executives in the non-profit sector. It would be helpful to compare executives across the country or internationally and compare and contrast various regions, as well as those from different types and sizes of organizations. Questions that could be considered include: do executive leaders in larger organizations have higher EI, and is there a difference in the composition of EI in different types of non-profits, particularly between faith-based and non-faith-based non-profits? Beyond this there is a need to compare this studys findings on non-profit leaders with other types of executive leaders. For example how are executives in publicly traded companies different from family-owned or non-public companies in their EI and leadership behaviors? How would they vary in different areas of a company such as sales, marketing or operations? Do some market segments favor higher EI CEOs, while others favor those with lower EI? The issue of gender was not dealt with in this study due to the relatively small proportion of women in the sample. Further studies could consider if women in the faithbased, non-profit segment have higher EI and use of transformational leadership than

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their male counterparts, and if this has an influence on the speed and level of ascension in an organization. Also worthy of consideration are questions such as: how do women in the non-profit area compare with those in the for-profit sector, and is there any significant difference if the non-profit is faith-based? Self-Report versus Rater feedback This study used self-selection and self-reporting by the leaders to assess their EI and use of transformational leadership. It would be helpful to add feedback from those working with the leader to gain their perception of the leaders use of transformational leadership behavior. Similarly, the BarOn EQ-i gives one assessment of emotional intelligence, but it would also be helpful to have feedback from those working with the leader, as to their use of the various characteristics of EI. A study where the EQ-i and MLQ were administered in partnership with qualitative interviews or a 360-degree type feedback tool would provide a further measure of behavior. If the researcher could be present in the setting, such as in the previously mentioned case study or ethnographic study, this would give a third perspective on the leader and their use of EI and leadership behaviors. In terms of the self-selection, the use of a random selection process where leaders are invited to participate individually could address a portion of this issue. This would require a comprehensive list of executives as a starting point from where participants could be randomly selected. There will still be the challenge of getting these leaders to participate, but it should help with some of the assumptions regarding the findings. There

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is still the element of leaders choosing to participate who may have a greater interest in the elements of the study or who view themselves as having strengths in these areas they believe to be under investigation. Assessment of Organizational Success or Effectiveness In addition to feedback from those working with a leader, it would be helpful to gather other data about the organization. The overall effectiveness or success of the organization could be linked with the EI and MLQ scores to see if there is a relationship, and if this differs according to the type of organization. How an organizations values and mission relate to their leaders EI and leadership choices could be another area of fruitful study. If an organizations stated values align with higher EI and transformational leadership behaviors, are they more likely to recruit, retain, and develop leaders with high EI and transformational leadership? It would also be helpful to collect data on the particular executives, such as progress reports, 360-degree feedback, training, and development opportunities. Have the executive been mentored or coached in their leadership roles and if so, has there been any change during their leadership tenure? Does the organization have any training in EI or transformational leadership? If so, is there any testing done or metrics assigned that indicate change and progress? Is the organization ranked within its market segment and how effective is the organization in change management and sustainable growth? Is there a relationship with these elements and EI or leadership behaviors? This type of date can be incorporated to further the findings of this study.

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Training Another area of possible study is the affect of training in EI and transformational leadership on executive leadership and organizational effectiveness. What would be the effect of focused training in the five sub-components demonstrated in this study to be most strongly correlated with the use of transformational leadership? If leaders were tested prior to training and at regular intervals, would behavior change, and would it influence organizational effectiveness. Another consideration is how an increase in EI and transformational leadership behavior affects employee morale. Here again, the more the researcher was able to demonstrate objective change through quantitative data in combination with qualitative finding, the more the research may be able to transcend other contexts. Relationship to Happiness and Life Satisfaction The leaders in this study reported a very positive outlook on their lives. Further study could consider if this is true across a broader population and if there are specific elements of EI and transformational leaderships that most strongly relate to a positive view of life in executive leaders. Clearly there are many areas of possible study in this exciting area of emotional intelligence and transformational leadership.

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Conclusion The study has demonstrated a strong relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. Leaders with higher emotional intelligence were more likely to use transformational leadership than those with lower emotional intelligence. Conversely, those with lower EI were more likely to use less effective leadership behaviors, such as transactional leadership and lassie-faire leadership. In this study, scores on five of the sub-categories of emotional intelligence accounted for 51% of the difference in scores in the use of transformational leadership behaviors. These include: assertiveness, emotional self-awareness, independence, and stress tolerance with the major components of EI intrapersonal skills and stress management have the greatest relationship to the use of transformational leadership behavior. Emotional intelligence can be developed through training, so if executive leaders develop their EI, these identified areas they will be more likely to use transformational leadership behaviors. These behaviors have been demonstrated in repeated studies to increase organizational effectiveness and follower satisfaction. Therefore helping people master the skills of EI should result in increase organizational effectiveness and employer satisfaction. The question of how these skills can best be transmitted and reinforced remains to be seen, but the significance to the relationship of EI and transformational leadership has been clearly demonstrated.

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of nurse leaders. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. The Fielding Institute, Santa Barbara, CA. Weisinger, H. (1998). Emotional intelligence at work, the untapped edge for success. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Wilhelm, O. (2005). Measures of emotional intelligence: practice and standards. In R. Schulze & R. D. Roberts (Eds.), Emotional intelligence, an international handbook. (p. 131-154). Cambridge, MA: Horace & Huber Publishers. Zeidner, M., Roberts, R. D., & Matthews, G. (2004). The emotional intelligence bandwagon: too fast to live, to young to die? Psychological Inquiry, 15(3), 239248. Retrieved October 2, 2005, from Business Source Premier database. Zirkel, S. (2000). Social intelligence, the development and maintenance of purposive behavior. In R. Bar-On & J. Parker (Eds.), The Handbook of emotional intelligence, theory, development, assessment and application at home, school and in the workplace (pp. 3-27). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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APPENDIX A: GENERAL QUESTIONNAIRE TheLeadershipStudy@Tomorrows-Executive.com Thanks for your investment in future leaders!

Name: _______________________________ Organization: _______________________________________ Position: ___President, ___CEOs, ____Sr. Vice President, ____ Vice-President, ___Director, _____ Other___________________ Years in Position: ___ Less then 1, _____ 2-5, ____ 6-10, _____11-20, ____ more than 21 Years at Organization; ___ Less then 1, _____ 2-5, ____ 6-10, _____11-20, ____ more than 21 Years in Faith-Based Non-Profit Organizations: ___ Less then 1, _____ 2-5, ____ 6-10, _____11-20, ____ more than 21 Age: ___20-30, _____ 31-40, ____ 41-50, _____50-60, ____ 61 or above Gender ___ Male, ____ Female Education Completed ___ High School, ____Some College or Associate Degree, ____Bachelors Degree ___ Masters Degree, _____ Doctoral Degree What to you believe are the most important leadership traits needed as a leader? 1. ____________________ 2. ____________________ 3. ____________________ Please rank these leadership styles in order of effectiveness. 1= most effective, 6 = least effective Authoritative (come with me) ____ Coercive (do what I say) ____ Affiliative (people come first) ____ Democratic (what do you think) ____ Pacesetting (do as I do, now) ____ Coaching (try this) ____ Currently, does your organization have a leader development process? 161

____ Yes, ____ No If yes, is the program: ____ In-house, ____External, ____ Both If yes, is the program focused on: (check what applies) ___ Young Leaders, _____ Directors, _____Emerging Executives ___ Current Executives, ____ Other________________________ What do you consider the greatest challenge facing faith-based organizations? _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ _________________________________________________ Please list your top 3 stated responsibilities as outlined by your job description: 1. _____________________________________ 2. _____________________________________ 3. _____________________________________ Please list what you believe are the top 3 real contributions you make to your organization on a daily basis: 1. _______________________________________ 2. _______________________________________ 3. _______________________________________ Please answer the following: 1. My current level of health is excellent. ____ Not at all true, ____Slightly true, ___Somewhat true, ____Very true, ____Completely true 2. Lately, my stress level has been almost overwhelming. ____ Not at all true, ____Slightly true, ___Somewhat true, ____Very true, ____Completely true 3. I have many excellent friendships. ____ Not at all true, ____Slightly true, ___Somewhat true, ____Very true, ____Completely true 4.I dont like the way I am living my life. ____ Not at all true, ____Slightly true, ___Somewhat true, ____Very true, ____Completely true

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5. I am achieving almost all that Ive set out to accomplish ____ Not at all true, ____Slightly true, ___Somewhat true, ____Very true, ____Completely true 6. My personal relationships are not successful. ____ Not at all true, ____Slightly true, ___Somewhat true, ____Very true, ____Completely true 7. Overall my life is great. ____ Not at all true, ____Slightly true, ___Somewhat true, ____Very true, ____Completely true 8. I am successful ____ Not at all true, ____Slightly true, ___Somewhat true, ____Very true, ____Completely true

Thanks you for completing the questionnaire. Click below to move to the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire.

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APPENDIX B: SAMPLE LIST OF ORGANIZATIONS

A Caring Pregnancy Center Acts International Ministries Agora Consulting Ambassadors International Ministries Barnabas International Care & Share Food Network Center for African American Health Children's Ark Children's Hope Chest Christian Booksellers Association Colorado Fellowship of Christian Athletes Compassion International Dare 2 Share Ministries Denver Rescue Mission Engineering Ministries Intl Friends for Youth Friends in Transition Global Harvest Ministries HCJB World Radio Hope and Home Interfaith Alliance-Co International Bible Society Mercy Ministries Mission of Mercy Officers Christian Fellowship Open Door Ministries Prison Fellowship Promise Keepers Save our Youth Springs Rescue Mission The Denver Street School The Navigators The Salvation Army Where Grace Abounds

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APPENDIX C: STUDY WEBSITE SCREEN SHOTS

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APPENDIX: D JOB RESPONSIBILITY Job Responsibility #1 Align staff performance & mission Articulate the vision, mission, core values and guiding principles to all constituencies Board relations Cast Vision and execute plan Coaching Communications Donor Relations Executive oversight of the US organization Fiscal/Financial Oversight Fund Raising Inspire innovation Landmark Research Leadership Leading the Board Leading the executive team Legal compliance for Employment Law Maintain Integrity of Finances Maintaining calling, values, and vision Marketing Meeting donor client needs Overall leadership of the organization Overall management of operations (COO) Overall vision and direction Oversee operations of the Shared Financial Services group Recruiting Sales

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Serve as the CEO Supply chain management Training and coaching Staff and leaders Visionary leadership

Job Responsibility #2 Achieve revenue goals Act as an advocate for children. Administration Advise staff as they manage others Advocacy Align the expected outcomes to the vision and mission. Alignment with calling and values Assist in the development and assessment of, and hold departmental leaders accountable for the accomplishment of organizational and departmental goals Board/staff/volunteer development Bring alignment Budget Building a service driven HR function Change Management Clean Audit Coaching Communicate a clear vision Communicate with Board of Directors Communication Create partnerships with other organizations Cultivate and solicit major donors Develop and implement field strategy Develop and maintain secure web access

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Develop vision Event management oversight Fundraising Global procurement Insure quality and efficiency Insure that we accomplish annual objectives Integrity International Expansion Leadership Maintain financial viability/success Maintain the values and character of the Management of Budget/Personnel Marketing Public Relations Recruiting Risk Stewardship of people and money Strategic planning Train and Develop Staff

Job Responsibility #3 Alignment with principles, values, strategies and culture Assure resources are in place for the future Coaching Leaders Communication Community relations Coordination and Oversight of the Strategic Plan

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Creative input Culture Customer service Delegate Authority and Responsibility Develop and lead the organization to produce the expected outcomes Development and PR Direct the visionary and strategic planning Executive Team participation Fundraising Grow and manage the people of my team Lead the Team Leadership & organizational Development Manage data systems and processes Marketing Strategies/Campaigns Mentoring leaders Organizational design Organizational Development Oversee the development of leadership development and staff training Oversee warehouse Provide metric accountability Provide Pertinent Financial Analysis for Decision Making Raise funds Recruiting leaders Resourcing Risk Management Scouting new products Strategic direction Succession Planning Support strategic initiatives Vision casting

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APPENDIX E: JOB CONTRIBUTION Job Contribution #1 Big Picture leadership Bringing hope and success to our organization in funding Coaching leaders Communicating the Vision Communication of direction, strategy Develop staff character & spirituality Development and execution of plans Direction Financial Integrity Fundraising Help people be successful Integrity in finances Keep clarity and perspective on mission/values issues Lead the team toward a common goal Leading the organization in technology Mentoring Model spirituality and integrity Oversee accounting, budgeting Passion for mission Problem solving Provide clear direction to the organization Providing compliance measurements Recruiting Spiritual Leadership Strategic alliances Strategic thinking

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Team building Tone of hope, respect and grace Vision casting and motivation of staff/team Visionary, positive leadership

Job Contribution #2 A commitment to excellence Alignment with vision and values Allowing out of the box thinking Articulating Vision Care for staff Clear thinking Coaching of other leaders Collaboration Communication Creating an enabling environment Demonstrating integrity Develop and Coach leaders Develop strong relationships - across cultures Developing change process Development of next generation of leaders Direction Effective cost structures Empowering others to lead Encouraging staff throughout the organization - keeping a face to "executive position" Execute Fiscal Solvency I'm a "steadying" influence Innovative thinking Integrity Keeper of the vision 175

Leading in a way that values people Life/work balance Maintaining Contact with Donors Making sound decisions Manage resources and operations Motivator/encourager Operational Efficiencies and Risk Management Oversight of staff Problem solving Provide direction to staff on issues Recruiting Risk Taker Setting and Clarifying Direction, and stewarding the resources entrusted to me Strategic direction The development of leaders and teams in each area Vision casting Vision implementation Vision Setting Wisdom/Leadership

Job Contribution #3 Action Add strategic counsel to management team Administrative/financial effectiveness and accountability Building leaders Coaching Communication Connect people towards common goals Cost analysis and control Counseling / mentoring

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Create and execute strategy Creative insight Dealing with the "People Issues" Decision-making/Prioritization Developing next generation Developing the capability of the organization Development of leaders and staff Development of the Strategic Plan Encouraging and motivating staff Evaluate efficiencies and deficiencies Execute on my teams' vision, mission and objectives Fundraising Getting people to execute their goals Give wisdom to decision-makers at many levels concerning important issues Highlighting and valuing the contributions of others in achieving our objectives Honesty/Transparency Inspire staff Investing in people Keeping Administrative Flow Fluid Leading Change Leading change in culture and ethnicity Listening to my volunteers and clients Nurturing staff Organization Skills Out of box thinking Plan and implement for strategic growth Problem-solving / Resourcing Professionalism

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Public Relations/Networking Resource development Serving other individuals and departments Setting staff direction Stewardship of people and money Training Value added services Vision casting

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APPENDIX F: GREATEST CHALLENGE Greatest Challenge Apathy Appeal for the younger generations, getting their input and involvement in leadership Accountability on integrity issues for the leadership Applying a comprehensive business strategy to the organization Character of leadership Clarifying our service niche and confirm that resources and efforts are in fact meeting those objective Clearly articulating a clear vision that the organization and supporters can embrace and support wholeheartedly Competition for resources Development of emerging leaders, who are both cross culturally sensitive and experienced Effective measurement of results Emotionally and Spiritually healthy employees Empowering new and younger generations (20s - 40s) of staff, leaders and contributors while honoring the contributions of the older generations (50s - 80s) Fuzzy thinking and decision-making How to lead with creative vision to accomplish long-term goals Integrity Keeping the vision clear Lack of business acumen Maintaining a relevant voice with younger generations Maintaining relevant market position Managing change toward the emerging US and world cultures, integrating this into existing organizations and structures Managing volunteers and managing change using those volunteers Recruiting, training and developing character-based and vision-based leaders Relevancy to the world around us

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Revenue and Manpower Selecting and training young leaders Slowness to change The ability to strategically allocate people and financial resources The challenge in our context is raising up young leaders from and for the inner city The greatest challenge facing faith-based organizations today is hypocrisy The greatest challenge is finding people willing to be involved in leadership The greatest challenge is to keep the "Movement going" and not be limited by organizational dynamics The temptation to do more, faster than is prudent, because of the desire to impress The volunteer vs. employee attitude of its staff The world has radically changed, and as leaders come to grips with the ways in which their context, people, and ministry are changing, they lack confidence in how best to lead into the future To be fiscally solvent in a very competitive market the cost of doing business rises faster than our ability to raise funds To hire, manage and honor great staff with consistency and dignity To not loose sight of the importance of personally growing in the grace and knowledge of God in the midst of strategic planning and heavy demands To remain spiritually focused with clear mission and purpose Too much work too little resources (money & people) Under-staffed and under-resourced Understanding and changing themselves to be relevant Understanding and implementing a Biblically based leadership model Walking our talk Working with people you work with and serve that are from different backgrounds, belief systems, and work ethics

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