ARCHlTECIURE AS CRITICISM

From r...fannerism to the Architecture of Nicholas Hawksmoor

A Thesis Submitted to
the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research
in Partial Fulfillment of the Pequirements
for the Degree oi
Master of Architecture
CHAIBOON SIRITHANAWAT
School of Architecture
McGill University
Montreal
December 1990
Copyright @ Chaiboon Sirithanawat, 1990
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TO MY LA TE FATHER
who longed 10 see my graduale study
ollly to de part shortly before il began
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ABSTRACf
The author discusscs the ide a of architecture criLicism and its intcrprctdtion. in
addition to its traditionalliterary role, is considcrcd as an aet maf..illg. Conscquently, arrhitcctllre
is understood as criticism--i.c. a making of critical arcllitccture. The making of critcal archItecture, a<;
an activly prevalent throughout history, is discussed. Two types of this architectural phclllllllcn,1 arc
identified as the critical zt:ltgeist phenomellon and the critlcal mdi\'idllalt.\t pllcnolllcf/oll. The critcal
making of this architecture, supported by two operations or l'nf/npl/'\ of /I/(cgmllllll
and inversioll, is dcscribed and ilIustratcd. Thcsc principlcs arc ""cd tn analy/c .mhill't1ule
(the critical zClIgeist pllcllomelloll) the work of Nicholas Hawksmoor (the enl/cal /IItllmluall.\(
phenomenoll ).
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Rf:SUM
Cette thse aborde le concept de la critique en architecture ct ses interprtations. La critique,
au del de l'cxccicc littraire, est aussi considre comme un acte en soi. Ainsi l'architecture devient
clic-mme unc formc de critique puisqu'il s'agit, l aussi, d'un gcste crateur. La ralization d'une
architecture critique cst prsent comme un phnomne travers l'histoire. L'on distingue deux
variantcs du phnomne de la critique architectural, le zeitge/st et Ic phnomne critique individl/aliste.
L'architecture critique entraine deux caractristiques, les principes interprtatIfs d'intgration et
d'im'crs/OIZ, qui soni dlinis ct illustrs. Ces principes ont t retenus pour analyser le mouvement
maniriste (le phnomnc ent/que zcilgeist) et en particulie. le travail de Nicholas Hawksmoor (le
phnomne ent/que individualiste).
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
1 would like firsl to acknowlrdge Prof. Ricardo L. Castro my supervisor who intrOllllcl'd IllC
lo the notion of criticisl1I, and from the bcginning hc1pcd me very mllch to re.lh.lc a pll<; ... ihle Ihc"i"
approach. His kind advice, p:uidance, patience, and encouragement throllghollt Illy re"carch work
provided mdispensabk assistance for writing this thcsis.
1 am very thankful ta my friends: Vecrindcr Dhami for her and ... i ... tance holh in
and other than the study, and Katherine Fluck for her invaluable critiques and m.IIlY il1lprovel1lcnl" 01
the manuscript in sense and style. In addition, David Morin carncd Illy .Icknowkdgcmcnt for 1 hl'
translltion of thc abstract.
My truc apprcciations arc aIs a owcd ta Ms. Judy Dircctor 01 Office 01 Sl III le nI Ald
and Schoiurships, the School of Architecture, and McGill University, lin.mci.tl .1 ...... i ... t.II1CC !tUIlI
a Differcntial Fcc Waiver, a School Fcllowship, and li Summer enahle me 10 devolc .Ill Illy
endeavour to thc sI udy alone.
1 am dceply indebtcd to Bung my dear sistcr and Gerry Powcr my brothcr-in-I.tw lor thcir
incxprcssibly warm welcornc, care, and kind hast during rny stay in Canada, with p.lrticular gratitude
to Gerry for introducing me to McGill University_
Abovc aIl, my decpest gratefuln.:ss is duc ta aIl my family, e!-.pecially my bd\)Vcd muther,
without ..... hose love, patience, encouragement, and financial support, this long undcrtaking wOlild not
have been possible.
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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
RSUM
ACKNOWLEDGMEI'HS

PREFACE
INTRODUCTION
Criticism and Architecture
Criticism: A Definition
Criticism in Architecture: A Taxonomy
Architecture as Criticism: A Critical Interpretation of Architecture
Criticisrn as Art; Art as Criticism
Architecture as Language of Criticism
Architecture Criticisrn from Within
1. ARCHITECfURE AS CRITICISM
An Identification
The Arpcaring Nature of CntlcaJ Architecture
Thc Crillc.11 Zeltgcist Phenomcnon
The Critical Individualist Phenornenon
Operations on the Language of Critical Architecture
The Critical Principle of Integration
The Critical Principle of Inversion
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CONTENTS
II. MA N R I S M AS CRITICISM
The Critical Zeitgeist Phenomenon
Design Analysis of Mannerisl Architecture
Uffi, Florence
Palaz70 Massimo Alle Co!onne, Rome
Palazzo Chicricati, Viccn./-<l
S. Giorgio Maggiore, Venice
Cappella Sforza, Sla. Maria Maggiore, Rome
Sala Regia, Vatican, Rome
Casino di Pio IV, Vatican, Rome
III. THE ARCHITECTURE OF NICHOLAS HA WKSMOOR
The Critical Individualist Phenomenon
Design Analysis of Nicholas Hawksmoor's Architedurc
St. George, B100msbury
Christ Church, Spitalficlds
IV. CRITICISM AS ARCHITECfURE OF STYLIZATION
A Concluding Remark
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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ILLUSTRATIONS
Unlcss othcrwil>c notcd, ail drawings arc by the author.
Figurc
1. Barbier. Desert de Ret7, France, 1771. From J. Silvetti, "The
Ikauty of Shadows," 49
2. Buontalenti. Porta della Supplichc, Uffjzi, Eorcncc. From P. Murray, 771e
ArcllltCC{/Irc of tlle IW/IOI/ ReI/OlSSOIlCe, 209
J Giulio Romano. Palazzo dcl Tc, Mantua. COllrtyard facade. From J. Silvctti,
"The Beauty of Shadows," 46
4. M lchclangelo Ricctto, Bibholeca Laurenllana, Florence. From J.
Burckhardt. 171e Architcctl/re of the ltalzoll RCIIOi.\sollce, 6
5. Rlcctto. Decomposition analysis of vestibule section The integration of
typical vestibule and staircase room
(,. l'I,m for the Rlcclto with stdirs against the wall. From R. Wiltkower,
"Michcl.lI1gelo\ Biblloteca Laurenliana, 148
7. Plan for the Ricctto with stairs against the wall. From R. Wittkower,
"Mlchclangclo's Biblioteca Laurenziana, 151
Mo Sketch for staircase. From R. Wittkower, "Michclangelo's Biblioteca
Lauren/i,ma," 153
1). Sketdl for stmrcase. Plan. From R. Wittkowc,r, "Michelangelo's Biblioteca
L.mren/iana, 153
10. Sketch for staircase. Plan and clevation superimposed. From R. Wittkower,
"Michclangelo's Biblioteca Laurenziana," 153
Il. Sketch for stairease. From R. WiUkower, "Mkhelangelo's Biblioteca
Lauren/jan,l," 153
12 of Michelangelo's idca for the stail, stage VI. From R.
Wlttkllwcr, "Michelangclo's B:bliotcca Lauren/Jana," 163
U Reconstruction of MJchclangclo's Jdca for the st air, stage VIla. From R.
Willkower. "Michcl.lllgclo's Biblioteca Laurcnziana: 163
14. Reconstruction of Michelangclo's idea for the st air, stage VIIb. From R.
Willkowcr, "Michclangelo's Biblioteca Laurenziana," 163
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.LLUSTRATIONS
Figure
15. Rccom.truction of Michelangclo's Ide.! for the !,t.ur, :-.t.lf!,t' Vile. l'rom R.
Wiukower, "Michclangclo's Ribliotcc..l Lauren/iana," Ih3
16. Cory by Vannocci .\fter hy t\lIchd.mgcln for <;t.lrca ... c rmm R.
\Vittkower, "t\1 ichd,lIlgcln\ nibhotce.\ Lnm:n/i,IIl . ," Ih"\
17. Copy by nattl5ta li .. S.ll1g,llln aftn !\hlch by Midll:l.mgclo for ... t.lirc '\e. rflll11
R. \Vittkower, "Michcl.mgclo\ B.bhotec.\ Laurcllli . .lI1.I, Ih.'
IS. ReconstructIOn of pl.lIl 01 1555 From R Wittkowel, "Mirhcl.\I1gelo\
Biblioteca Lauren/i.IIl.!," lM
19. Riccllo staircase. Plan From R. Wlllkower, "Miehclangclll's nibhott'c.1
Laurel1.1iana," 135
20. Interior of the Ricello. West wall. From R. Witlkower, "Michelangehl\
Biblioteca Laurenlana; 138
21. The inversion of rclationship bclween waU dn column 01 the Ricetto wdll
and traditional wall
22. Ricetto tabernacle. Lelt, the invaSIOn betwcen the fOTlll\ 01 and
braeket; nght, the inversion between the profile., of the t .. bcrnade Plla ... ter
and a lypical colunm
23. Vasari. Uffizi, Florence. View from the Arno. From R J ('rum,
the World of Cosimo'. The Iconogr.lphy of the Uffi"-I F.lCde, 239
24. Vasari. Ufflzi. V1CW toward the Arno. From R J. Crum, the
World of Cosimo': The Iconography of the UflilJ F.lcde," 239
25. Vasari. Uffizi. View from the Arno loggi..! tnward Pial.la jella Slgnona.
From P. Murray, 171C An/utceturc of tire Ita/1ll11 RClIamallcc, 209
26. Serlian window. Pald7.70 dell..! Signorid, rJorencc from R. J. Cru m,
"'Cosmos, the World of Cosimo': The Iconogr.tphy of the Uflin Fdcae," 244
27. Vasari. Uffizi. Elevation of cast wing f.leae
28. Vasari. Uffizi. Elevation of wing f<lcdde
29. Palazzo Vecchio, Florence. Right, view of cntrance to the UfIi.li from Piau.a
della Signoria. From J. Burckhardt, The Architecture of the lla/wlI
Rellaissaflce, 22
30. Vasari. Uflizi. Inner facade. From R. J ('rum, "'('o.,mm, the World of
Cosimo': The Iconography of the Ufli/i Facade," 240
31. Poggini. Cosimo J. Washington, Nal10nal Galicry of Art, Samuel H. Kress
Collection. From R. J. Crum, 'Cosmos, the World of Cosimo': The
Iconography of the Uffizi Facade," 24D
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1 LLUSTRATIONS
Figure
32. Danti. Cmimo 1 as AU/illstlls/Hefcules. Florence, Bargello. From R. J.
Crum, '''Cmmos, the World of Cosimo': The Iconography of the Uffizi
Facade," 242
33. PcrUl.7i Pabao Ma"<,lmo alle Colonne, Rome From C. Ricci, ArchItecture
and Decora/Ire Sculptllre of tite 1 ftgh al/d Lait' RCl/olSwncc in 53
34. Pc ruai. P"I.Il/o M.t<;<;lmo .Ille Colonne Plan. From P. Murray, Tlle
Arc/Illerlure of Ihl' !ltJ/WI/ Rel/ail lal!CC, HA
3). Palal.lo M ,1.,.,llnO aile Colonne 1'1,10 shO\\'ing the u<,e of loggia a
translllon,t1 "P,llC ,h.colllmod,ltlng the shifting axes
36 Pdlauo Sln)!II, r1orencc. Fac.!{lc From J Burckhardt, The Architecture of
tlle Ila/tal! Rellat \ laI/ce, 42
37 Alhertl. P..llauo Rucdl.ll, Florence. Facddc From J. Burckhardt, 771e
Archltectllre of Ihe Ilalwn 45
3H. Bramante Capfllll, Rome FJca{' From R. Witlkower, Arc/Illeclurai
Pnl/clp/e.\ 1/1 the Age of Hl/mall/WlI, plate 24c
11). Pdll..lio. Prep.tratory for lhe PdldUO Porto-Colleoni. Facade. From
R Wlllkower, ArC/lllcclllral Pnl/clples 11/ tlIe Age of HumGlInism, plate 25b
40. Palaao Ma<;<,mlO \lc Colonne. Wlndow detai\. The inversion of strapwork
form
41. Palladio. Pald/Jo Chicncali, YlceoJ'..a. From J. Burckhardt, 77le Arclutecture
of the /tallan RCII ail SGII ce, 158
42 Sansovino Blbhoteca Marciana, Venicc. W. J. Anderson, 171e Arcllilecture of
tlte RellaiHallCC 1/1 !ta(\'. plate S9
43. The !Jetween sohd and void of the Pdlazzo Massimo's and the
Palauo faeades
44 PaluJo Ducale, Venlee From P Murray, 771e Architecture of t!.e Itolian
RCI/(JII.HlIICC, 94
45 Michclangell) Pal..t7Jo Capitolino, Campidoglio, Rome. From P. Murray,
Architeell/T<' of the Ref/ClIssance. 212
46. P.llladio. Pdlauo Chlencati, from Palladlo's 1 Quallro Llbri deI/' Architettura.
Facade. From R Wittkower, ArcJllteCtltral Pnnclp!es in the Age of Humallism,
plate 28b
47. Pdlladio. S. Giorgio Maggiore, Vcnicc. From J. Burckhardt, 17te Architecture
of the !la/lGfI Rella/Haflee, 104
4S. Alberti. S. Andrea, Mantua. Facade. From R. Witlkower, Architectural
Pnllcip!cs III the Age of lIumollism, plate 1%
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ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure
49. S. Giorgio Maggiore. Facade. The intcgmtion of two temple fronts
50. Palladio. Il Redentore, Veniee. Fdcade. From R. Witt"ower, Ardl//l'l'lUral
Prillcl[i/es 111 the Age of HUI1IQlIlsm, ptlte 34a
51. Palladio. S della Vigna, Vcnice. Facade From R. Wittkower,
Ardll/ec/ural PnllC/plc.\ III/he Af;c of / [ulII(lnism, plJtc 31.1
52. Michelangelo. Cappella SforLa, St". M,ma Maggiore, Rome. Plan. From
J. S. Ackerman, TIIC Arc/lIlec/ure of 235
53. Cappella Sfor7d The intcgratlOn ot ccntr.til/c .ml! dm:ction.,1 pl.uming
54. Borromini. S. Carlo alle Qualtlo Fontane, Rome. PI,IIl. From H. Buseh
and B. Lohse, , Baroqlle Europe, viii
55. Borromini. Sant' Agnese, Rome. PI.!.n. From H Buseh and B. ed1> ,
Baroque Europe, ix
56. Perino deI Vaga anJ Daniele da Volterra Sai" Regia, Vatican, Rome From
J. Burc"hJ.rdt, TIle Arcl/ltecturc of the ltallafl RellalS.\aflC/', 152
57. Sala Regla. an"lysls of interior wall. The inverled pediml'nt
58. Imaginary reconstruction of intenor wall for the Sala Regia. The norm,li
brokcn pedirnent
59. Sala Regia. Decomposition analysis of interior wall. Two inverted pediments
forming a normal broken pediment
60. Sala Regia. Decomposition analysis of interior wall. The illtegration of
various motifs
61. Ugorio. Casino di PlO IV, Vatican, Rome. From R. Ven.uri, Complc.tl/y
and ColltradlctlOl/ III Arc/lIIecture, 21
62. Casino di Pio IV. Decomposition of wall/cclling de.coration. The.
first series of projccting coves
63. Casino di PlO IV. DeCOmpO'iltl(.n of wall/cciling decoration The
second series of suppresscd coves
64. Imaginary reconstruction of wall/ccihng decoration for the Casino di Pio IV
Two projecting coves added at bath ends to balance both each individu,tl and
an overall compositions
65. Casino di Pio IV. Decomposition analysis of walljcelling decoration. The
inversion be.tween the forms of Iwo coves
66. Hawksmoor. St. George, Bloomsbury. View from south. From K. Downes,
Hawksmoor, 1969, 133
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Il,LUSTRATIONS
Figure
67. Hawksmoor. St. George, Bloomsbury. Plan. From K. Downes, Hawksmoor,
1969, 134
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78.
79.
80.
8t.
P.dwksmoor. Projett for St. George, Bloomsbury. West facade. From K.
Downes, Hawksmoor, 1969, 132
Hawksmur. Project for St. George, B1oomsbury. Plan. From K. Downes,
Hawksmr 1969, 132
Hawksmoor. St. George, B1oomsbury. North facade. From K. Downes,
Hawksmoor, 1969, 134
Hawksmoor. St. George, Bloomsbury. Interior looking north-cast. From
K. Downes, Hawksmoor, 1969, 135
Comparative analysis of multi-directional interior spaces between the fmal
and early schemes of Si. George, Bloomsbury
Hawksmoor. Christ Church, Spitalfields. Steeple from south. From R.
Venturi, Comp/exity alld COlltradictioll ;11 Architecture, 33
Hawksmoor. Christ Church, SpitaUields. West facade. From R. Venturi,
Comp/exay alld COlltradictiOIl in Architecture, 32
John James. St. George, Hanover Square, London. From K. Downes,
Hawksmoor, 1969, 136
Hawksmoor. St. Alfege, Greenwich. View from south-east. From K.
Downes, Hawksmoor, 1969, 112-3
Christ Church, Spitalfields. Decomposition analysis of west facade
Hawksmoor. St. Anne, Lirnehouse. View from north-west. From K.
Downes, ifawksmoor, 1969, 123
Hawksmoor. St. George-in-the-East, Wapping Stepney_ First Design, west
facade. From K. Downes, Hawksmoor, 1969. 116
Lincoln cathedral, 1192. Vaults of St. Hugh's choir. From P. Frankl, "The
'Crazy' Vaults of Lincoln Cathedral," 108
Lincoln cathedral. Scheme of the vaults in St. Hugh's choir. After P. Frankl,
"The 'Crazy' Vaulls of Lincoln Cathedral," 97
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PREFACE
This thesis owes its inspiration to the rc\alcd ide as of architecture criticisl1\ l'mm Wavne
Attoe's Architecture alld Criticallmagillaton (Chichester: John Wilcy & Sons, 1978) and Jorge Silvetli's
"The Beauty of Shadows," Oppositio" 9 (Summer 1977): 43-61. The concept of m'Im'SJ/OIl/.1/ie cnticis",
defined by Wayne Attoe can be linked to the ide a of "criticism from will.i,," introduced hy Jorge
Silvetti. Both concepts provide new perspectives to read and understand architecture. Following
Silvetti's critical discourse, tbis thesis proposes a (urther investigation inlo the ide a of "enf.c.wl fmm
withill," or "architecture as erilie/sm," and its place in architectural history. The !ltudy aims at an
analytical examination of this architectural phenomenon, particularly during the :.ixteenth centay.
There are a few bibliographies on the issues of architecture cnticsm "nll Mannerist
architecture, as well as other architecture which belongs to the work of crl.csm idenlilied in thi!> !ltudy,
such as the work of Nicholas Hawksmoor. As AUoe points out in hil> book, architecture c n l t c i ~ as a
discipline is still emerging, and therc is not yet a sufficicntly weighty body of matenal to warrant
analysis and discussion. (AUoe, 1978, xi) In the case of the architecture hclonging tn the wnrk of
criticism, there are only a fc\\' books focusing particularly on Mannerist and Nicholas Ilawhmoor's
architecture wbereas many publications can he found in either Renaissance or Baroque architecture
Relying on the limited relevant literature available, the author aims al propo!.ing anothcr reading, a
critical interpretation of this architecture.
The following study is divided into an introduction, three chapters and a conclu<;ion.
The introduction gives a summary of the ideas of criticism in gcncral, following hy a taxonomy
of the method of criticism in architecture. The sludy then focuses on one parlicular melhod of
architecture crilicism, the impressionislie eriticism. From this method, the idca of "enlie/sm from
withill," or "architecture as criticism, " whose concept can be used to study sorne historical architectural
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PREFACE
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phenomena, is introduccd along with its particular characteristics. The discussion of this part is mainly
taken [rom Attoe's and Silveui's related ide as of architecture criticism and its possible interpretation.
Chaptcr 1 attcmpts 10 identify the phenornena of "architecture as criticism." The nature of
"emlclsm from w/tllm" is further investigated to provide a basis for an analytical reading of critical
architecture Two kinds of drchitectural phcnomena arc idcntificd: the eriClcal zeitgeist pllellomellon
and the cntical indlVldualist pllellomelloll. Following this are detailed discussions on "the operations
on the l..tngu:tge of criticism" and an introduction of the eritieal principles of integration and inversion,
as kcys to an understanding of this architecture. An example of work seen through these two
principles is analYLcd to iIlustratc critical interpretations of architecture.
Chaptcr II presents the core of the study. This chapter is devoted to a design analysis of
architecture as an ins' ance of the zeitgeist phellomenon of critical architecture. The emphasis
IS on various examples of Mannerist architecture, both sacred and secular which reveal parallel
intentions. The analysis is based on the readings of sXleenth century Italian architecture, using as
re' !!rcnce the pnllciples of intt!gratioll and inversion.
Chapter III illustrates an example of the individualist pllenomelloll of critical architecture. The
aim of this part is to provide a complementary study to support the ide a of the existence of the two
phenomcna throughout history. Through the author's investigation ioto this arc.:titectural phenomenon,
Nicholas Ilawhmoor's architecturc has been selected as the example. Two of his parish churches are
analYLcd as cxamples of work aimiog toward the idea of critical architecture.
Chapter IV provides a conc1uding remark.

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Criticism
A Definition
INTRODUCfION
Criticism and Architecture
Criticism is not in any sense a table of or .\ hody of
it is essentially an activity, that b to say a lll'ric" of inldlcctual
inextricably involved with thc historical and ... cxbtcncc
of the person who carries thcm out ,md 10 ,I\\lImc
for them.
Roland B.lrlhcll,
"Ct iliclMlI Language"
The term "criticism" is generally understood and used in the sense of judgmenl.
2
he verb "tn
criticize" means "to judge (he merits and faults of; analyze and evaluate," or "tn judge with 1>evcrily; lind
fault with; censure.',3 "To criticize," as il is most often used in the last sensc--"to find fault with," does
not only narrow the function of criticism to he judgmcnt alone, it implies that the aet of critieism is
inherently negative. Suhsequently, understanding and appreciating criticism as a valuahlc activity
becomes difficult. In fact. judgment is not the only legitimate usage of criticism, and the ncgative
allusion of "finding fauIt with" is not the purpose of ctticism. This becomes evident if the etymolob'Y
of the word is investigated.
Criticism, or "to criticize" originally derives from the Greek krillcill which means "to separate,
to sift, to make distinctions.... The Greek origin of this word was "10 :"ccrn" or "to Although
the latter is doser to the commun and technical usage of critich,m toJay, many wrilers stress the
significance of the former. Harry Levin, in Why Literary entlclsm IS flOt 011 Exact SCIeIlCe, note<; that lhe
Greek krineill "meant 10 distinguish [Le., to scparate, 10 sill, to makc bcfore il Illeanl to
judge."6 This denotes that "to criticize" does not solcly mean "to judge," especially in the sense of
negative evaluation a'; is commonly undcrstood. Judgmcnt is nol neccs1>anly a judgrnenl on worth as
Curt J. Ducasse, the author of Ait, the CnlICS, and YOIl, points out:
1

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INTRODUCTION 2
Not only evaluatioll but also mere description involves the exercise of judgment; and tlm:: the
word 'critic5m' is, without impropriety, often used also to designate sim ply the scientific
investigation and description of the text, origins, character, structure, technique, history or
historieal context, and so on, of a work of literature or of one of the other arts. When the
word 'criticism' is used in this sense, a critic is then a person whose knClwledge, training, and
interests presumably equip him to study and de scribe a given work cnllcally--that is, with
dic;cernmcnt ar, to such matters as just mentioncd.
7
In this regard, critidc;m as description is nol meant to evaluate, bul ralher providc an understanding of
the \-.'Ork criticiled. In addition lo its possible denotation as description, the meaning of "discernment"
also applies to criticism used within the ('ontext of judgment. \Vhen a critic makes a judgment, he (or
she) also has 10 sifl, separale, and ake distinctil''ls between lhe m3lerials conccrning the subjects he
(or llhe) is criliciJ:ing or judging. At the end of this proccss, the critic, through discemment, then is able
10 evaluale. r i t i c i ~ m uscd in this sense shuld therefore Mean merely an evaluation without necessarily
finding [,lUit, i.e., pasc;ing judgmcnt whcther favorable or unfavorable, or judging the merls or demerits
of somcthing equally.
In brier, criticism can be best described as an interpretation made with discernment, either of
an evaluative judgmenl, or a non-evalu:ttive description. The objective of criticism, particularly that of
evaluative judgment, should be viewed as positive, not threatening or intimidating. Il should be seen as
"a vehicle for convcying significant ... contcnt"S for rcsponding or effccting the environment. While
evaluativc criticism can be valuable as a tool used for generating beller work, descriptive criticism can
he uscful as a dcviet.: to facilitate understanding.
9
Criticism in Architecture
A Taxonomy
As Wayne AUoe points out in Architecture and CriticaJ Imaginatioll, "architecture critieism has
received liulc attention as a discipline."lo This becomes obvious wben compared to otber fine arts,
especially in the field of visual art and liter al ure wbere the subject of criticism has been considered as
an important discipline. Although numerous literary works on criticism in thase arts abound, few are
rarely found in the discoursc of architecture. In fact, Many critical writings on architecture exist, but
fcw have attcmptcd to discuss, and analyze methodica1ly the nature of architectural criticism.

l
INTRODUCTION .\
Consequently, architectural criticism, like the term "criticuml" u!>ed in convcnt iOIl.II I.tngu.Ige.
is commonly perceived as evaluative. The various kinds of critiCism when c.ltegori/ed .nc olten
distinguished only by means of its setting, or the situation in which placc "1IIt! 01
categorization does not help to clarify our undcrstanding of the vilnous .lIld l11ethods of
architectural critidsm. The result limits the apprehension of truc Attoc noted "popul.tr
impressions of architectural criticism arc usually vcry narrow. Thc wor\.. !>hort III
newspapers and a few magazines and possibly as interprcti"e hi<,tOflCS of arcllltccturc "II
Most people are familiar with architectural crilicisl11 only in the fonn of nit il
the commentaries and appraisals in journals or profession al publications. In additIOn tn in
the architectural field may think of "design criticism," as critiCISm which take'i place in the ... 01
design. This catc'gory can be c1assified into "acadcmic criticism," and critlLi ... I11." The
former is criticism which teachers bring 10 their studcnts 111 tlc.ldemlc udlO'" The 1.llIer
place in profession al practice, su ch as criticism exchanged betwcen junior and senior ardl\tech III de ... ign
offices. "Professional critidsm" can also be diffcrcntiated ipto many categories by means of part('ip<lnts,
for example, criticism made between architects and clients, or architects and contr.lctor'i. There is also
"self-criticism," an assessmcnt designers make of thcmselvc'i in thc de'iign ... lor thelr ...olution ... 12
The above categories reflect sorne conventional pcrccption,> of critlcbm of architelture in
general. Most are bound ouly to evaluative criticism. MOfl..:ovcr, the same ohse\"ion wlth .Ircllllcdur,II
criticism as being OnlY an l'valuation can also bc found in a fcw on the nature of cntlll,>rn.
Peter Collins, in Architectural Judgemellt, classifies architectural cnticism into four categorie ...
Architectural judgcments usually relate to one of four main categorie!> w)lIch may he
for the sakc of discussion, as
1. the design proccss,
2. competitive assessmcnts,
3. control evaluations, and
4. journalism.
13
In the above taxonomy, architcctural criticism is considered only in term!> of judgrncnt or cv.tluatioll
AIl categories are differentiatrd from the othcrs by means of contt'xt (Jnly. Arlhiteclural criticism,
however, can be more than judgmcnt. The description or interprctation of ardult:ctural hi.,tory i\ dl,>o
criticism. This crit'Icism "tends cither tell us what has actually happcned or to pOint out whllh cvcnl'>
1
(
INTRODUCTION 4
among Many deserve spo!clal ln this respect, history reflects criticism as description made
with disccrnment rather than evaluation.
Architectural critidsm, therefore, can be regarded to fall mainly within either evaluative or
non-evaluative categories. However, these two categories are still not sufficient to explain the various
forms and natures of archile<..lural crilicism. Amongsl the few wrilers on this subject, AUoe provides
the 1l10st inclusive taxonoll1y of architectural criticism. He views criticism as being a ll1ethod to improve
the environment, and classifies the rnethod of architectural criticism into three fundamental groups:
IlOnl/a/lve, descriptive, and /II/erpre/lve erilie.sm.
Normative criticism has as its basis either a doctrine, system, type, or measure.
Normative criticism depends upon our believing in something (norms) outside the environment
under scrutiny and assessing the euVronment in relalion to the standards implicit in those
bclicfs. We prescribe, and then we make judgements using the standards indicated.
Descriptive criticism either depicts (pictures) physical phenomena, recounts
cvents in the life of the designer, tells us about the historical rontext of the design process and
construction in!>ofar as the context influenced design decisions, or details the design process
itsclf. Descriptive criticism, then, either pictures a building or the process of its generation, or
is biographical or contextual in character.
Interprctive criticism is cither impressionistic, evocative, or advocatory in character.
Whcthcr an assessment of a designed environment is right or wrong in relation to sorne
external norms or standards is not the issue here; rather interpretive criticism attempts to
make us see the environment in a particular way.1S
Attoc bases his classification on the original meanings of Greek krilleill, which means "to judge"
or "to discern." While AUoe derives "onnative cntclSfll from the frrst more common usage of judgment
or evaluation, he further diffcrentiates the latter non-evaluative discernmcnt into two categories:
and illtcrpret'e cnticism, which are distinguished by their respective goals. The objective of
descriptIve CritirlSl1I is to depict fact, and hclp us sec what is actually thcre. On the contrary, the pur pose
of illterprctivc crillcism is to provide a particular view of a building or an environment. The clear
distinction bclween the vicws produced by descriptn'e and illtepretive criticism is that the first attempts
to be objective while the latter is truly subjective.
According to Auoc's taxonomy, ;"terpretive en tic/sm can be further divided into three categories
by techniques uscd and specifie intentions of the crilic: advocatory, evocative, and impressiollistic.
16
Adl'ocatory critlcism aims to provide new perspective, particularly an advocatory view, on an object,
1
INTRODUCTION
a building, or an environment.
17
Evocati\'e criticism, on Ihc othcr hand, inll'nds 10 l'Vll"l' in Ihl'
feeJings similar to critic's views. The critic does this by prescnting his (or hl'r) expcriclH'e 01
the objects of criticism.
18
The third, imprcss/Ollistlc eriliC/sm, in 10 bolh prc\'lnu ... l .. llcgllfll ... ,
does not intend to provide any kind of vicw towards the objcct of crilici ... m In ... tead. it the wmk
of art or building [or the object involved in criticisrn] as a foundation on wluch Ihe l'Tltir Ihcnlllll.,tlul!
his own work of art. The original work suggests 10 the critic a new and diflercnl area wnrlhy 01
exploration."19 In Ibis method the new work of art crcated by thc cri tic (abo thl' 11\ tll1. ... l\I"'C) Ihcn
becomes as criticism. An understanding of this nature of imprcssiolIIslIC enlsC/lm J,ly!. the ground lor
another significant mode of criticism in architecture, namcly "architecture a<;
Architecture as Criticism
A Critical Interpretation of Architecture
In impressio1llstic criticism, the critic porlrays his (or her) critique through a work of arl--j l'.,
he (or she) takes inspiration from the existing building as a foundalion 10 creale an indcpcmlcnt, uniquc
work. In this case, criticism itself is seen as a work of art, and convcrscly, an .ul objcct can be enlie,,!.
These ideas of impressiollislic criticism arc not new concepts. They werc horrowcd from archilcllure'!,
allied disciplines. The notions of "criticism as arl" and "art as crilicism" have a hi<;\Ory III lileralure ,mcl
art.
Criticism as Art; Art as Criticism
According to AUoe, in the discussion of literary criticism it i!. 1I0rmally under!.tood Ih,lt "Ihe
literary critic is as much intcrested in causing his critique 10 be beautiful and worlhy of attention u\
literature as he is in commenting upon the prose or poetry in front of him.,,2f) In thi" perspecllve, literary
criticism is valued as a piece of litcrature in itself. The concept of literaI ure" aJ...o
reversible. One iiterary crilic, Northrop Frye, makes a strong in The Stl/bhol7l Stn/ctllrc' thal
"it is impossible to tcach or learn litcrature: what one tcaches and Jearn!. ln olher wonl ... ,
he sees "litcraturc as crilicism." In the field of art, this ide a of criticism IS hy the foJlowing
passage:
l
,1
INTRODUCTION
6
GILBERT: To lhe erilie lhe work of arl is simply a suggestion for a ncw work of his own, that
nced nol neccssarily bcar any Tesemblance te the Ihing it cnticises. The onf ,-h'>r;}ctcristic of
a bcautiful form is lhat one can put into it whatcver one wishes; and sec in If whatcver one
ehooses 10 see; and the Beauly, lhat gives to creation its universal and aesthetic clement, makes
lhe cTitic a creator tn bis turn, and whispers of a thow . tnd different things which were not
present in the mind of him who carved the statue or painted the pan cl or graved the gem.
22
From this clal1on, il can he inferred lhal by using the existing work of arl to crea te a virtually new,
per!\onal artislic work, the entlC bccomcs a creator or ail aTtist. Crilicism then takes the form of a work
of art. In addition, a<; the new work of arl "need not necessarily bear any resemblancc to the thing it
it implies thal the worl of art also functions as criticism.
As discernable from hlerature and art, the work of criticism and the work of art, either literary
work or art object, are no longer distinguished and scparated from one another. Instead, the two
merge and becomc both a work of art and criticlsm at the same lime. Taking 011 the raie of creator,
the critie makes criticism lhal shapes ilsclf into the form of the work of art. In turn, Ibis same work of
art also acts as cnl1cism which criticizes that from which il takes inspiration. Regarding Attoe's
classification, lhe mcthod used to creale Ihis crilicism is interpretive, particularly impressionistic, rather
than evaluative.
From the above discussion, we can sec a reverse relationship between tbe notions of "criticism"
and "art" in the Iwo discourses of literature and the visual arls. In literature, criticism, is sometimes
considered to be a piccc of literature in itself. In the visua\ arts on the contrarj, the idea is that of "art
as critlCism" sincc thc artislic product, an art objcct, can also criticize. However contrary lhe ideas in
litcrature and art arc, both share one common characteristic in using their own languages and
produclions to inlerpret their works. "Criticism as literature" employs ils own lilerary language--words-
-as a medium for creating a work of art--a piece of literaI ure. Similarly, "art as criticism" exploits ils
own arlislic productlOn--art objects--as a means to deliver critical messages--a work of criticism. The
taclic of using ils own specilic medIUm consequently becomes the potenlial of "artfcriticism" since no
olher language can beller and effectively invoke a critical perspective than the language of ils OWD
discipline. This is possible only after the barrier that separates the two interchangeable discourses, the
work of art and the work of criticism, is dissolved.
1
1
1
INTRODUCTION 7
Applying the same concept of "criticism as art; art as critk::"II1' to architecture, .lTl'hitertul t'
too can be understood in terms of criticism, The important key needed to the mode of
"architecture as criticism" is the medlllm or the lallguage employcd within this eriticism.
Architecture as Language of Criticism
Architectural criticism seems often confined ta a literary activity, This b l\lustr,Ited hy.laY,lIlt
J. Maharaj's study in his Master of Architecture thesis, 'The Nature of Arc\lItectural Critil'<il1l." ln hi!\
study, he summarily de fines criticism as "any intelligent dlscussioll of .uc\lIteeture "2.\ lI11phe'\ the
medium of criticism ta be only a kind of verbal discourse, eilher through speech or wntmg. Verbal
discourse, however, is not the only valid medium for the excrcising of crilicl'\m, wh.lle\'er Ihe dl\Clphne
As each discipline has its own distinctive nature, there should he v.trious medi that c .. n he lI!-.ed 10
accommodate properly criticism of various disciplines. For this rcason, Roland B.lrlhe": dclillltllln of
criticism in "Criticism as Language" may be brought in to prmide a morc gener.II .md IIldU"IVC
of criticism applicable ta any discipline. As he points out, "criticism ... 15 c"c;cnll.llly .1Il (J( 111'11)'. thal
is to say a series of l1Itelleetllal aets inextricably involved with the historical and \UhJCltIVC eXl\tcnre
of the person who carries them out and ha ta assume responsibility for them .l4 ln 1111 .. de .. criptl(lIl,
criticism is no longer confined to one medium, the verbal discourse, as it is frcqllently pcrccived.
Criticism is viewed rather as an aet or actway, thus allowing the vchicle of critlCI'i111 10 hc .lIly Illcdi.l.
Similarly, Juan Pablo Bonta in Architeelllre and Its Interpretation also suggc\lc; the .. allie mdu .. ive
idea of criticism in his description of designers' rolc as interpreters (or in olher won.Jc;, oe"lgncr\' role
as interpretive crit/cs in the sense of "art as criticism"). He writes:
Designers were presented in the interpretation model merely as Irying 10 adju .. t thcir
in arder ta let them elicit the reactions they wish to inducc ID interpretcrc; [)c'iigncr .. c.m do
far more, They may try ta become authoritative interpreters (interpretive critil!-.I and mnuencc
people's view of their work. They may use verbal and wrillen language and morc Il/htl!' !;clturt'
systems to achievc their goal:o.2.'5
Both remarks from Barthes and Bonta define a more inclusive rcalm of critlcism than is u!>ually
accepted. They understand criticism as "intellectual activities" which use any "!'ubtle gesture system," and
not necessarily as verbal discourse. Although speech and writing arc also intellectual activities, they
sometimcs may not suffice to deliver critical significations, particularly in architecture. The limitation
INTRODUCTION 8
1. Francois Barbier. Desert de Retz, France, 1771
of verbal discourse and the possibility of other appropriate media for architectural criticism are pointed
out by Attoe:
Another reason for rejecting the view of criticism as a literary activity atonc is that
while this medium might suffice for discussions of literature, the printed word is too limited to
provide for all perspectives and nuances pertinent to the discussion of what is seen and
expcrienced as three dimensional. A photograph, cartoon or diagram cao oCten say it better.
26
Accordingly, a three-dimensional object cao sometimes say it even better. A photograph, cartoon or
diagram only extend the mode of the media of criticism from Iiterary activity to another two-
dimcnsional graphie manipulation. In comparisoD, a three-dimensional object, which cao be a
modification of a real building, does Dot only provide a critica1 perspective, but also offers the reader
an authentic experience of architecture. An illustration of tbis can be seen in Francois Barbier's the
Desert de Retz (Fig. 1). In this example, the architecture itself becomes interpretive criticism that both
uses and criticizes the classical code. The criticism here is made on the reference of "column" as a
classical clement, and Dot on the supposed contents of classica1 "column" as beauty, the human body,
proportion, etc.
27
1
----- -----------
INTRODUCTION 9
Architecture as Criticism from Within
"Architecture as criticism" is the idea of architecture th.ll commcnts nn architecture
Architecture "speaks" about Itsclf This is the same concept th,lt Jorge Sllvetti lil!\cu\M:!\ ,\!\ "critlu\m
from within" in "Thc Beauty of Shaow!." As hc descnue\'
Architecture as a iscourse critical of itself. Such a discoursc does not Itself 111,I\..e me 01
language, but instcad placcs itsc\f at the very moment of producing an .ucllltecturai objetl,
aiming through this at a crilical rcading of the sy::-tel11 01 .11 chiterture.
2s
As defined, the medIUm employed makes this type of cril1w.m b.lslc.ll1y dlffl'rent lrom llther
conventional criticism. Furthcrmore, another lhstindion dl'itlOglll\hing thi., cntici.,m lrom the
conventional criticism IS the relationship betwccn "criticism" and "object of criticism" ln conventlOn.11
discourse, thc crilic critici/cs by rcmoving himsclf (or from the objcct entin/ed The wtil
becomes an obscrver who thcn criticizes the object ob!.erved through the use 01 liter.lry medllllll--
words. The critic of "criticism from within," on the contrary, tums hi., (or her) cntHlue mto re.ll artHlII
By not using the convention al language--words--but rather the language of archllecturc he (m
she) poscs his (or her) critique in the form ')f architectural abject. "Critici'im" .lOd "obJect of cntIU.,Ill"
ure thercforc no longcr rcmote, but instead merge into one wor\..; d work which cntllally aWolre of It.,
own W"chitectural ideology and history .
.t\Jthough this type of criticism does not makc usc of conventionallanguage--wor"--d" d ml'an.,
to deliver tlte critical messages, paradoxically its mechanism can nnly operate on the UlIllcpt III
"language." Through thc apprehcnsion of "architccturc as languagc," the understandll1g .lIId 1lI.lklllg of
this specific criticism is made possible. This notion cornes frorn the l-:cogl1ltlOn of ,>orne ('()mm()11
characteristics betwecn architecture and language as production,> of culture. thdt 1'>
Architecture, like any othcr cultural product, Cda he studled a of
establishing diffcrenl Icvels, accumulating laycrs of rnc,mmg and alltllOll'itll ulmg olle of
thc rnany symbolic sphcres instltutcd by society?'}
From this basis, an anal ogy can bc madc betwecn lingul'itlc and drchlteLlurdl langu,lge., ln hnglll.,tll
language, Wlth the help of vocabularies and grammar, word<; can be arrangcd in endle.,., way., to
producc endless sentcnces for communication purposes. In the 1,lOguage of architecture. howevl:r.
vocabularics arc crcatcd, not in the form of words, but from rnatcTl,11 of ardutcllur .. 1
l
INTRODUCTION
10
and codee; Ihal abo hold wilhin themsclves various significations. Architectural grammar, on
the <llher hand, arpears in Ihe form of syntaclic rclation'ihips between these c1emenls and codes
to language wilh the establishment of their own semantic and synlactic codes,
archileclur.ll c1emenl'i and codes can he composed in endlcss ways to creale end\css slatement!> of
arclBleel ur.ll
Arcllllett ure, Iherefore, can be understood or "read" as a "text," as material that possesses
wllhin Ihelf tert,lIn "Ignificalions. In turn, by exploiting the possible nature of architecture as language,
111I'i !..IIl1C archilecture can be used as medium to "write" or produce a critical "text" to convey the
the UltlC II1tend'i As Sllvctti points out:
By pl.lung It'iclf wlthin the aet of making and by not using the instruments of language but
Iho ... e of dflhlleclure ltsclf, itlcriticl:.;m from within] bec01l1cs compromlsed by the ideological
n.lturc of .dl objecls produccd by culture; bUI, at the same lime, paradoxically, the very
idcnllfic.llion of IIu5 Iype of crilicism dcpends on the Ll' ! that these same abjects possess the
cap.tcily 10 expO'ie certain meanings of the work that arc otherwise obscured by ideological
velle;. \0
Bccause of il!> n.llUre as a sort of cultural language, architecture itsclf can become the medium, the
!>ource of cri Il cal inlerprelation. Not only can the architectural medium be used to inveI1t new
meanings through the operations on its language, but when manipulating it in a specifie way, this same
medium can even revcal certain significations t hat are originally hidden in ilS own production, and that
normully cannot he revca\cd through the work of conventional criticism.
The cap.ll)lhty to expose the latent meanings of architectural work is crucial for the
idcntific,\tion of this specifie type of critieism. Not every criticism lhal makcs use of architectural
medium can bc regarded as "criticism from within" in tbis strict sense. This is possible by another type
of criticism that also employs the architectural medium, but does not use the same mcthod and does
not have the same underlying intcntion as criticism from within." In order 10 clarify what type of
cnl1cl'im C.\I1 he idenlified as "crillcism from within," and how it distinguishes ilself from other kinds of
criticlsm, Silvctti providcs three basic criteria for consideration: 1) the operations on language of
critlclsm; 2) the relations 01 criticism 10 theory and idcology; 3) its historic-cultural status?1
Fundamcntally, "criticism from within" can be identified as a specifie mode of criticism whose
nature bclongs to the concept of Inlprl'SSiOllistic critidsm, i.e., it derives its inspiration from the existing
1
1
INTRODUCTION 11
work, and uses this as a basis for creating a newand original work. In other word1-o, the initi.ltion llf
"criticism from within" depcnds on thc creation of a new work from what already e\isb, the "110\\'11, the
established context of architectural ideology, through operations in its own langu,lgc. The"c oper,ltion!'.
cao be cffected by mcans of transformation.
By transformation wc mean Ihose pcrformed on the demenl!'. of ,1 given
code which depart from the origina:, normative, or canonical usage of the code hy lhslorlng,
regrouping, reassembling, or in altering It i.l such a way that itlllalflta'".1' /Iv referme!'
to tlte original, wlllle telld/llg to producc il I/ew mcol/IlR 12
Moreovcr, this transformation has to be donc in a critical way, i e., not prllllunng any
sort of mcaoing. In other words, thc ncw meaning produced hy this spccific tran .. form,ltion mU1-ot derive
from a process of dc-naturalization of thc cxistcnt codc, usually in a furm of :-.uhvcr:-.ion of known
meaning. This is bccause thc critical cffcct of from within" depcnd:-. very Illueh on thi!>
subversive manipulation in order to disc\osc in the existent code latent propertic" wluch .Ire n'lI
perceived in the inidal conteXi.. What often results from this "md of mallipul<\tion 15 work th"t
generates opaqueness, intrigue, questioninlb, and subversion.
33
Bec.tu,>e of thi:> ob .. curity, the o\JJect of
work cannot be consumed; instead, it has to be rrvealcd, deciphncd, and mlerprcted mldlcll ually.
The work of "criticism from within," thcrefore, bccorncs a production of knowlcdge thal re .. ults from a
search for fundamental rneanings.
Another type of transformation, diffcrent from thc transformation of "criticil>m from within,"
does exist. This type of transformation, Silvctti caUs "the process of mythification of the known,"'" tends
to emphasize fcatures of the known, usually by a simple "quotalion" or hy .tdoptillg an in .. pirc objecl
uocritically. In cIear contrast to the transformation of Ihe former Iype of lri!ici\m, it doc .. Ilot dim .11
bringing any latent properties out of that known code Unllke "critlcc;m from Wllhl/l," the cffecl
produced by this type of work appears in its tramparcncy, compl<lcclley, Ila! urdli/ation, and
conformisrn.
3s
To c\arify the distinction bclwccn "cnllcI\m from wilhm" and thc "mythilication," il 15
hclpful to bring back the notions of meanlOg and mcthod of critiL!>m
As dis:ussed earlier a descri[Jtion and an cvalualion, the .nethod of <, po<,<,ihly
and legitimately an interprctation. In/erpre/ive critiwm, particularly the impressioflls/ic, may also take
the form of architectural making, using architecture to speak for itself, "to comment" and "to crilici1A!"
1
INTRonuc..iION 12
on architectural ideology. From this aspect, the attitudes behind criticism can be diverse. Like the
methods of criticism, the intention underlying impressionistic criticism can al1'o be advocatory or
evaluative. The disl inction between the two is c1ear in Michel Foucault's definitions of "commentary"
and in The Order of Thil/gs. Both terms can draw a parallel with the advocatory and
cvaluative intentions of the Impressioflistlc criticism. According ta Foucault:
Sincc the c1assical age, commentary and criticism have been in profound opposition. By
speaking of language in terms of representation and truth, criticism judges it and profanes il.
Now as language in the irruption of its being, and questioning il as to its secret, commentary
halts bcfore the precipice of lhe original text, and assumes the impossible and endless task of
repeating its own birth within itself: it sacralizes language.
36
ln this passage, the distinction between "criticism" and "commentary" can be used to illustrate
difference between the evaluative and advocatory intentions behind "criticism from within" and
"mythification," respectively. In drawing this paralIel, Silvetti further summarizes:
Ta interrogale a language as 10 wbal, how and why il represenls, as criticism [or the evaluative
interpretation of "criticism from within"] does, is to begin to disturb it al the very point where
the ideological operation takes place, it is indeed to attempt to "profane" its inner sanctum and
to judge its truth. Commentary [or the advocatory interpretation of "mythification"], on the
olher hand, reproduces language, represents it with no other intention tban ta sanction its
truth.
37
The second notion that characterizes "criticism from within" is the relation which criticism
establisbes with theory and ideology.38 The aim of "criticism from \\ is to bring latent properties
out of the existing known codes by means of questioning and subverting them. Its relation to existing
ideology therefore often results in contradiction and ambiguity, but it is actually this contradiction and
ambiguity which turo out to he \ts critical potential. The success of exposing the multiplicity of the
hidden meanings is only possible through a penetration into tbe ideological crack caused by subversive
manipulation. Since tbe aim of "criticism from within" is to search for the fundamental meanings rather
than conform ta and naturalizc what already exists, the effect of existing theory cannat be anticipated
in this type of work. Neither can the existing theory be used to assess the validity of the production of
"criticism from within" as is often the point in conventional criticism. Instead, in its relation to theory,
the production of "criticism from within" provides materials for a new theory to come.
The third charactcristic of "criticism from within" is the historie-cultural status.
39
This
characteristic identifies the realm and role of "criticism from within" with the historical cultural context.

,
t
1
1
INTRODUCTION 13
As the concept of this criticism depends on the existence of well-cstahlishcd cmk's, it hecolllcs an
unautonomous phenomenon that can only occur within and in the form of an insertion into the
continuum of history. Because of its subversive operations aiming at clI.llo,ing the mcanings hitltlen in
existing ideology, "criticislU from within" arises rathcr as an irrcgular, interruption of thc
historical continuum. This phenomenon has occurrcd throughout history, discrctcly and sporadirally.
In contrast to the main continuous historical strcam--those major historieal which la.,t longer--
this critical architecture appears as a short-Iivcd phcnomcnon. Dcspitc irrcgular and short-livcd
appearance, the historical importance of this critical phenomcnon can not be dismissed. An illustration
of tbis phenomenon and its importance is apparent in Mannerism, the intcrvening period betwecn
Renaissance and Baroque, whose critical excesses and reaction to the Renabsance heritagc opened the
path for the arrivai of the Baroque.
oIO
At this point, we return to the Dotion of the relation betwecn the production, of criticism and
architecture. As mentioned earlier, encompasscd in lhe idea of "criticism from within," there is no
distinction between the work of criticism and the work of architecture. Bolh unite to becomc the same
entity, "architecture/criticism." Taking advantage of this insight, the concept of "architecture as
criticism" cao be used as a potential tool to help "read," analyze, and gain a betl\!r understanding of the
architecture of a specifie period and of a particular architect--namcly the architecture of Mannerism
and Nicholas Hawksmoor.
1
1
1
NOTES
1. Roland Barthes, "Crilicism as Language," in 77le Critical Moment, Literary Criticism intlle
1960's, Essays Irom the Londoll Times Literary Supplement (New York: McGraw-HilI, 1964), 126.
2. VIe American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 1980 cd., New CoUege, s.v.,
defines "criticism" as "the act of making judgments or critidzing," or "a passing of unfavorable
judgrnent; censure; disapproval."
3. Ibid., s.v. "criticizc."
4. Wayne AUoe, Architecture and Critical Imagination (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons,
1978),4.
5. Curt J. Ducasse,Art, the erilies, and You (New York: Oskar Piest, 1944),102-3; quotcd in
Auoe,4.
6. Harry Levin, Wlly Literary Criticism is not an Exact Science (Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 1967), 22.
7. Ducasse, 102-3; quoted in AUoe, 4.
8. Attoe,3.
9. Ibid., 2.
10. Ibid., xi.
11. Ibid., xvi.
12. Ibid., 1-2.
13. Peter Collins, Architectural Judgement (London: Faber, 1971), 146.
14. AUoe, 1.
15. Ibid., 9-10.
16. Ibid., 49.
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid., 61.
19. Ibid., 74.
14
1
1
J
INTRODUCTION 15
20. Ibid., xv.
21. Northrop Frye, The Stubbom Stnlctllre (Ilhaca: Cornell University Press, 1970),75; quotcd
in Auoe, xix.
22. Oscar Wilde, "The Critic as Artist," in Works (New York: Walter J. Black, 1(27), 567;
quoted in Attoe, 74-75, italics mine.
23. Jayant J. Maharaj, "The Nature of Architectural Criticism" (M. Arch. thesis, Nova Scolia
Technical College, 1976), 21, italics mine.
24. Barthes, 126, italics mine.
25. Juan Pablo Bonta, Architecture and Its mterpretatioll: A Stlldy of Expressive Systems in
Architecture (London: Lund Humphries, 1979),232, italies mine.
26. Attoe, xvi.
27. Jorge Silvetti, "The Beauty of Shadows," Oppositions 9 (Summcr 1977): 48.
28. Ibid., 44.
29. Ibid., 45.
30. lbid.,44.
31. Ibid., 44-61.
32. Ibid., 48.
33. Ibid., 52.
34. Ibid.
35. Ibid.
36. Michel Foucault, The urder of Things (New York: Pantheon Books: 1971; reprint, New
York: Vintage Books, 1973), 81; quoted in Silvetti, 55, italies mine.
37. Silvetti, 55.
38. Ibid., 53-54.
39. Ibid., 54-58.
40. lb'''., 58.
l
Chapter 1
ARCHlTEcrDRE AS CRITICISM
An Identification
The Appearing Nature of Critical Architecture
According to SilveUi, "architecture as criticism" is characterized by its relation to historical
cultural context.
1
The occurrence of this architecture throughout hstory has been sporadic and short-
Iived. ft normatly appears as an irregular, yel necessary, interruption of the historica1 continuum. As
opposed to the main historical stream, this specifie type of architecture is the result of an aUempt to
de-naturalize the cultural constructs of architecture in order to scarch for hidden significations.
From time to time, the phenomenon "architecture as criticism" arises when the main stream
of an architectural ideology reaches its highest development, becoming stationary. At tbis point Many
possibilitics are available for changiug architectural ideologies during the decline of the predominating
architectural trend, and before it has been replaced. It is at this stage that the phenomenon of critical
architecture emerges as an insertion into this historical gap. The arcbitects of this architecture use pre-
cxisting architectural ideologies as an initial foundation f,r a critica1 re-interpretation of them.
Although "arcbitecture as criticism" often appears between two main architectural periods, it
is not necessarily a phenornenon whicb occurs at the decline of every major arcbitcctual style. In other
words, its repetition throughout history docs not occur systematica1ly. Nevertheless, according to the
nature of its sporadie appearance and its influence on the architectural practice of an epoch, the
phenomenon of this architecture can be c1assified into the critical zeitgeist phenomenon and tbe critical
illdividualist phellomellon.
16
---------------------------------------------------------------------------,.
1
Chapter 1
17
The Critical Zeitgeist Phenomenon
The critica/ zeitgcist plrenOmClIOll, IS characteri7ed by the prevalent praeticc of eritical
architecture during a certain lime, oftcn at the dcchne of a significant architcctur.ll trend. Il
when most architects of that period explore and work persistently on the same Idea 01 nitie.11
architecture so that their architecture establishes a particular style which preval!., over other
contemporary trends. Although this phenomenon does not last long enough to create a
architectural style, it often has sorne influences on devclopment of the architecture of the lollowing
period. An explicit instance of this is Mannerism, a thle in which most sixteenth ccntury Itahan
architects were working toward a simildr critieal re-interprctation of the c1assical language of the
Renaissance.
The Critical Individualist Phenomenon
The critica/ illdiV/dua/ist pIWI011IClIOIl, manifests itsclf in inde pendent worh of illllividllai
l
architects of different peri0ds. Their works arc characteriLed by a desire to frce themsclve., from their
contemporaries. Their architecture stands out as separate and inde pendent from the conventional, and
cannot properly be c1assificd into the group common to the style of their time'i. ft i., that the
works in this trend arc sc\dom popular. Those architeet'i who work toward thi'i attitude h.lve no
immediate followers or influence on the architecture of the followmg period. In tlw, the
architectural ideologies and styles often die with their creators. Inevitably, the resuIt b a short-Iived
phenomenon, yet undeniably a significant one. The architects who work in thls manner arc more
important as individuals than of a historical sequence.
2
The work of Nicholas
Hawksmoor (1661-1736), a prominent British architect, is an example of this critieal individuali'it
phenomenon.
To identify how the architecture of these two phenomena can be regard eu as critici\m, the
following study will be based on the nature of "criticism from within," introduccd in the previoll'>
chapter. The operations on the architectural language of this specifie critimm arc the key tn
understanding this architecture.
,
;,f.-
l
r
.'
Chapter 1
18
Operations on the Language of Critical Architecture
Accurding ta SilveUi, the operations on the language
of "criticism from within" or "architecture as criticism" can be
done by transforming well-established codes From tbis, we
may nced ta examine in which ways the transformation of
these codes can be undertaken. Generally, two main aspects
of codes which can be transformed are the formaI and the
functional? ln the formaI transformation, the form of codes
is altered in order to make a change in content or meaning.
An example of tbis can be seen in Buontalenti's Porta della
Supplichc at the Uffizi, Florence, where a normal segmental
pediment was broken into two pieces set back to back (Fig.
2). The result is a new decorative form to be seen together
wilh the sculptural busl placcd in between. The content of
the hlverled broken pediments here no longer refers to the
Corm of the roof as did il originally.
2. Buotalenti. Porta della
Suppliche, Uffizi, Florence
The functional aspect, on the other hand, relates to another aspect of form as relevant to its
representing function. Instead of changing the form to make a change in n.eaning, the transformation
lakes place in the alleration of function or the usage of the codes. By substituting a different function
for the original code--i.e., form remains, but the usage is changed--the content or the meaniog of an
existent code can a1so he altered.
4
Giulio Romano's design for the courtyard facade of the Palazzo dei
Te illustratcs this kind of alte.-ation (Fig. 3). Some of the trigryphs, which normally function to
represent structural members of Il frieze, appear ta slip down ioto the wall space below. The form of
the triglyphs is not altered, but their structural function has cl!anged ioto a decorative one, perhaps to
represent the of disorder within order, or the order of the disorder. One common
characteristic of the transformations of these two aspects of codes, the formai and the functionaI, is
1
--------------.-
Chapter 1 19
3. Giulio Romano. Palazzo dei Te, Mantua. Court yard faeade
that in both the critical significations are created by the exploitation of "a distinction betwccn the
thing as it is and as it appears . ..s
From these two aspects of codes, the transformation ean be made in various ways, and in
various scales. Tht, :orm of codes to be transformed ranges from the material substance of
architectural elements and mass, to the abstract representc..tion of building void and spacc. The
changes can be done at different levels, ranging from details to the overall building. The changes can
affect a single element such as capital, column, and pedimcnt, or even an entire facade. They can also
take place inside or outside, and in either case it can be the in the substantial order
6
of the wall
articulation or the intangible space created betwecn those articulated walls or betwecn buildings
themselves. In addition, the emphasis may be on the operation of the whole, or only on sorne parts
while leaving the rest of the work unaffected.
The transformation May occur within one code alone, or it may involve. two or more different
codes. Within one code, the alteration May oceur by changing the form of code in lerms of il!>
proportion, or scale (Fig. 1). Occasionally, there May be no change al aIl in the original form of the
code, but the transformation takes place in alteration of syntactic relationships within the ordcr of
1
1
Chupter 1
20
code itsclC A case in point is the falling trigryphs on the courlyard facade of the Palazzo dei Te (Fig.
3). In a more complicated way, two or more codes or orders may be combined and imegrated in
various manners. Ali example of this can also be seen in the Palazzo dei Te's faeade, where the large
keystone which belongc; to the central arch is integrated ioto and becomes a part of another motif of
the pcdimental frame above (Fig. 3).
J lowever various and diverse the transformation of codes can be, underlying ail these
operations is the critical nature of the changes. It is changed in such a way that it denatura/izes the
code il cmploy!> ln order to assign lo il a new signification. Dellaturalizatioll means that the process
of the exploita/ion of existent codes occurs in a way not sim ply following the logical nature of codes
as employed in a traditional context. The fundamental strategy of denaturalization can be found
through the "de-familiaril'.ation,,8 of existent codes, where new meanings can be created by makiog
familiar codes become unfamiliar. Robert Venturi points out in Complexity and Contradiction in
Architecture:
Gestalt psychology maintains that context cootributes meaning to a part and change in context
causes change in meaning. The archilect thereby, through the organization of parts, creates
meaningful contexts for them within the whole. Through unconventional organization of
conventional parts he is able to create new meanings wilhin the whole. If he uses convention
unconventionally, if he organizes familiar things in an unfamiliar way, he is changing their
contexts, and he can use even the cliche to gain a fresh effect. Familiar things seen in an
unfamiliar context become perceptually ncw as weil as 01d.
9
Orten resulling from the process of de-naturalization is the conflicting appearance of work
that holds a contradictory rclationship to existent theory and ideology. Consequently. this conflicting
characteristic becomes the trait of this critical architecture, the second nature of 'criticism from within."
Il is therefore not surprising that Most historiographieal discussions describe the work of criticism as an
"anti-thesis" architecture. An instance of this is the description of Mannerism as the anti-thesis of
Renaissance.
lo
However, underneath the apparent conflict and contradiction of tbis architecture lies an
unarbitrary intention. Through specific operations of what a1ready existed--well-established codes, the
architects of this critical architecture bring to their works certain significations by referring the works
to tbe existent codes. The meaning created in tbis way might come from a dircct assignmcnt of an
1
-,
Chapter 1 21
existent meaning to the new work, or it might result from an attempl 10 reconcilc and combine
existent meanings. In many cases, thesc operations could cven produce lotally ncw Olcanings.
Although the process of de-naturaliztion can be diversc1y donc on thc cxistent 11
also possible to pcrccivc sorne identifiable patterns consistenlly inhercnl \vilhin Ihc of
architecture. For an illustration of lhese percc:vable patterns, the following di .. will "e ha ... cd
on the critical interpretation of Mannerist architecture. The observable patterns, which ch,lfllclcri/c
Mannerist architecture, have those qualities oCten expressed by the tcrms: "disturhancc,"11 "l'ar,Idox,
discordia COli cors [discordant harmony), conflicl, ambiguity, .. 12 "duality, complexily,
subordinate, contradictory,"13 etc. These qualities, when carcfully scrutini.led, result mostly from the
design patterns which can be grouped inlo two interpretivc principlcs: the cntical pnnciple of il/tcgratioll
and the critical pmlcip/e of /fIversioll.
The Critical Principle of Integration
The cri/ical prillciple of illtegration, or the integra/cd order, can be characlcri/cd hy the
pattern resulting from an integration or combination of two or more diffcrent or ordcrs The
operations on codes may be donc through confrontation, juxtaposItion, intcrvention, or
superimposition. One specifie charactcristic of this principlc in the Wdy Ihc of the integration
of different codes still maintains equally ail previous attributes of the cmploycd code.. From (hi ...
integration, a new type of code is produced. Il contains ncw significations thd( Oldy diffcr from, yet
always refer to the original contexts of the employed codes. As the ncw code is creaI cd from the
various contexts of different existent codes, 50 does it contain variou,> of rcfcrent rneaning. The
production of this intcgration then can bc cqualled to Venturi'll definition of "hoth-and" architecture.
According to him, this type of architecture "cvokcs many Icvcls of me,lIIing and combin,uion .. of focu ... :
its space and its elements beeomc read:lblc and workable in several at once .. 14
Resulting from the possible readings of this typc of architecture arc two fcaturee; to be called
"double-meaning clement" and "double-functioning clement: Both fedture,> arc clo&c1y hnked. The
only difference betwecn the two lies in a particular aspect to which each fcature refers' meaning or
function. The "double-rneaning element" features an architectural clement, an order, or a code that
l
Chapter 1
22
represents or "has been given two different and irreconcilable meanings."1S Instead of concerning itself
with symbolical meaning, the clement," according to Venturi, "pertains more to the
particulars of use and structure,,,16 i.e., one architectural member may be assigned for a twofold
function.
17
ln other words, it fundions at the same time for two or more differcnt systems or orders.
ln brief for bath cases-othe "double-meaning" and the "double-functioning" elements, one element, a
codc, or an ordcr stands for two or more differcnt contexts.
Dc!>igning using the principle of intcgration can be considcrcd as a common attitude which
prevailcd among 'iixteenth ccntury Italian artists. Giorgio Vasari proclaimed that "a 'fine manner'
cames from copying 'the most bcautiful objects, and of afterwards combining the most perfect, whether
Ihe hand, head, torso, or leg, and joining them together to make one figure invested with every
beauty."'18 Although Vasari conccived this to be applicable to painting, he was able to translate the
same concept to architecture, which is visible in his own architectural work. From this point of vicw,
il was not alien for Mannerist architects to bring in and combine in one work different elements,
systems, orders, or codes as long as the result could present a "fine manner" or any specifie signification
at which the architccts might have airned.
An illustration of the principle of integration in Mannerism cao be found in Michelangelo's
design of the Ricetto, the Laurepziana Library, Florence (Fig. 4). This particular work is, above all,
one of the finest and perhaps the forcmost example of crilical architecture to be regarded as
Mannerist. AU kinds of arch.'tcctural trcalment at allleveis in tbis work cao he codified under the two
principlcs of integration and inversion.
Analyzed through the principle of integration, the most significant part of this vestibule lies in
the rcmarkable design of its magnificenl slaircase. According lo Rudolf Wittkower in "Michelangelo's
Bibliotcca Laurenziana," this vestibule can be identified as "the frrst real staircase hall of Western
architecture," and furthermore, "the ancestor of all Baroque staircase halls."19 Not only is it the frrst
to ever contain a staircase, but it is also the first to have special emphasis placed directly on
the st air. The Ricetto st air, in contrast to the traditional stair, becomes a work of art in its own right
as weil as being certainly a structure. It also becomes an important element, and is perhaps
1
Chapter 1
, " ")"" .. "," " ...
",-, " ,
.. " .......
even more significant to the hall than the Cree spacc. which normally characterizcs the traditional
vestibule.
Before the appearance of tbis staircase hall. the two functions of stair and vestibule were
normally separate. and were often determined as being diffcrcnt occupying diffeH:nl definite
spaces. According to John Shearman in Mallllerism, "in the car lier and High Renaissance the place of
the staircase in architectural design was menial; it was thought of as a nCCI'SSily thal was arlislically
rather inconvenient. and so it was relegated to positions of minimal cmphasis."20 Conscquently, the
1
1
Chapter 1
24
I>tair was rigidly put within the raam baundary having its notch-boards identica1 ta the wall, and thus
separating the st .. ir room from the outsidc.
The vestibule was, on the olher han d, a transitional room where people connected their
IIItenor huill realm to the outslde natural world. Once inside the vestibule, people woult:l become of
the first importance. As Wittkower points out, "A room is usuaUy adapted for the use of men, .. 21 where
one would he able to occupy and utHize the space freely. This resulted in the charaeteristic trait of
traditional vc<;tibule: u",u.llly an empty room. However, ln the Ricetto the two different rooms were
united to bccome one. This prototype of staircase hall, thcrefore, can be se en as the result of an
integration of two dirferent codes-othe two opposite funetions and different typologies of room: the
traditional stdirease room and vestibule.
ln the Lauren.l.ana Library, the vestibule is no longer mostly oeeupied by free spacc, and the
stair allll>t liberates itsclf from the wall except for the part of the middle flight that only serves ta
bridge the gap betwcen diffcrent floor levels. In opposition to tradition, the mass of the stair
subscqucntly dominates the room al the base Icvel while lcaving the upper part of the room, with ils
significantly atypical high ceihng, openly free as in a traditional hall. An analysis of its section clearly
illustrale how the averall space of the extremely high ceiling room can be seen as the result of an
integration and an intcrlocking of two normal-heighted spaces of typical Maircase room and vestibule
(Fig. 5). The result of this critical manipulation of the Manncrist master thus crcates a ncw type of
space and a ncw code, which bccarne a legacy for the architecture of the following period.
As mentioned car lier, critical patterns at ail levels, from the general to the specifie, co-exist
in the design of the Ricetto. The integration of two traditional room typologies, the staircase room
and the vestibule, generatc1> another integrated order which takes place in the design of the staircase
itsclf. From the historieal discussions of the staircase, much has already becn mentioned about the
idiosyncratic design of the triple-stairway form--how the form of the outer and central flights creates
tense and conflieling up-and-down movcrncnts. However, the historical development of the starr bas
rarcly becn diseussed. Insight from Wittkawer's analysis of the history of its design reveals the origin
and development of the sta
i
.
22
It can be suggested from his analysis that what eventually lead the
l
Chapter 1
.-
",
""
""
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ,
"
""
"-
'"
"
;"
",
,,,,
"-
"-
...
....
25
5. RJcetto. Decomposition analY!lls of vestibule section. The Integration or typlcul vestibule and
staircase room
design of the stair from its original simple moclel to that final disputed form came from nothing but
the architect's initial decision to integrate two ideaf of st air typology.
By tradng the history of the design, Wittkower disclosed that, original1y, whcn Michclangclo
was assigned ta design the stair hall for the Laurenziana Library, his first idea was, typically, to design
a st air put against the wall. The stair was sim ply in a Corm of double stairways both leading loward the
Chapter 1
26
door on the central part of the meeting landinlf (Stages II, III; Figs. 6-8). It should be noted that
beforc his lime, this formai type of stair was exdusively used for sacred buildings, such as churches:
"lwin stairways, placcd lerl and righl, leading to a raised choir, and embracing between them the
cntrance to the Crypt."24 Michelangelo, in this masterpiece, was probably the first to reverse the use of
sacred !>tar and use il in a secular building like a library vestibule.
2S
h i ~ in itself was already another
example of the principle of inversion.
However, nearly a year after the first idea of twin-staircase had been proposed, and while
construction was unucrway, Michc1angc1o received a comment about the stal' from the pope. The
pope's wish was "to have instead of the twin stairs against the walls, a single staircase which should
cover the whole breadth of the Ricetto."26 From thi" suggestion, the next stage of the design shows
that an altcration had been made accol'ding to the pope's wish (Stage IY; Figs. 9, 10). DespiLe this
change, howevcr, Michelangelo's original idea had Dot yet totally been abandoned. Ali principle
features from the first version were retained except that "the space between the two flights of stairs is
now filk.d with a conCllVC staircase.,,27 Consequently, the original twin-stairease is stm recognizable,
though in a ncw manner of triple stairway with the steps covering the whole breadth of the vestibule as
the pope desired.
From l;.is stage, all design developments leading to the final construction had been based on
the scheme of triple stairways, though many alterations and variations of scheme occurred. Some
devclopments had affected the principle alteration in the whole body of the stair, for example, the
change from the stair SUI rounded OD three sides by the walls in the initia: design (Stages II-IY; Figs.
6-10) to the indepcndent free-standing staircase of the fmal construction (Stages Y-XIII; Figs. 11-19).
Some alternative schemes resulted from the experiments in various forms and details of joining and
accommodating the triple flights (Stages VI, VII; Figs. 12-15).
From the design development of the stair Wittkower has revealed, we can see that no matter
how major or minor changes had been in these various schemes, all designs consistcntly reflect one
CODlOlon significant feature. The "doublc-mcaning clement" of the triple stairways, which rcsulted from
the initial integration between the twin and single stairways, can, explicitly or implicitly, be noticed in
1
Cbapter 1
6. Plan (or the Rlcetto wlth staln agalnst the wall
...... _.l .
1
, 1
7. Plan (or the Rlcetto wlth staln agalnst the wall
8. Sketch for staircase
27
STAGE 1
No iden for the design of the stnlr
STAGE Il
Twin staln agalnst the wall
STAGE III
Enlarglng stalr wldtb llnd dlvld-
lng landlng lnto three
"Of the form of the stairs con-
templated in the spring of 1524 (II)
no alteration in principlc has been
made. The twin stairs against the
walls are retaincd. Michclangelo
conlenlcd himsclf wilh a monumen-
talization and differentiation of the
old themes." (Wittkower, 156)
Stage numbering is ordered in accordance with Wiukower's analysis of the events sequentially taking
place in the design of the star.
Chapter 1
j
9. Sketch for stalrcase. Plan
10. Sketch for stalrcase. Plan and elevaflon superlm-
posed
..
--"
Il. Sketch for staircase
28
STAGE IV
Twln stalrs OUed wlth concave
steps
The alteration is made Crom the
twin stairs to a single stair covering
the whole breath of the Ricetto in
accordance with pope's wish. (Witt-
kower,156)
In thic; stage, "Dot aoly concave but
also convex steps are provisianally
indicated." (Wittkawer,157)
STAGE V
Twln stalrs standing lree ln the
room
In tbis stage, Michelangela pro-
ceeded "ta develop aut of the twin
st airs against the wa1ls, twin stairs
standing free in the room." (Witt-
kower,157)
Chapter 1
12. Reconstruction of Mlcilelangelo's idea for the stair,
stage VI
-I
r' ~ - = - = - - . ~ -t- __ -: _
- ~ -
. __ 1,
/_--- ---- "
r ,
- : ~ '
--- - l- '
.'l . -
- ;,' -
= ___ .-J -
13. Reconstruction of Michelangelo's idea for the stair,
stage VIla
14. Reconstruction of Michelangelo's idea for the stair.
stage VIlb
15. Reconstruction of Michelangelo's idea for the stair,
stage VIle
29
STAGE VI
Free-standing stair in the form of
triple-stairway Olghts
STAGE VII
Variations on the priltciple of
dovetalling
STAGE VlI!l
STAGE Vllb
STAGE VIle
Chapter 1
, ..
" .. ,' '.
~ ') 1 1111" t.,
t. \,."., -. ~
16. Copy by Vnnnocci aller sketch by Mlchelangelo for
stalrcase
1
1.
1
1
1
17. Copy by Battlsta da Sangallo aller sketch by
Michelangelo for staircase
30
STAGE VIII
Stair against back wall
In stage VIn, formerlystraight-side
flights are changed into a repetition
of the central oval.
STAGE IX
Oval stair against back wall
"Here the stair is developed from
an oval. It forms a complete sin-
gle whole, even if a break between
middle and sides is not on the face
ofit abandoned." (Wittkower, 165)
STAGE X
ln stage X, "the new articulation
of the Ricetto wall compelled
Michelangelo to return once more
to the idea of the free-standing stair
[stage VIla)." (Wittkower, 167)
STAGE XI
In stage XI, the stair had been
misunderstood and incorrectly
constructed by the architect in-
charge, and therefore was left for
Michelangelo to resolve.
Chapter 1
18. Reconstruction of stalrcase plan of 1555
19. Rlcetto stalrcase. Plan
1
31
STAGE XII
Free-standlng tri pie wlt ..
eonvex mlddle nlg"t
Michclangelo returncll to devclop
the design out (lf lhe !>chcme of
stage VIla.
STAGE XIII
The final built stair
To keep the articulation of the wall
mnning uninterruplcdly lhrough oui
four sides, Michelangelo decided
only the central I1ighl running
toward the floor of the upper levcl
l
l
1
Chaptcr 1
32
each scheme. Particular to the final solution (Stage XIIIj Fig. 19), this double-feature of two
integrating stairs is even st ronger and more evidentlhan it has been in any other previous alternatives.
Not only has il reflected the two distinct codes of twin and single staircases, but aIso has distinguished
them simultancously and forccfully. Within the sculptural form of the built stair, the original idea of
the twin stairways is still visible and emphasizcd, both in its overall form and details, notwithstanding
another code of single stairway imposed upon it.
The Critical Principle of Inversion
Thc critical prit/clple of inversioll or the ;IIverted order can be characterized by the design
pattern rcwlting from an inversion in the use of lhe existent code or order. This means that every
conviction on which the employed code or order was based is reversed to its opposite nature. The
inversion on the existcnt code can be accomplished in two ways. The first, the inverted order within
a single codc, can be achievcd by using one code originally associated with one meaning, one function
for another meaning, another function oppositely. An example of this is the inversion between the
opposition of inside and outside which can be secn in the design of the Ricetto's interior wall. As
Shearman remarks, "it is the firsl building that seems to have been turned outside in for the massive
treatment of the interior walls belongs by tradition to exteriors."2B
ln this interior, Many treatments arc made to stress the exteriority. First, standing in tbis room
of extraordinary height compared with its width, one i.; convinced of confronting a facade of a two-
storeyed building (or three-storeyed building if the base is considered as an addition al floor). The wall
is divided into three part:. by the dark horizontal moulding strips running uninterruptedly across four
sides of the room (Fig. 4). The lowest and shortest portion of the wall represents the solid base of a
building supporting on its top the other two floors. The frrst floor is treated according to the typical
loggia tradition, with pairs of full columns and flat walls decorated wilh tabernacles in the form of blind
niches lopped with alternating circular and triangular pediments. The top floor is decorated with
almost the l>amc motif as the floor beneath. Pairs of massive columns and the projected tabernacles of
the first floor are replaced by tbin pilasters and flat rectangular blind window frames which look much
likc the trcatment of the top floor of a palazzo. The continuous change in the treatment of the three-
1
1
Chapter 1 33
storeyed wall (including the base) is in accord an ce with the law of load transmission-othe principlc in
which a graduai change of wcighty masses decrcasing from basl' ta the top is exprcs .. ed in to
earth's gravitation. Seen together the overall massive treatment, the use of differcnl motifl> from loggia
to tabernacles and top floor windows, and finally the design of the wallundcr the
law of laad transmission, arc ail typical for the design of extcnor f,leade of Renaissancc (Figs.
38,39).
Another way of inverting an arder within one code can be achieved hy a decisive mbuse 01
the existent code. An example of this which is common for Mannerisl arlists is, as Shearman points
out, "ta adapt artistic forms or compasitional devices, originally invented wilh expressive funclions, and
to use them in a non-funetional way capriciously."29 This kind of ortler the
functianaIjnon-functional ar the rationaIjsensational can also he found in the saille inlerior f.lcade I)f
the Ricetto. The manipulation takes place this time in the elemental dctails of wall articul,llion, as can
be se en in the way Miehelangelo put the seroU brackcts at the base of the wall (Figs. 4, 20). ln this
arrangement, not only can the averscaled brackets hardly function ta bear the ahove pairs of massive
calumns, their lacatians an the wall in relation ta the calumns make their functional purpose
They alsa project aff the wall while the calumns are, in pushed hack into the reces,> wall, the
brackets then carry nothing, contradicting their supposcd function ta suppart. Rdther than performing
a functional purpose, the projecting scroll brackets arc used here to function cxpcrientially.
The second type of inverted order opcrated betwecn differcnl codes can he donc hy altering
the syntactic relationships between different clements, codcs, or orders. This is often opcratcd through
an exchange of meanings or {unctional rol(!s between dirferent clements, codes, or orders that arc
juxtapased together. Again, examples can be round in the interior design af the Laurcn7jana Library
vestibule.
The first example can be seen in the inversion of lhe synlactic rclalion<;hip hclwccn the
functional roles of wall and column. Traditionally, the appropriatc function of the column i .. tn ,>upport
weight and to articulate wall surface.3.i A column, therefore, usually stands forward lcaving the wall
plane behind. In cantrast, the wall of the Ricctto is appositcly projected forward. Moreovcr, il cven
(
Chapter 1
c..O(L.\W\01
- pf.:tv..e-
_1" WJ\ Il pllltv
-' -.-
-.-.-
1. t'<'Jl uw,,'1 jOle'!
,
/ /
te c-; r w ..... rl?t VI

21. The inversion or relationship between wall and column or the Ricetto wall and
traditionsl wall
34
r
!
)
1
Chapter 1 35
)
.
-1t;:::::::;;:;;;t-. -. _. _. -
22. Rtcetto tabernacle. Lert, the inversion between the forms of pilas ter und bracketi right, the
inversion between the profiles of the tabernacle pilaster and a typlcal column
embeds the entire columns within the slols of ils recessed wall (Figs. 20, 21). Wall and colutnn have
exchanged their functions, leaving behind a feeling of columns being imprisoned withm the of
the wall.
Another instance of the same principle of inversion betwcen different codes takes place in the
design of another ornamental detail of wall decoration. At the sarne level of the prcviously
,tf
".
Chupter 1
36
wall, between the pairs of the imprisoned columns, arc blind niches featuring projecting tabernacles
topped with alternate pediments (Fig. 20). The exchange of funclional roles oceurs in the design of the
tabernacle between the pilasters supporting the pediment and the small brackets underneath them (Fig.
22). The pcculiar form of the pilastcrs is, in fact, more Iikely to be an elongated bracket, whose shape
normally converges down, than ta be a common pilaster (cf. the convergent form of the seroU bracket
undcr the pair of suppressed columns [fig. 20]). On the other hand, the bracket underneath
paradoxically rcsemblcs the top part of normal pilaster with a sm ail moulding capita!.31 The forms of
the brackct and the pilastcr here arc rcversely displaccd. The bracket is stretched out and moved up
to function as pilastcr; the pilaster, in conhast, is choppcd off and moved down to support its surrogate
pilastcr.
Furthermore, the form of the surrogate pilaster narrowing towards the base is aIready in itself
an inverted order wiLhin one code alone. The inversion is in its reverse prome to that of lypical
column, which normally has ils width decreasing towards the top (Fig. 22). As Palladio suggests in 11le
Four Books of Architecture: "The columns in each order ought to be form'd in such a manner, that the
diameter of the upper part of the column May be sm aller than at the bottom, with a kind of swelling
in the n. iddlc."32
At this point, the way in which the two principles of integration and inversion can be diversely
employed and manipulated is c1ear. The instance of the Ricetto is, however, only the beginning of a
new approach to critical architecture. The same design patterns seen through the two interprctive
principles can also be found in the design of 50 Many architects in the generation aCter Michelangelo,
and thcsc patterns have become distinctive attribut es which dominate and characterize Italian
architecture throughout the sixteenth cent ury.
r
1
1
1
1
NOTES
1. Jorge Silvetti, "The Beauty of Shadows," Oppositiolls 9 (Summcr 1977): 54-SR
2. Kerry Downes, Hawksmoor, Studies in Architecture, cds. Anthony Blunt and Rudolf
Wittkower, vol. 2 (London: Zwemmer, 1959),232.
3. The categories of codes are dcrived partly from Jorge Si\vcui, ibill ,4H. In his
Silvetti also mentions rhetorical and moral codes, the other two aspects of codes which abo can he
transformed. However, the first is omilled Crom the present discussion because 1 con!.ider the
rhetorical aspect a'i a sort of effect, or as an instrumental strategy used in the manipulation of codes to
create those rhetorical gestures, rather than itsclC as a type of code. Ali rhelorical cffeets can rcsult
from the transformation of codes, either in the alteration of form or funclion The moral aspect, on
the other hand, is considered here as one of many cultural contexts the meaning of codes can refer to
by means of architectural form. For the ideas of functiona\ und formai code ... lI<;cd in thi .. l-oludy,
also the concepts of the primary ftmctiol/ (architectural denotallOn) ,md .1(cOIldm)' ftlll<'IIOII
(architectural connotation) of architectural codes in Umberto Eco, "Funclron and Sign. Scmiotic.. ... of
Architecture," Via (Philadelphia: Graduate SelIO')\ of Fine Art'i, Univmty of Pel1ll',ylvan,I), vol. 2,
Structures Implicit and Explicit (1973): 130-53.
4. Silvetti, 51. See also the idca of how the function and rnc,lIling, or the pnmary and
secondary functiolls of codes can be changed in various way, in Eco, 137-H.
5. Colin Rowe, "Manncrism and Modern Architecture," 77lc ArcJlltcctura/ Rcl'lcw (May 1(50).
292.
6. The term "order" here and as mostly used later in the dl&cussion I!- in thc scnc;c of "thc
arrangement of any architectural clement in accordancc with rules or system.," rather than "ordcr"
specifically "a classical column" or exclusivcly "a system of clasl>ical columns."
7. Silvetti, 51.
8. See also Viktor Sklovskij's concept of "dc-familiarization" 111 Petcr Steiner, Rllssiun
Fonllalism: A Metapoetics (Ithaca: Corne li University Press, 1984), 48-50
9. Robert Venturi, Comp/exity and Contradiction /11 Arcllltccture, 2d cd. (New York: The
Museum of Modern Art, 1977; reprint, 1988), 43 (page refercnce is 10 rcprint edit ion).
10. For broad discussions in history about Mannerisrn as the of Renai'ancc sec
Walter Friedlaender, Mannensm and Antl-Manncrism /11 /ta/zan Pa/lltill/:s (Ncw York. Schocken d,)oh,
1965; reprint, New York: Columbia University Press, Schocken Books, 1973), 1-19 (p,lgc rcfercncc'i arc
to reprint edition). See also Arnold Hauser, Malltlcns,lI' TIlc of tlle RellUlHUllce a1ld Ille On/:111
of Modem Art, vol. 1 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1965),3-16.
11. Nikolaus Pevsner, "The Architecture of Mannerism," in 771C Mmt, cd. Geoffrey Grig.'ton
(London: Routledge and Sons, 1946), 135.
37
Chapter 1
38
12. Hauser, 13.
13. Rowe, 290, 292, 298.
14. Venturi, 16.
15. Rudolf Wittkower, "Miehelangelo's Biblioteca Laurenziana," 77le Art Bulletin, vol. 16, no.
2 (June 1934): 2IJ7.
16. Venturi, 34.
17. WiUkower, "Miehc1angc1o's Biblioteca Laurenziana," 209.
18. Wylie Sypher, Rococo to Cubism in Art and Literatltre (New York: Vint age Books, 1960),
158.
19. Wittkowcr, "Miche1angelo's Biblioteca Laurenziana," 206.
20. John Shearman, Mannerism, Style and Civilization, eds. John Fleming and Hugh Honour
(Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1967; reprint, 1%9), 113 (page refercnce is to reprint edition).
21. WiLlkower, "Michelangclo's Biblioteca Laurenziana," 205.
22. For a complete detailed discussion of the history of the stm see Wittkower,
"Michelangelo's Biblioteca Laurenziana," 155-80.
23. Wittkower, "Michelangelo's Biblioteca Laurenziana," 155.
24. Ibid.
25. Here, one may argue that the Laurenziana Library is a part of saered building-othe ehurch
of San Lorenzo. However, it should be noted that a library, though belonging to and located on
Church property, had never been considered to be a saered place of God as significant as the cathedral
or chapc1 whcrc religious ceremonies take place.
26. Wlltlowcr, "Michelangclo's Biblioteca Laurenziana," 156.
27. Ibid, 157.
28. Shearman,74-75.
29. Ibid., 22.
30. Wittkower, "Michelangelo's Biblioteca Laurenziana," 206.
31. In the analysis of Wittkower, "Michelangelo's Biblioteca Laurenziana, " 207, the form of
the bracket is seen as a triglypha member of Dorie entablature. Although the observation is different
from the present discussion, the principle of inversion is ahu applicable in tbis case. From the view of
triglyph-like bracket the inversion is made by using one form, one function for another.
32. Andrea Palladio, 77;e Four Books of Architecture (New York: Dover Publications, 1965),
bk. 1, chap. 13, 12.
Chapter II
MANNERISM AS CRITICISM
The Critical Zeitgeist Phenomenon
ln the previous chapt cr, 1 provided an analysis of one Mannerist example t illu ... trate Illlw
certain architecture can be regarded as eriticism. Two critical principlcs, the IIItegratetl allli the /1"'1'111'11
orders, have been introduccd in conjunction with thcir applications to Michclangdo'!. d c . i ~ n 01 the
Ricetto. From the analysis of the Laurenziana Library vestibule, it is now possihle to pur ... lIe the
investigation of sorne other examples of Mannerist architecture by using the two pnncipk!. <lS ,\ tonl lor
analytical observation. Various examples of Mannerist architecture will be analY.lcd tn illu1'.tr.lle Ihe
pl'lrallel design attitudes of the critica/ zcitgclst phcflomeno1l.
Design Analysis of Mannerist Architecture
As mentioned earlier, the design patterns secn throllgh the two operations of integr,\IHln ,lIId
inversion were eommon patterns prevalent throughout sixteenth century Italtan arcluteclurc, partkul.llly
aCter the proto-criLical work at the Laurenziana Library. The implication ... of the two princlplc ... III
Mannerist architecture, such as in the Ricelto, varied in terms of how they were Planipul.\ted. Jor
example, in terms of principles employed sorne buildings may reflect either one of the two prindplc:,;
eonversely, others may reflect both pl inciples as is the case of the Ricctto.
Similarly, the operation on the code can be sa diverse that sometimes the same notion of code
is found re-employed again and again in various works and in different manners A ca\c in point i, the
manipulation on the opposite code inside/outside that bccomcs a lavourite therne found in Mannerist
architecture. One instance of this, as previously discuc;sc, is shown in the Ricctto whcrcln thc
manipulation of the opposition inside/outside can be seen through the principlc of inversion. Sorne
other instances of lhe critieal play between inside/outsidc can also be found in thc work<; of many
39
l
Chapter Il 40
archiLecLs who immcdiatcly succccded Michelangc1o. The rust to be discussed is Giorgio Vasari's
design of the Uflili in Florence.
Uffizi, Florence.
..
....
23. Vasari. Umzl, Florence. View rrom the Arno
At the Uffizi, unlikc the Ricetto, the manipulation of the opposition insidejoutside can be se en
through the principlc of integration. It is hf're at the Florentine palace that the notion of the inversion
betwccn inside and outside is replaced by the integration of the two opposites which reflects in both
treatmcnts of space and facades of the building. Starting with its so-called "court yard," the space
pm.scsses a "double-meaning" of insidejoutside. In other words, "courtyard"--an attribute of interior,
symbolkally represcnting the private realm--has inherently another characteristic of street"--an
altribulc of cxtcrior, thcreby exemplifying the public realm. To argue this, the physical charaderistic
of the Uffil1's spacc will be examined first.
Gcncrally, a court yard can be defmed as an enclosed space encompassed either by walls or
pm ts of building. Thcreforc, taking for granted the primacy of "court yard" as it is normally called,
1
Chapter Il
1
1
24. Vasari. Umzi. View toward the Arno
25. Vasari. umzl. Vlew from the Arno loggia toward Piazza
della S 19norla
41
Chapter Il
42
the Uflizi's court yard is characterizcd by the attribute of space enclosed by two lateral wings conneeting
at the edge of the river Arno by another cross-armed wing formed in a U-shaped plan (Fig. 24).
Furthermore, when seen from the outside, the attribute of the courtyard is strengthened by the unity of
the faeade faeing the river Arno (Fig. 23). From the Arno, the facade of the building appears as a
single articulated plane under the projecting caves of the same roof. The treatment of the whole
faeade is divided into thrce vertical parts defined by tbree colossal arches at the ground level. The
central arch is aeeompanied by lwo side bays in the form of Serlian motir (Fig. 26) whose total width
is identieal to the width of the court yard in the back. The two outer arches belong 10 the two lateral
wings enclosing the courtyard. Following this trealment the faeade fwm the Arno front can only be
rcgarded as an elevation of a single building enclosing within ils structure an inner courtyard.
Despite the indications from both spa ce
configuraLon and faeade treatment of the Arno front,
the eourtyard attribute is disturbed by ils own physical
appearance. Sccn from the opposite end of the Arno
wing, the court yard appcars as an extremely elongated
spacc which extends forcefully in the direction towards
the Arno (Fig. 24). Inevitably, the direction al corridor-
Iike sparc gives one who is standing inside the illusion
that one is instead out on an open street. This
impression reinforced by the fact that at the end of the
e10ngatcd tunnel, the ground floor mass of the enclosed
wing is perforated across its entire widlil. Ieaving only
two pairs of colonnades to support the Serlian arch.
Consequently, the feeling of enc\osed created
by the Arno wing is partially torn down by the cntice
opening of its own ground colonnade. This opening
26. Serllan wlndow. Palazzo della
Signorla, Florence
1
J
Chapter Il 43
27. Vasari. umzl. Elevation of east wing Caca de
28. Vasari. umzl. Elevation of west wing Cacade
allows the volume of inside space to flow uninterruptedly outward, thereby making a connection of
space from within to the outside in a way quite unusual for the enclosed spacc of the court yard.
In addition 10 the double-meaning of courtyardfstreet of the Uffi7j'S spacc, the paradox of
insidefoutside is further re-affirmed by the treatment of the facades that circumo;crihc the
space of the court yard. Within the court yard fadog the Arno, on the left hand side i!> an elcvatu)O of
the east wing building treated as a typical court yard facade, i.e., with the ground noor facade in the
form of loggia (Fig. 27). Turning towards the opposite side, the articulation of the WC\t wlOg facade
repeats that of the opposite, except that the ground floor treatment is now divided lOto two motifs by
a colossal arch located almost halfway down the facade length (Fig. 28). The centr ,,' arch, which
1
1
1
Chapter [1 44
funclions an entrance lo the nearby street, is divided to the left bya colonnade of the loggia and to
the right by a row of rectangular-frarned windows. The loggia to the le ft of the arch forms an
uninterrupted connection to the loggia and the loggia of the cast wing building, thus assuring that
the '>pace at the Arno end will be a court yard. However, the central arch motif and the row of
window!' to its right, resemble a typical exterior treatment of the Renaissance palazzo (Figs. 36, 39),
thercfore counter-balancing the court yard space making it look like a street. The result is the
integration of the two codes reflected in two forms. The first is the court yard and street facades that
arc combined into the same frantage as seen in the west wing facade (Fig. 28). The second integration
is represented through the confrontation betweeo the west wiog street facade and the east wing
court yard facade at the Piazza della Signoria end (Fig. 24).
Having been examined, clement by element and code by code, each space, mass, and facade
has shown its deslgnated allributes and paradoxical raies in the integration of the two codes--inside
and outsidc. Moreover, Ihe way ail these elements and attributes are put together into one single
context creates even more paradoxes by the inverted play between the tw) of courtyard and
street. These reflect the subversion of ail notions of courtyard and street that one might expect to
confront while coming up to and wandering through the Ufflzi. Approached from the Piazza della
Signoria, the Uffizi appears to he Iwo separate blocks of building, with one block standing next to the
old Palazzo Vecchio (Fig. 29). The space left between the two facing buildings is conYOcingly a street
leading ta the river Arno. However, after one has entered this street, one then confronts an enclased
space blocke<1 at the river end by a cross-armed wing in the form of a Serlian motif (Fig. 24). What at
first seems to be a street is surprisingly turned into the enclosed space of a courtyard.
The paradox between court yard and street attributes further continues as one approaches the
building fronl the opposite direction. Every pre-expectatian of the space type and its actual appearance
in Ihe respective order from the previous orientation is simply reversed. From the river Arno front, the
Uffizi appcaf'. as one stretched facade of three conlinuous arches, suggesting a totality belonging to a
single building (Fig. 23). Approaching from this side, as one passes under the central arch ana out
through the loggia, one then confrollts an immediate open space which was supposed to be an enclosed
1
l
Chapter Il
29. Palazzo Vecchio, Florence. RJght, view or entrance to the Uffizl
from Piazza della Signorla
45
courtyard within the building. However, this cxpectation is suddenly ovcrthrown. The open space ie;
unobstructed like a chute of a long narrow street into a widcr open space bcyond (Fig. 25). The pre-
expected court yard space has turned into an apparent strect-Iike spacc which actually functions as a
street connecting its end with the public space of the Piazza della Signoria.
1
1
-'
Chapter Il 46
The experience one bas of the UffJZ always oscillates between the opposite apprehensions of
inside and outside, court yard and street, and private and public realm, all resulting from the
manipulations of the two principles of integration and inversion. This is true whether the observation
is made dynamically by moving through sequences of space as discussed abo,,;:: or statically in any flXed
orientation within the Uenzi's courtyard.
Statically, from any direction within the courtyard as one turns backward, tbe previous
impression of street or court yard always becomes the opposite. Within the UfrJZ's inner court and
facing toward the Piazza della Signoria, the open long narrow space tbat joins its end to the piazza
next to it can only be defmed as a street. Turning backward to the river Arno, the perception of the
previous street-like space is diminished and oppositely replaced by a courtyard-llke space. The same
space at tbis end is now enclosed by the cross-armed block of the Arno wing (cf. Figs. 25 & 24).
Once again, from the last position as one tums at a right angle to the I,;ft, one faces the loggia
of the east wing court yard facade, which seems to conflfm one's perceptual experience of the courtyard.
Conversely, as one turns backward to the west wing, the loggia of the previous facade is replaced on
this side by the motif of ground floor windows, used typically for the exterior facade of the Renaissance
palazzo. Consequently, the treatment of tbis facade has sbifted the courtyard impression back again to
the initial impression of street.
Finally, in addition to ail complexities from the integrated and inverled play of dialogue
between the attribute of each space, mass, and facade, another layer of complexity is found in the
overall design of the cross-armed wing. When thoroughly scrutinized, the Arno wing, which initiales
the whole controversy by creating an enclosure to the originally street-like space and creating the
Ufftzi's so-called "courtyard," has paradoxically turned out to betray its own courtyard status. The
"private r e l m ~ implied by the courtyar" is experientially aIso a "public realm" as defmed by its
disposition, and by the treatments of ils mass and facade. The deplh of the Arno wing is so narrow
thal within the court yard, when seen from afar, its mass appears to lack depth and looks as if it were
only a slight plane of wall. This lack of depth is further emphasized in the visu al perspective by the
contrast of the extremely elongated facades of the two adjacent wings. This, together with the Serlian
1
1
J
Chapter Il 47
30. Vasari. vmzl. 100er racade
motif of the opening arch make the Arno wing appear rather as a gateway in the Corm of a triumphal
arch, usually marking its presence on the space of public realm (Fig. 30).
ln fact, the Arno wing, the most important part of the project, was intended to be of special
importance to the public realm. The whole design of this wing, particularly ils i\1ternal facade, was
intended to hold within its design the iconographie connotation of the political significance of the
Florentine ruler who erected the Uffazi. The recent study of Roger J. Crum in 'Cosmos, the World
of Cosimo': The Iconography of the Uffazi Facade," has disclosed its connotation. According to Crum,
"the UffIzi may originally have been planned as two separate though facing buildings"2 as is cvidcnt in
Domenico Poggini's foundation medal of 1561 (Fig. 31). From the schematic design on the medal, it
is clear that the space separating the foremost boundaries of the two buildings can only be rcgardcd
as street, and therefore belonging solcly to the publir realm. The existing space cnc!oscd by the cross
armed wiDg was a later adaptation to Culm both a funetional aim and, more imporlantly, a symbolical
(
Chapter Il
31. Pogglol. Cosimo 1. Washington, National Gallery or
Art, Samuel H. Kress Collection
48
31. Dantl. Cosimo 1 as Augus-
lUs/Hercules. Florence, Bargello
purpose, and thereby changing its initial design as street to the double characteristics of courtyard
and street.
Functionally, the Arno wing (the south wing) served to vlternally link the used space of the
two wings, which were originally designed as two separate buildin/i. Both the east and the west wings
wcrc uscd for the same purpose to be the government of.ices (ufflZi) of the Tuscan State.
3
Symbolically, the Arno wing was intended to embody an iconography of the presence of Duke Cosimo
l, the Florentine and Tuscany ruler, in the theme of "Cosmos, the world of Cosimo,'''' This
iconographie embodiment was revealed through the exploitation of aU architectural motifs inscribed
within the facade in collaboration with the sculptural program on il. The latter, to be specific, was
Danti's statue of Cosimo l, the one which was initially intended to he installed on the facade (Fig. 32,.5
According to Crum, in part of the sculptural program the Danti's statue was used to represent
the dukc in an aUcgorical image of Augustus/Hercules.
6
Both Augustus and Hercules werc of
important significance to the Florentine and Tuscany history. While Hercules was the legendary
1
Chapter Il 49
founder of Florence, Augustus was the actual founder of the city and the first Roman Emperor
Cosimo 1 was then associated with his spiritual ancestor as "neo-Augustus," the first (,rand Duke of thc
Tuscan state. From this connotation codificd from the Danti's statue, the polilical of tlll'
Duke was to be associated with the signification embodied \vithin the ard\itectural motif ... 0\ the Arno
wing facade. The Serlan motif above the loggia which would have become the b.lckgwund for Ihc
Danti's statue, had it beeD instaUed according to the initial intention, would h.lVe h.1l1 a
significance relating directly to the statue in front. "In the sixteenth cent ury, ... , an i"ol.llcd Sl!r1ian,1
designated a place of important appearances ..
1
for significant or political figures to give li
presence to the public in special ceremonies. With Danti's statue in front, the Serliana, Iherdorc,
would have been used here, nol for the occasional presence of the Duke him!>clf at l.pl!ciall'crcmonic1.
as in tradition, but for the perpetuai allegorical appearance of Cosimo 1 af. Augu'ilu ... jHerculc...
Moreover, the double columns supporting the arch of the Serli.lIl.l dlso 1.Ignilied Ihc Dukc'!.
power by referring (0 the mythology of bis legendary anccstor, AccordlOg 10 ('rulll 11\ Ih,11
mytbology, "while Hercules was crossing the sea between Africa and Spall\ 10 pl!rform lm, Icnlh 1.lhm,
he placed two columns at the Straits of Gibraltar to mark the limlto; of Ihe \...nown world. A1.
possible references to the double columns of Hercules, Ihe pair of double columno; wilhin Ihe fdcddc
Serliana May refer not simply to Cosimo as a Herculcan figure but also to the territorial expan ... ion of
his Tuscan domain and the European ext .mt of his power and influcncc."R
The facade of the Arno wing or facadc of Cosimo's governmental1.lrtlcture" W.I'> therclme
the representation of "the facade's embodiment" of Cosimo himself who ccntered and united the wholc
Tuscan state.
9
This signification was connoted through the insertion of the Arno wing whcrl! il
connecte d, functionally and syrnbolically, to the two structural wings of the Tuscan govcrnmcnl
From this insight Crum reveals, the clue to the integrated and inverted dlalogue'i of Imilkjolll'tlde,
courtyardfstreet, and privatefpublic realm May thcn be interpreted. The enclmed "p.ICC uealed hy Ihe
Arno wing, together with other acrompanying aUributes of cOllrtyard, mighl h.IVC 'tignilicd Ihe
traditional private realm of the building complcx of the Tuscan government On the 01 her h.md,
the court yard also bclongcd to the public realm. Ils doublc-attribute of street wilhin the "pace,
Chupter Il
50
masses, and internai facades, therefore, might have been intended to make the people inside the
courlyard aware that they were in the public realm of political significance of the Florentine ruler.
The example of the Uffizi shows some integrated patterns of the opposition insidejoutside.
Il indicates the possibilities of the critical operation that can bc rcflected in Many ways. One of these,
for example, is the integration of two different orders set onto separate facades of building as shown in
the confrontation of court yard and street facades of the two facing wings. Another is the integration of
two diffcrent ordcrs, blended into the same facade as secn in the Uffizi's west wing; the courtyard and
street fa cades, in this case, are horizontally combined by a huge arch in about the middle of the facade.
This laller pattern, the intcgrated play betwccn insidejoutside within the same facade of the buildIng,
is found also in other Mannerist buildings, specifically, Baldazzare Peruzzi's work at the Palazzo
Massimo aile Colonne in Rome; however, the integrated pattern was re"ealed there in a different
mmlncr.
Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne, Rome
ln the Palazzo Massimo, unlike the Florentine civic palace, the court yard loggia of inside
attribute is turned outside to form an entrance portico nserted into the street facade of the palazzo
at the middle of its ground level (Fig. 33). The outcome is a strong contrast in the facade treatment.
The solid and weighty mass of the upper two storeyslO paradoxically impose upon the dark void of the
entrance loggia in an unusual manner and had never before existed in the traditional facade of the
Renaissance pala720. However, this rather peculiar treatment of the facade is not an arbitrary design.
A paradoxical clue is revealed if one considers the organizalion of planning and ils relation to the
surrounding context.
The palace is located at the meeting of two streets, one of which hits another at the entrance
of lhe building in the fmm of a T-junction (Fig. 34). Considering the plan of the palazzo, the far left
of ils dispuled facade is stretched out beyond the extent of its actual mass behind. As a result, the
apparent central axis of the building, which is shifted from the axis of its real mass behind to a new one
formed by the strelched facade, forms a close alignment with the axis of the perpendicular street in
1
l
1
i
Chapter Il 51
front. The intention to relocate the axis of the building by extending the facade lhus come!> from a
concem on the approach of the palace from the approaching street. Il would have been awkward had
the facade been treated according to its actual mass; the entrance would have becn displcasingly
asymmetrical to its facade. 00 the other hand, had it beeo placed symrnetrically \0 the rcal building
mass, the entrance again would have been uncomfortably shifted off the street focal point, lhereby
losing ilS significance from the approaching street. Neither solution could have heen satisfying.
From tbis point Peruzz's unusual introduction of a court yard loggia for the street entrance
cao be rationally understood. AIthough the attempt was to build the c10sest alignment possible
between the axes of the building and the street, the new axis forrned by the facadc is still slightly
l
Chapter Il
34. Peruzzi.
Plun
S2
/
35. Palazzo Masslmo aile Colonne. Plan
analysls showing the use of loggia as
transltlonal space accommodating the shifted
axes
shifted and bends a Cew degrees off the street axis. This can be explained by the design constraint of
the program requiring two separate palaces to be built on an awkwardly shaped site.
ll
Therefore, none
of its sides IS aligncd. However, with Peruzzi's brilliant tbe two palaces are eventually wel1 fitted
into their pcculiar site, and most of thcir rooms still have rectangular and well-proportioned shapes.
Moreover, the orientation oC each palace also reflects a positive response to its surroundings since each
palace has its rooms, its facades--Cront and rear--well oriented to the street and tbe piazza to which it
fronts.
all these skilful arrangements, the organization of the plan still shows sorne problems
in corrclating the interior spacc with each frntage while still maintaining a good connection between
spaccs, both imide and Qutside. Thcsc can clearly be seen in the bending of axes of the entrance and
rcar corridors of the Palazzo M assim 0, and obviously in the displacement of its internal courtyard.
Typically, the C'ourtyard of the Renaissance palazzo is symmetrica1ly placed along the central axis of the
1
J
J
Chapter Il
entrance and the volume of the building as eorreetly shown hy Pcrul.li hilll,>c1f in thc pl.1Il of the
attaehed plazzo designed at the same time (Fig. 35). Conversc1y, bec"u,>c of the of the
the Palazzo Massimo's court yard is put aside 50 that the entTancc and TC..tT corridor::. c.\Il hc
connected r.t one corner of the courty,'rd inslc;, . .! of in the center as is lIsu.llIy the case. Ag.tin, thb
court yard displacement may be easlly misinterpreted an arhitrary ecccntrie if the
palazzo is examined separatc1y from its context, or wiLholit an of the complcxlty of the
program and site constraints. Gnly through studying its complexity and hy the devicc
Peruzzi used to solve the eOlrclation of the f.paccs both inside and outsidc, c.\Il the odd inver,>ion of
courtyard loggia for the exte:ior entrance be rationally revealed.
As the layout illustrates (Fig. 35), the loggia becomes .111 important device to solve the
prob1cms of different room orientations re'iulting from the awkw.lrd .,h.lpe of the Despite the
crooked ax":!s of different interior spaccs and the displaccment of the m,lin courty,ml, ail spaccs arc
still smoothly connected to each other by the loggia spaces. Within the p.tlacc, the court yard
allow for smooth transitions betwecn the axes of the Iwo courlyards and the of the cntrance and
rear corridors. Similarly, the wide horizontal band of the entrancc loggia .tcco1l1Jl1odates the two
slightly-shifted axes of the entrance corridor and the perpcndit ular street more
than a narrow entrance arch, which is typical of a Rcnissance p.tlaao (sec for example, the Palauo
Strozzi and Palladio's preparatory design for the Palazzo Porto-Colleoni lFigs. 36, 39\) The slight !-ohift
of the two axes, which would have been explicitly sccn from the approachmg street, had the entrance
been a single narrow arch, in this case, is unnoticcablc. Con!>cqucntly, the turning of the court yard
loggia out for the exterior entrance creales a dialogue betwcen the void of the entrancc loggia and lhe
space of the approaching street. The odd inverted play in the cxtcrior faeade, therefore, may be
rationally explained by Peruzzi's attempt to creale a relationsl1ip between the pala7zo and its urban
context.
Just as critical patterns exist at many levc1s in the two previous examples hy Michdangc10 and
Vasari, so too they do appcar in the work of Perum in the Pala.l.zo Massimo. In addItion to the
integration of the two orders inside/outside on the street facade of the palaz7o, it .. distinctive facade
Chapter Il
54
36. Palazzo Strozzi, Florencc. Facade
37. Alberti. Palazzo Rucellai, Florence. Facade
Chapter Il
1
38. Bramante. Casa Caprini, Rome. Facade
39. Palladio. Preparatory design ror the Palazzo Porto-Colleoni. Facade
l
1
Chaptcr Il
S6
can further he conceived as the result of the principle of inversion operated upon typical facades of
the Renaissance palazzo. Traditionally, the faeade treatments of the Renaissance palaces are based
on two syst-.!ms of structural expression in accordance with the principle of gravitation or load
transmission. One is apparent in the system of wall bearing, in which the load transmission is
expre<,sed through the gradation of rusticated wall stonework. Another is the skeleton system or the
system of post and \intel, which exhibits the law of gravit y through the arrangement of orders--the
c1asstcal column<; supporting entablatun:s. Either system, the wall bearing or the skeleton system, may
be app\ied alone in the design of the palauo faeade. Signifieant cxampl :; are the facades of the
PalazLO Stro.lJ.i and the Palazzo Rucellai, in Florence, each of which expresses the gradation of
stonework and the use of c1assical orders respectivcly (Figs 36,37).
The Iwo structural schemes may also be combined into the same faeade as is the case of
Bramante's Ca<;a Caprini,12 in Rome (Fig. 38). This type of faeade design was later known as the
Bramantesque prototype. Again, in a Bramantesque faeade design, the way the two systems are
combillcd still strictly follows the principlc of gravitation. While the more solid and weighty rustieated
wall is onen the treatment used for the base or podium of building, the Iighter-Iooking system of the
ordered wall is then used for the treatment of the upper part of facade.13
By eompanng Peruzzi's faeade to these three typologies, it is c1ear lhat the trcatment of the
Palauo Massimo is based upon the combined system, however not in a simple logical order as in the
traditional comhined trcatment. Thc facade of the Palauo Massimo ean be divided ioto two parts;
both arc scparatcd by a strongly marked comice placcd betwecn Ihe ground floor and the pIano flobi/e.
The basc occupymg the ground floor part is trcated by the system of an ordered wall, witn alternate
bays of ptlastcrs from bath ends of faeade transformcd into altcrnate bays of full colull"os forming the
cntrancc loggia at the middle of the facade. Conversely, the upper part which runs the rest of the
l1oors, t'rom the plOIlO !labIle up to the roof, :s treated as a rustieated bearing-wall.
ln faet, the rustieated wall appears to run not only the upper part but the entre height of the
building. Al the base it is obscured by the superposition of the ordered wall. This integration of the
rustic.1ted wall and the ordered wall systems sc:en on the lower part is not unusual. The Palazzo
1
Cbapter II 57
Tbe Palazzo Rucellai had aIready illustrated a possible integration of the two systems of w,llI
articulation (Fig. 37). However, what is unusual and rarcly found bcfore in this building type the way
the systems of pilaster and full column arc horizontally combined onto the same pl,IDe of the facade.
This again, is another example of the principle of intcgration.
If wc return now to lhe trcalment of the entire facade, wc sec clearly th.lt thc cornhmcd
of the traditional Bramantesque facade seen in Casa Caprini (Fig. 38), here in the Pal.luo
is sim ply reversed. The two systems of wall treatment have exchanged poc;itlons. The wcighty
treatment of the rusticated wall, which should be for the supporting base, is convcrsc\y uscd lor the
upper part, aod vice versa for the light treatment of the ordered waU. Morcover, the rustlcdted w,11l of
the upper two storeys is treated in the same continuous surface without any moulding to
distinguish betwcen the two floors. The result is a single weighty masl> of two-storeyed hcight imposed
upon the ground floor mass of one-storeyed height alone. Next to this, another contradictory treatment
cao be seen in the contrast between the solid of the upper part wall and the void of the entrance loggia
below. Altogether, it resulls in a logical inversion of the principle of gtavitation.
Howevcr, Pcruzzi may have considered this fact, and had therefore treated the rusticdtlon in
fine, light-Iooking stonework. l.1 addition, he aIso treated the upper two storeys with no gr,ldation of
weighty mass through floor height, i.e., the stonework is not dirferent for different !loors The lack of
gradation in the rusticated treatment is further accentuated by the identcal SIZ.!S of the two top-rowed
windows, which show no dimioishing size of openings in a regular order towards the roof Ail these
treatments de-emphasize and decrease the total weighty mass of the upper part.
As discussed earlier, the reason Peruzzi employed the loggia for the cntrance portico may have
derived from an intention to crea te a relationship betwecn the palace and its contcxt. If we hold this
to be the initial decision of the design, the reason Peruzzi had movcd the ordered WLill down to the
base, in opposition to the Bramantesque fashion, can be clcarly explained Bccause the colonnade of
the entrance loggia alone might have created a total disruption withm the who le
facade, the ordered waU across the entire ground \cve\ hclps achicvc a horiLOntal continulty. Il
encompasses the colonnade of the entrance loggia and the pilastcrs on the salit! WJlb .!t both <;ide<;.
Chapter Il
58
However, thc rcason, contrary to tradition, for rusticating the wall on top of th'.! ordered wall still
cannot be cxplained. It might havc becn Peruzzi's decisive play of the inverted order alone since he
could have treated the cntire faeade with the ordered system superimposed on the rusticated wall
system. A cornbined system without contradiction like this had already been ilIustrated in the Palazzo
Ruccllai (Fig. 37).
In addition ln the inverted order seen in
the lrcatment of the faeade, the decisive playon the
sarne principle can be furthcr displayed in Peruzzi's
design of an clemental detail. The framework
circumscribing the auie windows illustrates the
inverted pattern. Under close examinations of these
windows, the motif of the vertical strapworks that
frame both sides of the opening is precisely tbe
negative form of the horizontal strapworks tbat
erowns and underlies the same window (Fig. 40).
stE id li
40. Palazzo Massimo aile Colonne. Win-
do" detall. The inversion of strap"ork
lonn
Oerived from the critical design of the Palazzo Massimo were two mots tbat would
subsequently serve as basis for sorne architectural design developments of the succeeding period. The
first motif was the elaboratcd strapworks surrounding the allic windows. As Peter Murray points out
in The Architecture of the /talioll Rellaissance, it was "Iater to he developed by Serlio into the strapwork
which spread like a rash all over northern Europe in tbe later sX1eenth and carly seventeenth
The second was the use of the transformation of the ordered wall, from pilaster to full
eolumn, shown in the Palauo Massimo's faeade at ground level. The design in this scheme later
became a technique widc1y used to create a crescendo effect--an important cbaracteristic of Baroque
architecture. Although the development of the crescendo technique may bave already been set fortb
from the tjme of Alberti,13 the introduction of the system of alternatc bay interval--a system of
colonnade with differenl bay intervals alternated between narrow and wide spans--used in
accompanying the transformation of ordered wall in the facade of the PaIazzo Massimo was still
t
l
..
Chapter Il 59
uniquc. The design was probably onc of many works, albcit signilieant, used for the devclopment of
the crcsccndo tcchniquc. Ils highest dcvclopmcnt was cvident in St. Peter's Baroque f.Il'.Ide in ROllle,
wherein the technique of gradually changing the orders, from pilaster to half and full culu01n, togcther
with the increasing bay intervals, were used.
The design of the Palaz70 Massimo st,lllds as a unique exa01plc of the mtir,II ami creative
architecture of its time. Sorne of the designs in thls p,Ilaee m,IY have been pur\ued and de\'L'lopcd
subsequently to bt;come wide spread, su ch arc the case!> of the strapwork anJ the cre ... cendo technique
Sorne rnay have not been popularized, having been applied only to thi!> pal.tee and a lew other
buildings, for instance, the design of the palauo facade where the solid rnass of the ove rail front
contrasts sharply with the dark void of the entrance loggia. This design is distinctive, and is rarcly
found before or after its ,=onstruction. One exception of this is the Palauo Chierieatl, in Viccnlu,
designed by Andrea Palladio (Fig. 41). Although the two palaces may seern, at Iir10t glanl'C, not to bear
any resernblance, their relation lies indeed in the opposite designs of their f.tcade!> This apparent
contrast of the two palace facades, when scrutini7ed, tums out to result from the designs which reneel
the same principles of integration and inversion. Moreover, both design10 arc al\o based on the 1o.t01e
architectural intention to relate the buildings to their surrounding contexts
Palazzo Chiericati, Vicenza
ln the previous analysis, 1 discussed the lUndamental facade typologies of tlte
patazzo classified according to the systems of wall articulation which rely on the law of gravity. To
look at the fa cade by means of these systems is only a possible way to dctcrmme dilfcrent typologu.:s
Another approach to differentiate various types of frontage con:.i:.ts in examining thc trcalmcnl of ma!>,>
and spacc, i.e., the solids and voids of a facadc.
Based upon the trealment of solids and voids, the f ... cades of thc IJ.lI.tlC\ on he
classified into "c1osed facade" and "open facade." While thc "c1oscd facade" 1 .. lh,uactcri/cd hy h.tving
a solid mass with sets of small openings of windc'ws and doors, the "open faeadc" i .. delincd by
thorough opening with series of void created by colonnades. In the laller, ail windows and dOOTS arc
then pushed behind the colonnade screcns. The Pala7:zo Stroui's and the Casa facadcs
Chapter Il
60
41. Palladio. Palazzo Chlerlcatl, Vlcenza
(Figs. 36, 38) are two different examples of the "closed facade" whereas the Biblioteca Marciana's
facade by Sansovino (Fig. 42) represents a fme example of the "open facade."
The two traditional treatments of a building's frontage, the "clos cd racade" and the "open
racade," reflect the rclationshlp between the space before and behind their facades. The "closed
facade," on one hand, is usually employed for a treatment of the outside--the street front. It reflects
the building !>hell that protccts the private realm inside. The "open facade; on the other hand, is
normally a treatrnent of the front age which f: .:es inside--eithcr the parlly or entirely enclosed space of
a private court yard of a building, or that of a public pia72a. The void of the open facade" is used as
a transition between the inside and the outside spaccE of a building--between living room and private
court yard, or between ground floor shop and public pia72a. It connects inside and outside activities.
l
Cbapter Il 61
42. Sansovino. Biblioteca Marciana, Venice
With respect to these two defmitions of traditional facades, both the Palazzo Massimo and the
Palazzo Chierieati apparently fulfll neither of the two categories. They are, however, the results of the
mtegration of the two typologies. A1though the same mtegrated order can bc seen in both cases, the
two palaces appear to reOect the integrated order in an opposite way. Evidently, Pcruai's palal.7o
based upon the "c1osed faeade" in which the void is inserted mto the rniddle portion of the ground fluor
volUl.'1e to form an entrance loggia. In contrast, the of positive mass and ncgativc void in
the Palazzo Massimo's faeade are altogether reversed in the Palazzo Chicricati's (Fig. 43). The loggill
of the "open faeade" bccomes the fundamental characteristic of Palladio's faeade, and the mass of solid
wall is then introduced into the middle part of the upper Ooor colonnade void.
The {aeade design resulting from the integration of the "closed" and the "open" sy1>tems may
be typicaI. Sorne cxamples of this cao been secn in the facades of the Palaa.o Ducalc at thc Piuactta
in Venice and Michclangelo's Palazzo Capitolino at Piazza dei Carnpidoglio in Rome (Figs. 44, 45).
However, there is a difference bctween those conventional combined {aeades and the intcgratcd faeades
of the Palazzo Massimo and the Palazzo Chierieati. In both conventional cxamplcs, the "closed" and
l
l
Chupter Il
DCJCIClC1
DODt:ltJ
62
43. The Inversion between solld and void or tbe Palazzo Masslmo's and tbe Palazzo Cblerlcatl's
racades
the "open" Cacadc treatments are sim ply combined with consistency. Tbe solid oC the upper Ooor and
the void of the lower colonnade run separately and uninterruptedly throughout theu entire levels. The
consequences are a perCeet balance and barmony oC the two Cacade treatments without confusion. In
contrast, the dominant Cacade treatments oC the Palazzo Chiericati and the Palazzo Massimo are based
on the opposite treatment. The results are inconsistent and contrasting, and break through the
harmonious ideal oC the prototypes they operate upon.
However, the interruption of consistency in the Palazzo Chiericati's facade by the projecting
room in the central bays of the upper floor is not just the architect's arbitrary play. To understand
this implication, the peculiar design of the interrupted facade has to be examined along with its atypical
use of cntire colonnades for the street facade. Typically, the open colonnade was used only for the
trcatment .Jf cither the inside facade facing the enc10sed inner court yard of a building or the facade
confronting the enc10sed space of a public piazza. This traditional facade treatment is also applicable
to the Palazzo Chiericati, but its application has to be understood in lighl of the arehitcct's initial
design intention. According to Murray, Palladio designed this palace "as part of a projected forum, 50
that the present open colonnades were intended to be part of a town planning design rather than part
J
Chapter Il 63
,
--
,;1;'.' i"'
. .... i.I..-1 t I
M .1 .. _ ........ "'II MI lem ~ ~ f I ~ I , ' ... 11111 '"II ..,. ',,, ...... ""
. -
44. Palazzo Ducale, Venlce
45. Michelangelo. Palazzo Capitolino, Campldoglio, Rome
Chapter Il
64
of a single building as they now are.,,17 Unfortunatcly, the whole project was not completed as initially
designed. The facade of the apparent palace thus remains an inversion of courtyard colonnades out for
the street facade. As the invcrted design of the paJazzo Massimo's facade was originated from the
architecl's conccrn with the urban issue, so was the intention underlying the inverted design of the
Palauo Chiericat's facade.
.
ln the Pala/./o the interruption of the court yard loggia into the front facade reflects
Peru/./i's practlcaJ strategy to make a possible coonection between the palace entrance and the
approaching 1>treel. Similarly, the insertion of the projecting room into the upper floor colonnade of
the Palauo Chiericati's facade reveals Palladio's intr.ntion to reconcile the theoretical ideal and the
practicdl redlity. Theoretically, Palladio's ideal in designing the palace was to incorporate the building
into the IOlality of the puhlic piaaa which he visualized as a Roman forum. ideal demand is
even dcarer in his illustration of the same palace in 1 Quattro L.t..,' de//' Architettllra,18 where he
repeated his earher design uf the facade with perCect Roman colonnades which run uninterruptedly
wilhout any projcctl,g room throughoul each floor (Fig. 46).
Practically, most front facades of palaces at the time Cavoured the Bramantesque type (Fig.
38), i.e., the facade which contained two separate kinds oC trealment: the rusticated wall of the ground
!lonr lM se supportlllg the ordered wall of the above floor. The interval bay of the upper colonnade
wa1> often treated with the motif of tabernacle framed windows. Even Palladio, just before the
bcginning of the design of the Palazzo Chiericati, incorporated tbis scheme in the Palazzo Porto-
Colleoni's facade (Fig 39). Therefore, as suggested by Wittkower in Architectura/ Princip/es ill the Age
of /llImalllSm, the projccting room in the Pala7Z0 Chiericati's piano nobi/e, treated with a
Bramantesquc colonnade and tabernacle windows, was intended by the af('litect to "form a proper
pJI.II./o front,,19 (cf. Figs. 38 &. 41). While the central part of the Palazzo Chiericati's facade was
practically dcsigned according to the conventional facatic of the Renaissance palazzo, the rest of the
facade rctaincd theorctically Palladio's colonnade facade of the projected Roman forum. Palladio's
attcmpt to reconcilc the theorcllcal and the practical idcals in trus project rccalls Michclangelo's
intention to combine the Pope's and his ideas in the design of the Ricetto's staircase.
1
Cbapter Il
46. Palladio. Palazzo Cbiericati, rrom Palladio's 1 Quattro L1bn deI/'
Arc:hitettura. Facade
6S
Altbough the ways in which the Palazzo Massimo and the Palazzo Chiericati relate to the
surrounding settings are different, the atternpts to connect the buildings to their urban arc the
same. Despitc their totally opposite appearances, the two buildings rcflect the same Il<lttcrns 0\
integrated and inverted orders which help solve the confliets of the design rcsulting from bolh the
program and the architect's intention.
Ali previous analyses from Michelangelo's vestibule to PaUadio's Palazzo Chiericati the
critical patterns resulting from the integrated and the inverted orders in the domain of secular
buildings. The next two exarnples will iUustrate the same critical patterns which also exisl in the de!>ign
of sacred architecture of the same period. The flrst is Palladio's church S. Giorgio Maggiore in Venice,
and the second is Michelangelo's Cappella Sforza in Sta. Maria Maggiore in Rome. Both cases rcflect
the sarne pattern of the integrated order, yet, revcal it in an opposite way.
Chapter Il
66
47. Palladio. S. Giorgio Maggiore, e i c ~
S. Giorgio Maggiore, Venice
Palladio's church in Venice shows the critical design of the integrated order in a different way
from ail the examplcs formcrly discussed. Most of the instances previously analyzed display the
patterns of the critical principle by the integration of differcnt elements, codes, or orders into one
architectural context, i.e., for example, the integration of different types of facades into the same
building facade. The following example depicts another possibility: the integration of two facade
patterns, both of which derive from the same order but are put into different scales and proportions.
According to Wiukower, it is weIl known that the architects of the Renaissance since Alberti
cncountcrcd a t;ommon problem in dcsigning church facades which was never totally resolved.
20
The
problcm was to incorporatc the classical facadc of the ancient temples into the facade of the Christian
1
Chapter II 67
church. The Christian church derived its model from another ancient building type, the basilica. The
difficulty then arose from the difference between the basic forms of the ancienttemple and the h.\ ... ilica
church. The ancient temple is a sim pic uniform building under a single gable roof. Il .... tIC,hlc i .... in the
form of a portico with a pediment resting on free-standing columns. The over,\ll f,lthlully
reflects its actual mass behind. The Christian basilica church, in cmbmhe... .\ I11llfe
complieated mass with different nave and aisle heights.. Thercfore, the smgle pedimcntal flont (lf thl'
ancient temple is not easily fitted into the facade of a more complic.\ted of the la:-.ilic.\ chun h
An earller solution that displays this problem is Alberti's design for the fdc.lllc of S Andrea
in Mantua (Fig. 48). His introduction of the adaptcd temple front in thc form of a triul11phai motif,
with large central and narrow side bays, can help express the diffcrent widths of nave and within
the ideal classical temple front. Despite this aeeomplishmcnt, Alberti wa ... slill ull,lhle to f.lithlully
represent the different geomctries of nave and aisle heights in facade. To keeJl the Jlerlcll
geometry of the temple front which shows only a uniform roof height, he pu"hed the .lclual higher
of the nave behind the lower mass of the temple facade.
When the same intricate problem feU into the hands of PalladIO, he taekled it in li d,fferenl
way from hi" predeecssor. Instead of adapting the mass of basilica church to a perfectly da .... ical
facade as Alberti tried in S. Andrea, he adapted the classical temple front to the orthodox of
the Christian basilica church. Through Palladio's manipulation of the code derived from the ancient
temple, the aew of the Venetian church is prcsented in the fmm of an mtegralion of lwo
differently proportioned facades, with one penetrating and interlocking with anothcr (f'ig 49) 21 Wlule
the frrst, the high but narrow temple front which is raised on pcdcstals, repre<.ent .. the geomclry of the
high central nave, the other, which has a lowcr hcight and a wider wldlh, is into the former to
cover and reflect the lower masses of the side aisles.
Of ail facades of the threc ehurches Palladio designed using thi<; 1>Lheme, S niorgio Maggiore
stands as an extreme instance of his attempt te express the perfect use of both dd<. .. ical front<. for an
integrated composition of the church facade. Unlike the other two churehes, Il Redentcrc and S.
Francesco della Vigna (Figs. 50, 51), S. Giorgio Maggiore has the comice of the lowcr temple front run
l
Chapter Il
48. Alberti. S. Andrea, Mantua.
Fucudl'
50. Palladio. Il Redentore, Venlee.
Fncude
68
49. S. Giorgio Maggiore. Facade. The Integration of
two c1asslcal temple fronts
51. Palladio. S. Francesco della Vigoa, Venlee. Facade
J
Chapter Il 69
continuously across ail interval bays of the colonnade of the imposing higher front. The hrokt'n
pedirnents of the two aislcs thus truly becomc dcpendent parts of the lower front U nh\..e S (JIllI gin
Maggiore, the facades of the two other churches have their lower front comice .. intcrrupted in the .. ide
bays of the higher front. The broken pcdiments of thc thcrclnre, { .. \II he "een ,1'" dct,ldK'd
parts of the templc front attached to the ccntrallllgh one From one pn .. pectivc, the comite 01 the
lower front in S. Giorgio Maggiore whlch invades the colonnade 01 thc Illgher one III,IY ,IPlll.lr
confused, ambiguous, and creates a duality betwl'l'n the two front... lIowe\l:r, from .1I1othcr pUlnl 01
view its obvious penetration helps unif)' thc two proportion.1tc fronts ,1'" onc enl1ty
By using thc sarne model of the simple temple front but ad,lptin/-'. Il lI1ln diffnent ... t .. llc" ,1Ild
propor' ions and integrating lhem, Pall,tdio ,thle to t hl' dilcm ru.! hl... predece ...... or... h .1l1
encountered. The allempt to usc the anclent temple front" by honc ... tly cxpre""lng tltrfen:l1t 1II.1""'l'" ni
the basilica church without hidll1g its .1uthentlc geometry w" .. "Ut. .. e ...... ful for the lir ... t tUlle hne III
S. Giorgio MaggIOre. Compdred to its antl'cedent <;OlutlOl1, p,tll.tdio ... ,Icl'Omplt ... hmellt III propmlllg .1
more appropriatc interpretation of the front f<)r the Chri"ti.ln dl\Jrdl l .. c,Ide l.!l1IlOt he dellied
Although the intentions of Alberti and 1'.111"010, the two arcllltee'" fHlm dIllcrent gener,ltlon ... ,
to accommod.1tc in the f.leaOe of thc b"!>IItC.1 Churlh the cll ...... ll.t1 temple frm.t ,He the
Alberti's work does not fall into the same interprctl"c th"t of P,III.lllto Though hoth
churches reOect the samc allempt to intcgratc the two olffcrcnt order ... (lf the anuent d.I ..... italtl'lIlple
and the new Christian church, the manipulations of the cooe ... III the two work.., ..Ire t!llferent, ,Hlt! lredte
totally distinct effects S Andrea's facadc is in perfect, h,lrmnl1lou" proportion, the IJ.lrt<. ,'" wdl , .... the
whole are clcarly derlllcd. Howcvcr, its harmoniou .. pcrfellion III exprc"'''lI1g the ,\Ilucnt lOoe, the
classical temple front, Cdn bc accomplishcd only at the expen,>e !lI ... uppre ...... lIlg the nlher ullk, the
aulhentic geometry of the basllica church S GiorgiO M.lgglore\ Idl,lllc, ln lOnlr,I,>t, pre ... ent ...
complication and ambigUlty, thc inscpardblc parI'> arc ullegr.lled .1110 mergcd to [orm the wholc
futhough the result is often interpreteo as lIltroducing ou,tltl" ,lI1d conflNon of wmpeting gcoIlH.:tnc,>,
it rcflects the authentic eritical principle of mtcgr<.tion wllll.h never ",ulfIlice ... one atlnhute lor anolher.
The two differcnt orders have to be integratcd and reOected eflccllvely.

l

1
Ch:\ [Itcr Il 70
One of lhe standard intcrprel?tions of the classical temple front was that it represented a
perfeet and harmonious geometry of the cosmological order, which was then associated to the
pcrfe( (ion of the divinily. The attcmpt of Ihe architccts since the Renaissance to incorporatc Ihe
geollletry of the ancient temple into the Christian ehureh was therefore truly relevant to their design
ta<;k Rather th:m an "arbitral)'" and "illogical trcatment" as often becn interprcted,22 tL integrated
de<'lgn of Iwo lem pIe fronts in S. Giorgio Maggiore's facade can be sec n, from anothcr point of view,
<1<; ,1 r,lllOn,1I ,wu Intdlcctual attcrnpt of the architect to reveal the syrnbolical arder that remained
hidden III the Chri"tJan church's faeade.
Formally, S Giorgio Maggiorc's facade reflects the critical manipulation through the
integralion of Iwo (hfferent proportional geometrics, which are dcrived from the same ordc as lhat of
the temple front. Syrnbolieally, the Yenelian churr.h can also be describcd as the reflection of
the critll<ll jlrinciplc through the Integration of two different codes. One is the ancient code
t.lken from the Greek sacred temple, reOecled in the ehurch faeade through the use of the classical
temple front. Another, in c0ntrast, is Ihe code derived from the Roman seeular basilica, represented
in the Chrbtldn church body. The result is a rncaningful architecture that perhaps reveals the
.trchitel't'., .Ittcmpt tn the meanings from the ancient architecture to the new Christian church.
The of the fronts m S. Giorgio Mdggiore's facade may suggc::.t :'0 association made from
the l'll'Jllologlc.ll order of the ancient Greck to the highcst order of the Christian Gad On the other
hand, the h.t'olhca Jll.lSS of the Vcnetian church may a)so bc mtcrpretcd as rcprcsenting the meaning
as.,ocated twm the justice of the Roman basilica court to the highest equity of the Christian Creator.
The J.ll1d of I.ritical work like the design of S. Giorgio Maggiore's faeade can also be
found in one of Michcl,lIIgclo's last works, the Cappella Sforza in Sla. Maria Maggiore in Rome, whose
bcg.m a few years carlier than Yenetian chureh. The dcsi8Il of this ehapd revcals the
S.l III l' interpl c.:\lve prindplc as reOcetcd in the designs of Palladio's ehurehe:,
1
Chapter Il
.,


. ' .
52. Mlchelangelo. Capella Sforza, Sta. Maria
Maggiore, Rome. Plan
71
53. Cappella Sforza. TIae Integration uf
centralized und directlonal plunnlngs
Cappella Sforza, Sta. Maria Maggiore, Rome
The Cappella Sforl.a, like S. Giorgio Maggiore, reflects a critica) mampulcltioll Ihrough the
integration of two diffcrent codes, derived from the ancient temple and the Christian church Ilowcver,
the eritiea} prineiple is rel1eeted here in a reverse manner to that of the Venetian dlUrt'h White
Palladio's work exhibits the integrated orda in the face or the faeade of the dllJrch, Mlthel.lIlgelo\
design displays Ihe critical operation in the body or the footprinl of the chJpd (FIg 5?)
Maggiore hases ils design on the rnodcl of the ChristIan church and adapt'i the an cie nI temple front I()
the face of the basilica body. The design of the Cappdla Sforza, ln contrast, i\ IM,>cd on the /llodt:1 of
the ancient circular temple. direction al spacc of the Christian church is then adaptcd 10 Ihe chape!
body in order to meet with thr; functional nccd of the Christian church. The rC1>ult is the Integration
of two orthodox ordeTs, the ccntraliz.cd and the longitudinal plans, which arc reflcctcd in the geonlclry
of the cha pel footprint.
(
1
Chuptcr Il 72
In S. Giorgio Mlggiore, Ihe manipulation of the crilical principle of integralion is shown in
the IIltcrlocking of two proportional gcometries of the c1assical fronts. Similarly, the Cappella Sforza
Ihe same operation through the superimposition of the circle and the square (Fig. 53).
l he clrculdf form represents the main body of the chapel which also contains in ils geometry the
intq!,rdtcd of two side chapcls. The square which accommodates the altar, according to the
orthoJox function of the Christian church, is then pushed aside from the center of the circle--the ideal
pO'>I\!OIl ()f Ihe ccntrali/ed temple--to form another axi<; for the longitudinal plan of the chape\. The
Iwo arc yet undefincd by the interlocking of the two forms in a dual manner as the
Iwo temple in the facade of the Vcnelian church arc c1ear in gcomctrical shapes, and yct obscure
in lhclr complcled forms. While the appearancc of the design may scem ambiguous and confused, the
.lrdu!t;<.1 '., intention in the design, in contrast, is ckarly prescnted. The work was truly created out of
the r.lllOn<11 and critlcal design in whlch the altempt to reconclle both the functional and the symbolica1
ncccs.,11 of architecture was evident. Functionally, il was the desirc to re-create antique forms to
1 he modern Christian needs. S)'Illbolically, il was the aUempt to associate the most meaningful
siglllfc.ltions of the antiquity to the modern church of Christianity.
Although the ancient modds, from which Palladio and Michelangelo cirew their symbolism
intll thier Iwo wI,rks, wert' different, the implIcations brought from the two ancient models were the
same. Whi\c l\llia Uo used the
1
front of the Greck temples based on the model of a sim pIc
gahle hUllding like .the Parthcnon, Michclangelo cmployed the ccntrali/ed plan of ancient circular
such the Roman Pantheon. Both the c1assicltemple front and the ancient circular temple
werc often interprctcd as the rcOecliom of the most pcrfccl anlt harmonious geornetries of the
order. The attemp! to bring their symbohcal significancc into the Christian churches was
Ihercforc the ultimate goal of the since the carly Renaissance.
ln the saille manner as did many critical works of the Mannerists, Michelangclo's chapel paved
ways for lalcr dcvc10pmcnts in architeclUic The Cappclla Sfofla reflecls one of the most critical
designs to h.lve a profound influence on the ch:ch architecture of the ncxt pcriod, namcly Baroque.
As .Iamt.'s Ackerman points out in 77le Arc/utee/ure of Mlche/angelo, from this chapel, "[the] architccts
1
l
,
Chapter Il
54. Borromini. S. Carlo aile Quattro Fontane,
Rome. Plan
73
55. BorrominI. Sunt' Agnt!ot', ROInt'. Plun
of tbe following generations learned ... how to combine the Vlrtues of a longitudinal and ccntraliIed
plan, and were fascinated by Michelangelo's demonstration that ch.lpcb could he dr.1111dti/cd
witbout prejudicing the dominance of the altar chdpel. The influcntc on Borromini\ pl.lIlnl/lg i!,
especially notice able (San Carlo alle Quatlro Fonlane; Sant' Agnc!>c in Piau.a Navona (Fige;. 54, 551).,,23
As mentioned earlier, the operations on the two principlcs of integration and inversion can be
diverse in forms, settings, and scales. The critieal III architecturc exist at ail
levels, from formai articulations ta spatial organi/.alions of and from extcrior to interior
faeades ta detailed dccorations. AIl former analyses, exccpt for the Rleetto, have the critical
manipulations reflected mainly in the architectural framework, Le., in the organization of building mass
and space as reflected in the exterior faeades and ground f()otprint'i From thi'i point, we can now
extcnd our IIIvestigation of the eriltcal architecture of Manl\l:mm to .IntI dccora!Jon whilh
also exhibit a ma1mer no less eritical and diverse than the Two of the finest
examples are the Sala Regia and the Casino di Pio IV, in the V dtllan, Rome. The first WolS cxecuteu
by Perino dei Vaga and Damcle da Volterra; the latter was rcali/cd by Pirro Ligorio.
(
(
( haph'r "
74
:-6. Pl .. hw cid Vaga and Danide da Volterra. Sala Regi.I, Vatican, Rome
Sala Rl'gia, Vatican, Rome
Olle UlIllll11111 p.llinn "Juch c.ln he a .. re .. ulting from the princlple of integration b the
p"IIL'11I III ullllhllllllg ,Inti "lIpnllllpmmg from diflerent orders as explicltly shown
III IhL' 1""1 IWlI ,1Il,d'"L''' III dlllrch architecture, Thi .. p,llIern will he found "g,lIn in Ihe S,JI,I Regi,1
wlll'f\.' dllkrL'1l1 11H1111 .. h,l\\.' heell inlcgrated and supcrimpo.,ed in an C'\lremelv cllmplicated w.ly A
del'llIll(Hl"lllIln ,1ll,1I'''I'' III 11\ dC"lgn will he hclpfu( to lInder .. t,md 11'0 implication
III Ihe UllL'fIOf (lf Ihe S,lIa Regl,l. one lllniront'i a "ery dellberdlc and 'iophi .. licdled
dl'i.'IlIdlHlIl (Ilg :'i(I) 1 he mollf .. IIf the inlerior w"lI .. m,l) ,Ippear 10 be, ,II Iirsl .,ighl, .1 peeulldf
Cllllljlll"ltlllll tWill ,\llIch ner)' ronl1guralion 10 be forelgn 10 the perreet dntl ideal
01 IhL' RL'Il," .... ,llllL 111 .. 1. the ,Ifl:hed \\\111 ,II the findl end of the ro011l (the ndrrow width side) has a
1
,
\
Chapter 1(
57. Sala Regia. Decomposition anaIY!li, of
interior wall. The inverted pediment
75
58. Imugillary recoll,tructiull of iutl'rior wlIlI
for the Sala Rlgia. 'l'hl' bru"l'u Ill'lliull'ut
59. Sala Regla. Decomposition analysis or interior wall. Two illverted pedimenh rorming a normal
broken pediment
l
Chapter Il
-1---- --
o
l'
. ,
1
4------..+. .1 .... ~ - 4-------.. . . .
o
o
+ - ~ - - - - ~ ~ ~ - - - -
60. Sala Regia. Decomposition analysis of interior wall. The Integration of various motifs
76
J
1
1
Chapter Il 77
pedimental doorway intruding into the composition of the mam painting trame of the wall. This
already contrasts with the Renaissance ideal for Ihe complction of the pMts weil as nf Ihe whole.
In addition, the upper corners of the frdme arc crowncd wilh Ihe segment,ll rur\'e'i 01 hwhl'(l
pediments which arc placcd in reverse to Ihe tr dilional arrangemenl '1 he inwlI1(lklC \K'lltmelll\ .m'
set back to back (Fig. 57) instcad of having thdr fronts facing cach other tll fllrlll .1 bul
incomplctc pedimcnt as usual (Fig. 58). This invc.ted pedllllent reealls :ne ... II11e mollf fl'peatcd in
Bernardo Buontalenti's famous Porta della Suppliche at lhe Uffi7i (Fig. 2). A ".iri.ilion from Ihe
Sala Regia's doorway is lhat the backs of the inverled pediment al lhe Uffil.i arc all.tched 10 hnld the
sculptural bust of the Florentine Duke. 80th result in a new motif that prnvides a ncw inlerprclatinn
of the c1assicallanguage. Again, the two instances can be inlerpreted as resulting from Ihe prlllt'ple of
inversion.
However, the atypical arrangement of the nverled pedimelll of Ihe S.II.i \V.III will nol
be seen as odd or misplaced after a glance at the corner of the adj.iccnl w.ill (Fig. 5<). Secn
separately, the adjoining waU a1so has its pancl articulated with the .. .lllle inverted pcdimenl a ... il!.
neighbouring wall. The only slight difference is Ihat the molif I!> now .i bit f.trther from the
wall edge by the insertion of a doorway al the corner of Ihe coom. Only fr,ml a ccrl.lIn angle, wh cre
the two adjaccnt walls can be seen together at the sarne time, can one lInllcp.,I,lIld lhe pcculi.lr pattern
of the two inverted pedirnents When seen together., lhe two IOverted pediment<; join 10 fmm a hrokcn
pediment, which appears to crown another picture p.lI1c1 l..et ahove lhe doorway The h, oken (ll'lliment
aets as a double-functioning element which bclongs simu1t:' to Ihe Iwo syi>lem<, of decoralion.
One is the big painting pan cl upon whose elahorating frarnework the pedimenlal curve re.,l1.. and
becomes a part of its decoralon. The other the <;matt painting panel crowncd with two
superimposed pf'diments. The outer segmental pedimenl becorncs the doublc-fllnctioning clement wilh
another composition. The small painting panel crowned wilh the inner lriangular pediment is then
placed on a doorway, thereby dcvcloping lhe second system of decoralion
The arrangement of the laIerai wall is bascd on the delibcrate inlegration of thesc two systems
of decoration that overlap and interlock with each other. Parts of one motif merge or IramJorm 10
l
Chapter Il 78
bccomc parts of anothcr. For cxamplc, the supports of the superimposing pedimcnts from the sm ail
panel mergc and arc transformed into the e1aborating framework of the big panel. In turn, the upper
corner of thi .. Iransformed framework is supported by a human figure which stands at the top of the
doorway that bclongs to another compositIOn (Fig. 56). The overall design is the result of an elaborate
and sophisticatcd intcgration and tram.formation of various g"omctries from diffcrent orders (Fig. 60).
Ali doublc-f unctloning clements then serve as integrating orders that unite various orders. In the same
way, they abo conncct the four sides of the wallto fmm l\ !.!!!ified boundary to the room.
The entire work offers many readings. Seen separately in each individual wall, the inverted
pediment becomes a new fresh mollf which, on one hand, provides an enrichment to the architectural
vocabulary. On the olher hand, its transformation from a normal broken pediment may reflect the
nature of the possibility to make a transformation between different orders, ail of which revealthe
same ultimate cosmological order. Seen as a whole, the Sala Regia's decoration may reflect the
intcrrelationship between various orders of the cntire hall that merge into a single entity. The
incomplctcncss of the parts is for the sake of the unit y of the whole. Thal everything has to be
understood from the relative view of interrclated, and not isolated, parts that belong eventually to an
inseparable totality is indeed an essential idea.
From the Sala Regia, wc have clearly se en now how consistency in the application of the
critical principles of Mannerist architecture was also a part of interior decoration. The same critical
manipulations, especially the exploitation of a double-functioning element, is also evident in the interior
of the Casino di Pio IV, the garden villa in the Vatican complex. In this interior, we find again that aU
kinds of architectural rnernbers conlain a dual function.
Casino di Pia IV, Vatican, Rome
Starling wilh an overall decoration, the critical pattern is first displaycd in the integration of
wall and cciling orders (Fig. 61). As pointed out by Robert Venturi, in this interior one can no longer
distinguish between wall and ceiling decorations.
24
The two have, in fact, mcrged through the wall
articulation of ornamental coves--a motif Don commonly seen as a ceiling pattern--that uninterruptedly
extends from the wall upward and bccomes a dccorated part of the vaulted ceiling. The intention to
j
J
Chupter Il 79
61. Llgorlo. Casino dl Plo IV, Vatican, Rome
merge wall and ceiling is evident in the emphasis on the verticality and continuity of the supporting
system of these elegant caves. The role of ail horizontal clements is dc-emphasi/cd in Cavour of this
verticality, especially for the entablature at the foot of the barrel vault This cnlabluturc, which indccd
would have defmed the edge between wall and ceiling, is broken into senes of proJcctmg !.upports that
run continuously from the seroU brackets underneath up to the above pedestal onto the column of the
cove. As a result, the whole articulation becomcs a double-functioning clement th,lt and
makes a powerful continuity between the wall and the cciling.
In addition, the arrangement of the wall/ceiling articulation turns out to he Jnothcr inlegration
of two decorated systems of ornamental coves. The can be dccomposcd min two serie ... of
different forms of cove. The first, which is the front layer of the decoration, <;hows a "crics of four
coves in the forms of two columns supporting a simple straight entablature (Fig. (2). At hotI! cmls of
the series, a separate single column is put next to the intcrval coves in a <;lr ,lOge, inlOll1 plCI e manncr
The two columns of each cove also show different kinds of decorated Oute which, ironically, ,.lfC
to the flutes of the next coves. This suggests another possible reading of the second of
decoration.
J
Chapter JI
'"
.-
,
" ,
,
" . "
-\
/1' -_./
"

nr

!
:9'
fi
N
1 I!
t'1

18
1}CAj
I,A;" e-j
k

62. Casino di Pio IV. Decomposition analysls ofwalljceiling decoration.
The firlot loeries of projecting coves
63. Casino dl Pio IV. Decomposition analysls ofwalljceiling decoration.
The firsl series or projecting coves
80
The second system of decoration, in correspond en ce with a more suit able reading of the
column !lute, is comprised of a senes of tive coves suppressed between the interval bays of the coves
of Ihe Iirsl layer (Fig. 63). The coves are shown as alternating segmental and triangular pediments
Mlpporled by Pdirs of columns decorated with the same ornamental flutes. This latter series reveals a
more comfortable rcading Ihan the other decordled series would providc since there is no single
column lefl al bolh cnds like in the tirst decoratcd series. In addition, the ornamcntal flutes of the
two colllmns of each cove are also idelltical, with those of the tirst decorated series which
arc differcnL Howcver, the whale order of the second series, which requires a more sophisticated
reading, is III turn de-emphasi7cd and obscured by the projecting coves of the tirst series.
Rather than resulting from ignorance or an arbitrary play, this operatior on the complicated
and dil1clllt ordcrs mllst have been the architecl's self conscious manipulation. The whole could have
1
1
J
Chapter Il Hl
;tl
1 1 _jL
L
64. Imaginary reconstruction ofwall/ceiling decoration for the di Pio IV. l'wu projccting
added at botll lo balance botll ca ch indhlduul and an ovcrall
bcen rcsolvcd simply through mmor alterdtiom (Fig. M) By .tJdlIlg anolher column lo each end of
the articulation and having a straight entablaturc spanmng the addllional bay, a complction of the
order could have been made. By employing only one type of delcralcd nule for ail wlurnm, the
domination of the Iirst order would have bcen achicvcd. The second order thcrcforc would no longer
1
J
Chapter Il
65. Casino dl Plo IV. Decomposition analysls ofwnll/celling decoratlon.
The Inversion between the forms of two coves
H2
compete with the flfst order. Their alternating pediments would then aet as merc jllining
the coves of the front dominating order, making the whole articulation casier 10 read.
However, the incomplete articulation may ha\e been intcndcd to allowa possihlc complclion
at another level of reading. The uncomfortable rcading in cach ordcr--the incomplele rcading of the
f1l'st order and the obscure reading of the second order--would be rccovered only from Ihc rcading uf
the two integrated orders together, and not as an indcpcndcnt, scparated act. Dy having Ihe rommon
columns as double-functioning elements that conn ccl and intcgrate the Iwo different logclher,
the completion is eventually perceivablc in the wholc.
In addition to the manipulations of the intcgrated order dscussed abovc, the pallcrn
from the principle of inversion can also be detected in the design of clement al delails. Thc mverlcd
order is manipnlated here through the geornetrical play of the two orders of ornarnental cove!> (pig.
65). In the first arder, the straight cove contans within each frame a small tahernacle loppcd wilh a
segmental or a triangular pediment. Conversely, the forms of Iwo clements--the outer and inner
frames--are reversed in the second order. The pcdirnental cove contains bctwecn il" co(umn ... a
rectangular frame of painting that recalls the similar form of the straight coye of the first ordcr. In
either order, the forms \li the outer and inner frames of one cove suggest their reverse forms 10 appear
1
Chapter Il
83
in anolhcr order. As a resuIt, this inversion hrlps reinforce the relalionship between the two integrated
orders, which have to he scen together as a whole.
Togell1er, the manipulations in the prindplcs of integration and inversion in the interior
dccoratbn of the Casino di Pio IV reflcct a certain intention that do nr.t come from an irrational mind
of the Manncrisl architcel. Like the expression in the Sala Regia, it may be the architect's intention to
depict a prcferen of the intcrrc\ationship betwcen the parts that generates the whole, rather than a
separahle, iml::pendcnt eomplction of cach individual part.
Th(' prcvious analyses dcmonstratc lhat Mannerist architecture is indeeci the result of a critical
altitude. The peculiarity of this arc'titecture docs not rcsult from an arbitrary play by the sixteenth
ccntury architcets. Ali critiea! manipulations, which can be seen under the two interpretivc principles
of Integration and invcrslOn, arc rational manipulation of rneanings and associations that may differ
from onc work to another depcnding on particular intentions and specifie crcumstances. In many
cases, thcy rel1cct the architects' attempt ta reconcile the conflicts between the constraints of program
and their own theorctical ideal. Cases in point arc the designs of the Ricetto staircase by Michelangelo
and S. Giorgio Maggiore's faeade by Palladio.
Dcspite the vanous significations this critical architecture may resolve and interpret, all works
consi&tently reflecl the same &inglc attitude: the architects' attempts to pursue and enhance architectural
idea and thinking. The idea of critical architecture was to depart from and then exploit what aIready
existcd, the heritage of their immediate predeccssors. Nothing was, in fact, new in Mannerist
architecture. Manncrist works were based on llle c1assical vocabularies established by Renaissance
architects. From thesc c1assical grounds, a '.Vas introduced through critical operations.
As Manncrist architcC'ts took advantagc of the paths paved by the Renaissance architects, sa had they
establishcd a way to allow lh" magnificent pcriod of the Baroque to come. There is no doubt
that many 01 Mannerist works had a profound impact on sorne developments of Baroque architecture.
The evidcnce c\car in the influence of the Cappella Sforza on the planning of Baroque churches, or
in the Riectlo stmrcase that became the prototype for all grandiose staircase halls of the scventeenth
and eightccn cent ury. Manncrism was indeed a critical and intellectual architecture. Its ultmate aim
1
Chapter Il
was nothing but an altempt to search for a ncw path for architecture, stcmming from, yct hn'ilking
through, and then surpassing the Iimit of the RcnaiEsance prcccpts.
1
NOTES
1. Y.nown also as Palladian motif, the name Serlian cornes from the Itallan Serliana which is
named after Seh suano Serlio. The motif, as Peter Murray deseribes in Tne Archftecture of the Ita/ian
Renaissance (London: Thames and Hudson, 1969), 156, is eharaeterized by "a semicireular arch
supported on columns wiLh a rectangular opening at either side formed by the entablature and another
eolumn."
2. Roger J. Crum, "'Cosmos, the World of Cosimo': The Iconography of the Uffizi Facade,"
17/C Art Bulle/m, vol. 71, no. 2 (June 1989): 238.
3. Murray, 208.
4. The maxim Cosmos, the World of Cosimo" is translated by Crum from the Greek words,
"KOrMOE KOlJ.fOY KOrMOE." The mutto, aecording to Antonio Francesco Cirni, appeared in the
inscription of an imitation bronze statue of Augustus (iconography of Cosimo 1) ust:'d for tbe festivities
and temporary decorations for the triumphal entry of Cosimo 1 into Siena on 28 November 1560. As
quoted from Crum, 24950, "Cirni interpreted tbis ... inscription as meaning tbat 'Duke Cosimo
honors Lhe world and the world him, or rather, the world is Cosimo's and he is the world's:"
5. Danti's allegorical statue of Cosimo 1 as AugustusjHercules w ~ ~ ~ t e r replacer! with
anothcr nonallegorical statue done by Giovanni Bologna, the one which je:. :.ow present (ln the faeade.
Howcver, the politieal significance of the Uffizi's iconography has ~ ~ be seen in light of the initially
intendcd program of the design in whieh Danti's statue plays ar Important role. See more details of
the discussion on the matter in Crum, 238-41.
6. Sec more delails of the discussion on the matt( r in Crum, 24548.
7. Crum, 243.
8. Ibid., 245.
9. Ibid., 238.
10. The Palazzo Massimo has three main 1oors: the &round floor, the piano nobi/e, and the
auic floor. The cntrance loggia represents the faeade of the ground floor. While two rows of windows,
the tall and the small openings, ab ove the loggia belong to the piano nobile, the top row windows are
the openings of the auie fioor.
11. Murray, 163-64.
12. Known also as lhe House of Ravhael.
13. In this case the combinat ion of the two systems of rusticated and ordered wall is not
idrntical to the integrated order discussed in this study beeause the result of the combination does not
create a critical cffect in the sense of denaturalization of logieal nature. The two systems are still
8S
1
Chapter Il Nb
combincd under the principlc of gravitation, <,nd cach sy'ilem is complctcly Focp.lr.lll' and ckarly
identifiable. Therc is no confusion or contradiction as is the case in the intcgralcd onler of rrilil'i,m
14. Murray, 166.
15. The development of one technique in crealing the crescendo cflecl c.m hl' ddeclcd lrom
the time of Alberti. Nikolaus Pevsner, in "The Architccture of in 1lre MI/Il cd. (,collrt'\'
Grigson (London: Routlcdge and Sons, 19-Ui), 132, makes a rcferencc of Ihi" leehlllqm 10 Alberti whe;,
he discusses Vignola's worl al Il Gesu, in Rome. To quoll.: from him. "Therc i" l'On .... i .... lcnl dc\'dllpmenl
from the flal side bays via the slightly projcting middlc hay,; to the ccnlre wherc cnlumn .... H'pLIlc Ihe
pilasters. This gradation Iike the crcscendo of Vignola's intL.or from n,IVl: hl lolly dllnlL'd tfll"'lIIg (Il
type illcidellta/ly created as emly as ]470 by AlbertI [italles mineJ), h"" beel. rcpeall'd ,lIld IIIll'm,llit'lI Ily
innumerable Baroque nrchitccts."
16. The colonnade of the upper floor of Casa Caprini, in this ca!>c, is lt idcnlcal ln the
second type of screen void creatcd by free colonnade because the ma'iS of the wall with ni windows
behind is fJushed forward to attach c10scly with ils front colonnade so that 1 he two bclong tn the
same wall. The app'trent effect as a whole is then sol id rather th,1Il becoming vnid.
17. Murray, 214-15.
18. Andrea Palladio, 1 Quattro Llbri del/' Architettura (The Four UO"\... ... 01 Ardutcl'iurci
(Venetia: n.p., 1616).
19. Rudolf Wiukower, Architectural Principlcs in the Age of IIl1mallism, 3d cd. (London: Alec
Tiranti, 1962),81-82.
20. Ibid., 90.
2l. The analysis of the superimposition of two c1assicaJ temple fronts in Pall,ldlO\ 01
the Venetian churches had originally been donc by Wittkower in Arcllltectllra/ Prim Ip/t\ /1/ the A,RI' of
Humanism, 91. Although the example used by Wittkowcr is S Francesco ddJa Vign.1 in Veniec, which
is slight different from S. Giorgio Maggiore in the way the ba\c of the lower front wa" up tn the
same level as the higher front, the principle of integrated used in Ihe two l.lc.,de W,I" ihe '-,\lne
22. Anthony Blunt, "Manncrism in Architecturc," R.I.BA., vol. 56 (M,lrch II)I() .97.
23. James S. Ackerman, 71/C Arcllltcct/lre of Miche/ange/o, 2d cd (Chic.tgo The of
Chicago Press, 1986), 239.
24. Robert Venturi, Complexity and C01ltradiction /11 Architecture, 2d cd. (New York: The
Museum of Modern Art, 1977; n;print, 1988), 20 (page rcference is to reprint cdition).
c

Chapter III
THE ARCHITEcruRE OF NICHOLAS HA WKSMOOR
The Critical Individualist Phenomenon
At the beginning of Chapter 1, 1 discussed the appearance of the phenomenon of critical
architecture. Two forms of critical architecture -.vere identified: the critlcal zeitgeist pllenomellOll and the
cntical /IIdwiduullsl phcllomellon. In the prcvious chapter, an cxample of the critical 7citgeist
phcnomcnon was discussed extensively in the analysis of Mannerist architecture. This chapter will
historical examples of architecture of the critical individualist phenomenon. The architecture
of Ildwksmnor, particularly two of his parish churches in the Greater London, will be
exall1incd and andlped to iIIustrate this phenomenon.
Design Analysis of Nicholas Hawksmoor's Architecture
In the analysis of Mannerist architecture, we find that its operations on the classical codes are
hased on the two principles of integration and inversion. The reading of these two critical
prin;:iples can also apply to some critic. examples of Nicholas Hawksmoor's architecture. Although the
contexts and operation codes of the sixtcenth ccntury Italian architecture may differ from those of the
architect, the patterns of the two critical principles in the architecture of the latter are
discernable nonethelcss.
Sorne of Hawksmoor's most interesting works are a series of parish churches built during the
early eighteenth cr:ntury. Thcse churches were t!-.e result of the Act of Parliament of 1711 to build fifty
ncw churches in or near the Cities of London and Westminster.' Although the nctual number of the
churehes built was only twelve, Hawksmoor su'"..ceeded in designing half of trus number.
2
Of a1I his
works, these fcw churches are the best illustrations of his designs which constantly reflect the patterns
of Ihe two critical principles of intcgration and inversion.
87
1
l
Chapter III
The difficultiel> in designing these churches came in p,lrl fwm th n:strl\:llon, 01 Iht: progr.11lI
and due to the architect's own design idco!ob'Y. There wnc Iwo l'rogramm,llic Clln,tr,linh On \\.1"
the liturgical requircments in the planning and gcncra! modcl uf Ihe chun:hc" t he ut hn \\'.1' .1 l qmlr .\1nt
that camc from the orientation of eaeh parlicular sil. fhe hlurgll',11 requirml'l\h and Ih
recommendations from the com.mssioners' archilccls, a" Chn ... lophn \Vren .md John V.\1Ibrllgh,
wcrc an important concern of Ihe appointcd arclulecl Som (lI lh" Icqlllrel1lnh were ,1 we ... lern
tower, a short chancel on easl, a 'handsomc' portico, ,lnd mn ... 1 01 ,III, "II h.lll heell .Igleed Ih.11
alllhc churches should he correclly The la"l one whel1 put inlll Ihe allu.l! tonlxt (lf e.lch
particu!ar site greatly affected the design solutions, bolh in Ihe pl.lIl:ling .lI1d lhe c\tern.11 appt:ar.lnl'c 01
the chureh.
Hawksmoor, like the architects of Rendis"ance, shllwed u parlicu!.lr 1ll1ere ... t in centrali/ed
planning as an idea! design for ehurches. Ccntrali/ed plannrng "wa., II1lcnded hol Il a", il religiou,> symhol,
the perfeet shape of thc circlc standing for the perfection of (Jod, Jnd .1., a hCJllllful fmm 111 il .. c1f. ...
Howev-:r, 111 practice, centralizcd ehurehes wcre no! found 10 he very \..ollvenicnl l'hl" Itle.II motlc\
eontradicts the functional requircment of the litur6'Y, whith W.I'> 111 f.lvour of <1 h,I"'llic.1 or Ihe directlon.ll
planning type. The result of this preference .... as Ih,lt ail p.lmh chun"he!. werc built acl'ording 10 Ihe
directional planning scheme sorne eharaclemlll''i l'.111 be found in ,Ill IIdwk'imoor\
churches ta implicitly reflect IllS preference for the ccntrahlCd Ide,11
In addition ta these canflicting Ideologies in plallnmg, Il.lwk"moor wa., <.Ibo conccrned wilh Ihe
relation of buildings to their existing urban contexl. His churchcs alway., reflcct a,> much respect 10 site
and public orientation as to 'ne functianal orientation of the church ln tho<;c when the two
orientations are in conflict, the is always a compronllsc bctwcen the Iwo. Conscquenlly, the
designs oCten result in a canflicting cxterior, and in many l'reate uncxpecled tnlcflor
arrangements. Of ail of Hawksmaor's churches, St. George, Bloom'ihury and Church, Spitalficld ..
best represent his eritical interprelations of the parish church Although the .. c two l'hun.hc,> arc the only
to be discussed here, aIl of Hawksmoor's churehes cauld abo be understood in the saine light.
Chapter III
89
66. Hllwksrnoor. St. George, Bloomsbury. View from south 67. Hawksmoor. St. George,
Bloomsbury. Plan
St. George, BIoomsbury
In St. George, Bloomsbury, ail conflicting aspects were concentrated in a single project. Not
only the liturgical requirement for a directiona1Jy planned church conflicted with Hawksmoor's own
preference for a centraliJ:ed ideal, but the problem became more severe by the constraints of the site.
The difficulties came from both the property shape and the public orientation. The site is narrow from
west lo cast and deep from north to south, lhus having its main axis along the north-south (Fig. 67).
This orientation aloDe a1ready contradicts the functioDal reqLrement of the church which calls for a
directional cast-west axis. Moreover, the west side of the property, which is traditionally reserved for
l
J
Chapter III
68. Hawksmoor. Projcct for St. George, Bloom!lbury. West
faeade
90

-
.\
, ,
..
lSi.
-
",: J TI
. '

(J
c
tIR
.11',
'"
69. lIawk..,m()or. Projtct fur St.
George, nloODlltbury. l'Ian
the main cnlry 10 church, faces, instcad, the Immedl.llc juxt.lpO'>lIlg bUlhling'i The 111.1111 puhlle
approach can only access the church from the north and the .. therchy ereatmg .lfIother
circumstancc in contradiclioi> with the orthodox function of the we,1 cmry
The problems lrtSmg from lhese constraints "cemed to be dlf/cult th.lt cvcn Vanhrugh, who
also proposed one design alternative, could think of only one po.,slblc !>olulion. Il 'calll\ol
convcniently be bUllt any other way,'" he propose d, in contrddlcllon to Ihe orthodox funclHln 01 the
church, a rclocatlon of the rhurch axis to the north-south hy h.l\'Ing the ,I\("r loc,lted in the norlh'
However, Hawksmoor had more than one idca to solve the .tri.,mg connlel." .::Id Ihereby won the
commission for the design In both the rectangular planmng of the final hUilding, and the (lv.II pl.lI1ning
of the preliminary design, it IS possIble to enter from the west whl1c havmg Ihe a!tar located correelly
on the east (cf. Figs. 67 &. 69) ln additIOn, both .Ilso re .. pond weil 10 Ihe III.Iin puhlle
approach [rom the south. TC' :"llcel v.ilh thcsc confilctmg nccd<" lhe .,olullon., hy Il.IwJ.. .. moor,
espedally the final one, were fa: more complicaled than anyonc could have Ihought.
The building as It appear'. 111 the linal exccutlOn h.t., Ils m.t1l1 dXI., "long lhe north.,oulh Il,,
main entrance faces the "outh "treet ln aceordancc with the public cleee.,., The main body of the
ehurch is undcr a single gable roof placcd along the north-south direcllOn At the end of the
Chapter III
91
a hexastyle portico is attachcd to form the main entrance for the approaching public from the
adjacent !>treet from this exterior, the church should have been expected to have its functional
dxis located "long thL:
Howevcr, the functlOndJ plannmg of the church, as initially designed by Hawksmoor, was
aClually 1:lId out aJong thL: tr.lvcrse aXIs of the east-west.
6
While entrance was also accessible from the
through Ihe lowcr, Ihe ch.mcel area was placed in the circuldr apse at the cast end. AlI liturgical
funcllon<, wcre <,tlll com:dly arr.\ngcd following the tradition wlthout losi.,g the correct orientation of
the m,lin public dllC.,., frorn the <,outh. The whole intenor therefore was a counter balance between
Iwo directlOn.ll <;P,ICC" gcnL:r.lled .llang two mtegrating axes. One was the functionaJ axis of the church
placed along the ed,>l-we ... l; ,mother wa5 the orientation 3XIS of the public located along the north-south.
A!> lhe tntcnnr "pace wa!> Ihe result of an integration between two mters':!ctmg axe<;, 50 was the
1 o rnld 1 .appe.trtlncc of the exterior masses. Rather than assimllating the treatment of the two
direct londl m.I.,.,c., Itlto an .unblguou'i, non-directional one, Hawksmoor prcferred to state cIeady the
dllkn:nl m.I,>,>e,> of the two dIrectIon a! axe'i The western tower and the eastern circular .Ip'ie formed
the liturgle.ll dX\S of Ihe church aiong the cast-west. At the same til"le, the southern portico, together
with its ,11I.lchlllg gdhle roof covenng the mail1 body of the church, legitimiLed anather orientation axJS
of the public ,t/ong Ihe north-<;outh.
Morenvef, the treatment of each dircetional mass could also be seen as an integration of
vertIcal ano hort/ont.11 emphtlse'i, which also countcr-balanced the same integrated trcatment of the
IIlter'iecting mol'i'i While Ihe verticality of the western towcr was a counter part of the hexastyle
colonn.loc nf the <,oulhern port\CO, the horizontal emphasis of the cast wall formed a p:.rallclto that of
Ihe norlh 1,lc.loe (Fig .... 66, 70). As Kerry Dowoes points out in Hawksmoor, the verticality of the
soulhern wlllnnadc and the western tower also played a symbolical role in marking a balanet.: between
Iwo way<, of .lppro.H:hlllg ano cntering the chareh.
7
As a result, an equal importance was given to both
inter:-.cctll1g The O\'craU solution reveals the arehitect's attempt to meet with the functional
rcquirclllcnt'i of the hlurgy as weil as ref1ccts his awarencss of the importance of the urban orientation.
)
J
J
Chnpter III 92
70. Hawksmoor. St. George, lUoomsbury. North faeade
The special emphasis Hawksmoor gave to the lattcr was c\idcnt whcn comparing his final dc\ign to
the earlicr oval version
In his preliminary scheme, Hawksmoor scemed to givc the importance of the main entrance tn
the traditional orientation by placing a "handsome" portico, a strong cntrance motif, at the west end ali
usua! (Fig. 68). Although the significancc of the cntrance was givcn to the functional oricntdtion of
church, the importance of the actual public access ln Its urbdn orlcntation was nol at aIl Ignorcd WIUC
circular colonnades at thc north and south cnds arc providcd for the actu.!1 main puhlic cntrance from
thase directions.
1
Chupter III 93
ln term of representing the orthodox function of the church, the preliminary solution appears
tn he correctly oriented more than the final design by the correct location of its western p('rtiea.
Furthermore, seen ao; "n IIIdependent abject, Ils over.11I form looks Ie')s contradlctory and amblguous
than the fin,,1 hullJlIIg 'lIIce the c.!e'lgn 1 ... symmctrtl.llly h.d,lIIceu III both axes and no clement looks out
of place. !lowever, when put IIIto the dctual urban contex!, lhe dornmating partica of the west facade
appear<; to f"cc nowhere and dJdre<;<; no publtc Il <;eems that Hdw"srnoor may have realized this, and
had then rcloc.lted the entr,mcc portlCO to the south f.lc,lde in the findl design On one hand, this
reso!ves the confllCt of lhe "faclIIg-nowhere" pOrlico of the oval scheme. On the other hand,
the of the actu..!1 mam entrance suppresscd 10 the cadie .. scheme has then been restored
and through the new loedtlon of the southern portico.
Although the ... trong entr.lIIlC motif of the portlCO of the bUJlt ehurch markcd or signilied the
maln entrance ln the ... outh, It<; importance was equdlly countered by the verlleality of the western tower
th.lt tradltlOlldlly WdS .Ibo aS'iigncd to the main west entry. Thus, in term of rcsponding to both
functiom. of the hturgy and the public orientation, no solutIOn could holve solved and compromised the
conllic/mg nccd,; hettn thdn the one which wa ... huilt. Not anly did It contam ail important features of
the bener.11 mode! required by the litu:-h'Y--the western tower, an eastern chancel, and a "handsome"
parti co, but the ehurch was al<;o correctly nrcntcd in terms af bath liturgieal
l
function and actual public
apprnadl, de<;plte thelr different orientdtions.
Ilaw""mool \ intentIOn to give equallmportance to the public orientation axis as the liturgical
axis IS also evidcnt ln the arrdngcment of interioT spaec. In both schernes, the inside colonnades arc
\l'\e lo udine the mJIIl mtcnor volume on the north and south, and separate it from the cntrance
foyers of tho<;c direction<; The central bays of thesc insidc colonnades, which also designate the side
entrie ... from the ';lHlth (,1110 north, in the edse of the oval scherne), arc a widcr span thall their
,IUJ,Kcnt b.ty\. The re\ult l!l an equal S17e for the opening cntry of the two traverse axes as secn in the
ov,t1 Ver&lOn. ln the lin,11 construction, the same central openings of the north and south are evcn wider
than th.tl of the west entry.
J
Chapter III 94
l
Interlor looking
Moreover, the emphasis on the public oric:nlation axis, which is rcflcctcd in the widc opcning
entries of the inside colonnades, is al 50 shown in the cciling decoration. The cciling of the huill church,
whose boundary is a perfect square, is surpr;sin61y broken up by the configuration of the mouldmg slrip
into a rectangular Corm, with its main axis along the north-south direction (Hg 71). The wide in .. ide
opening, the ceiling decoradon, together with an additional outermost bay in the north e ~ l b l i ~ h a
strong dircdional spacc along the north-south, and subsequently Corm a counter balance wlth the
traverse space of the east-west.
As the integration oC two intersecting axes rcl1ects Hawksmoor's rcconciliation hetwecn thc
cODfliets oC thl' program and site orientations, 50 does it expresse,> a compromi'ie hclween the IIturgieal
directional planmng and his own centralized ideal. The apparent ovcrall plan may look strongly
directional along the north-south axis; however, whcn scrutinizcd, it turns out that the main intcrior
volume is actually treated as a centralized Corm. Both plan and section arc in a perCect square which
l

Chapter III 9S
is the intersecting result of the integration of two directional spaccs. Because the way the two traverse
axes are cqually emphasized, the rf!sult is the interior space readable in several ways at once.
The intention to create a multi-directional interior space is also evident Crom the oval scheme.
Secn in bath the preliminary and the final designs, their ove rail plans are indeed a superimposition of
diffcrcnt typc!. of directional spaccs as weil as a ccntralized one (Fig. 72). From the innermost volume,
as the 'ipace extends ioto a larger one, the oon-direetional eentralized volume becomes directional
spaccs possible in two traverse axes. Because of lheir equal emphasis in both directions, the two
direction al spa ces can be read as integrating ioto another centrali7.ed one. The latter eventually
strelches again ioto the final north-south directionai space. The result is thus a crilical architecture
that promotes variety rather than singularity.
ft appears th:-t this :;ophisticated solution provided by Hawksmoor was Cound to be
:neonvenient and diffieull for the parishioners to appreciate (rom the start, and unfortunately, the
i Jlerior was later rearranged. The altar was relocated in the north in correspondence with the practical
sOl!lh entranee. It is now difficult 10 apprecate the original effeet. Nevertbeless, tbis admissible
resolutiu!1. whkh ... ~ possible without any major change in the whole structure oC the church, is still
due to IIawk'imoor's initial pro\lsion of a multi-directional interior space.
From tbe above analysis, we have witnessed Hawksmoor's design strategy in solving the
programmatic cooflicts as reflected in the design patterns of the principlc of integration seen in both
cxtcrior form and intcrior space of the cburch. In addition, another pattern of the principle of
inversion can also he seen in the design d:velopment oC St. George. When comparing tbe two
alternative d'!signs, it turns out that the alteration made from the preliminary version to the fmal one
is, in fael, a reverse manipulation of forms from one scheme to the other. The main feature of the
short axis in the car lier scheme appears to be the main attribute of the long axis in the final seheme,
and vice versa. This can he seen in the relocation of the portico from the west facade of the earlier
version 10 the south front of the final design. The turrets, a vertical fcature, and the circular
colonnades that mark the longitudinal north-south axis in the fust scheme are transformed into a
western tower, another vertical aUribute, and an eastern circular apse tbat fun the sborter east-west
1
Chapter III 96
72. Comparative analysis or multidirectional interior spaces between the Onal and early schemes or
St. George, Bloomsbury
Chuptcr III 97
axis of the built scheme. Moreover, aIl transformations of form between tbe two different
axes of lhese Iwo schemes arc surprisingly made under the same domin(iting north-south directional
plans without revolving their directions along, the main axis.
St. George has shawn the patterns of the two critical principles that play such an important
role in providing the design solution. ft depicts the architect's intention to reconcile and compromise
the various conflicting necds that arose mostly from the specifie rcquirements of program, the
constraints of site, and, particl'larly, the architect's own ideology. The design solutions, both
preliminary and the built schemes, reflect the patterns of the fWo critical principles in tbe arrangements
of plan, interior spacc, and exterior mass. The next example, Christ Church, Spitalfields, will reveal the
archilect's sarne attempt to integrate those various requirements in the design. However, in tbis case,
the compromise went evcn further to provide a new interpretation to the particular characteristics of
the parish church. Again, the principle of integration is reflected, tbis time not in planning, but in the
manipulation of the facade's design.
Christ Church, Spitalfields
The most striking feature of Christ Church is its western tower tbat bursts upwards from the
ground level white being not totaUy separated from the main churcb body (Fig. 74). This particular
feature of the tower gives this church a distinctive characteristic that separates it from most parish
churches designed at about the same time. Although in generaJ the tower facade of the Spitlllfieids
church IS very original, its design is actually based on tbe same principle underlying the facade design
of Palladio's churches in Venice.
As previously discussed, arcbitects since tbe Renaissance have attempted to translate the
architecture of the c1assical into their modern Christian churches. The principle underlying
the design of the facades of those churches was to incorporate tbe geometry of the ancient temple front
into the basilica facade of Christian church. In the case of Palladio's churches in Venice, the solution
was to integrate two temple fronts of different sizes and proportions while fitting them into the
different gcornetries of the nave and aisles of the basilica facade.
1
Chapter III 9K
73. Hawksmoor. Christ Church, Spltalflelds. Steeple from the south
t
f
1
74. Hawksmoor. Christ Churcb, Spilalfields. West facade
1
c
(
Chapter III
99
75. John James. St. George, Hanover Square, London
In the case of the parish church,es however, the requirements of program were more
complicated. The task was not only to adapt a portico of the classical temple front to the basilica
racade of church, but also to integratc another significant feature of the parish church, a
single western lower. The problem was then to accommodate the two different features, the classical
temple front and the single western tower, without losing the significanee of eaeh.
One solution attempting to combine these two different features is shown in St. George,
Hanover Square, London, designed by John James al about the same time as Christ Church (Fig. 75).
The Hanover Square church has its front faeade in the form of hexastyle portico with the western tower
sim ply placcd right bchind il. This solution refleets the perfeet geometry of the classicaI temple front.
1
Chapter III 11111
The tower, though, losses its vertical significance due to the fact that the portico hides most of the
tower's mass from the ground Icvel. The signification of tower as an import.lOt vertical clement that
marks the prcscncc of thc church is thercfore scriously masked, cspecially from the view
point. ils signification is only notieeablc al the seale of the largcr urb,\n slylinc.
To solve the samc intricate problcm, Hawksmoor's solution incorpor,lte the '.amc cnlieal
manner as rus Mannerist predeccssor. Although therc is no intcgration of two dlffcrcnlly proportioned
fronts in Christ Church's facade like in Palladio's churches, thc idea to incorporate a classical front mIn
the geomctry of thc church facadc is similar. In the case of the Venctian churehcs, the complete
classical front is ad..lptcd to fit thc gcometry of lhe ehureh navc. Howevcr, in the case 01 l'hl iM
Church, the c1assieal front is adapted to fit the gcometry of the rising tower. Recause the pl'I fcel
proportions of the classieal front do not easily fit lhe slcnder feature of tower, Hawksmoor bnlli.lOtly
assigned the c1assieal front to be the podium of the tower instead of adapting the c\as'iical
to fit the overall geometry of thc tower.
The temple front, or the portico, is modifieu into the form of simple P,llI.ldlall colonnade
a pediment. H..:.wksmoor's idea of the modificd porticu can he pointc oul lo dcrivc \rom thc
cast portico of St. Alfege, Greenwich (Fig. 76), where the same motif was used e..lrlier but colllpleted
with a pediment. The reason Hawksmoor took off the pedllllent was clearly to Illake thc portlCO
smoothly conneet with and become the integrat part of the ahove tower. The two imporl.lOt
the portica and the lower, are subsequently united ta become a new architectur..ll motif tlMt domin,lte1!
the front faeade and eharaeterizes the particular idcntity of the parish church
Al anothcr \cvel, the portico/towcr of Church also the burldrng'1!
wilh its urban eonlext. Not only is the facade composed of two intcgralcd architcdllr..ll fcatuTC'>, Ihe
portico and the towcr, another fcature hidden wilhin it is the characten'itic of the f..lcade ,1\ .1 wall Thc
western front of the church is compriscd of three main pdrt". The Palladi;I" portico form,> the lowc\t
part as the tower podium. In the middlc part, the ma,,, of the towcr cxtcnd., intn a krnd of w.lll
inscribed with triumphal arch motif visible only from one dirr.ction. Vicwed from itf> side,>, the wall
appears like excessive buttresses that in a way make the tower look a'iymmctrical (Fig 71). FlIlally, Ihe.:
(
(
Chapter III
101
76. Hawhmoor. St. Alfege, Greenwich. View from south-east
top part continues the tower mass, from the triumphal wall into a pyramidal spire, visible from all
directions. As Venturi remarks. the entire western facade, seen within the church's surrounding
context, bccomes both a tower and a wall enclosing lhe space at the end of the approaching street.
8
Consequcntly, the walljtower of Christ Church creates the building's relationship with its urban
c ) n t c ~ t at lwo lcvels. At the scale of street, the western facade of the tower acts as a focal wall
terminating the vista and marking the significant presence of the church. The latter notion is evident
in thl' use of the triumphal motif whose implication had been widely used from antiquity to represent
the important public place as seen, for example, in the the Uzi's inner facade discussed in the
previous chapter. Atlhe urban scalc, thc tower with its spire visible from aIl directions appears on the
city skyline as a landmark that advcrtises the prestige of the city and the location of the church.
!l'''''"
"
\
Chapter III 102
From one perspective, the result of the wall/tower intcgration m,i\..c!. the tO\wr Ill.IS1> nf Chri!.t
Chur ch appear unbalanced and look rathcr odd whcn secn from only its sides. lIowcvcr, undcrlyillg
this sccmingly irrational design i<; indccd a rational idcology similar to th.lt found III thl' Mannl'mt
interior design of the Sala Rcgia, in the Vatican. The uncolllfort,Ibh: unh,II.IIll'l' ,li thl' tm\'l'r !.ccn
partIy from only onc direction is resolvable through com rTchension of the \\ lllllc ,lIld Illdudl'\ llw
wall/tower whose different facades respond 10 (heir confronting contexts dllferclllly.
ln addition, the intcrpretation of Christ Church dnes nnt aim .It nnly rC!.)llllllhllg to thl'
particular identity of the parish church, but a further attempt is made tn it with the
architecture of the past. The overall facadc of the church can be seen as an intcgrdtion of the c!;"sic,,1
and the medieval precedents (Fig, 77). While the first two lower parts arc dcarly dassieal, the steeple
top could be as!>ociated with a spire of Gothie origin. As the proportions of the nHldllicd
portico front is a rcference to the perfcction of God, so is thc triumphal motif of thc llccolld hclfry
stage a representation of the church's significancc as an important public Finally, the .. tccple
alludes ta the Gothie soaring spire that points towards the heavenly body of the divinily.
Il is Hawksmoor's own ideologics in sclecting a particular way 10 solve the
that subsequently aHow his architecture to be regarded as criticism. These idcologics are the attitudc!>
of design reconciliation and restless experimentation. The:; lirst reveals intercst which wu<; more than
just the providing of solutions ta meet with liturgical requiremenls. L:kc the architcct\ of the 1>ixlcenth
century Mannerism, Hawksmoor strongly shows an assertion in fulfilling ail program rcqlllrcmcnts a\
well as his own architectural ideals.
10
This can be seen in several instanccs whcre il 1>eemcd .tlmo!'1
impossible to fulfil ail C"ontradicted requircments, eilher the conslramts of program Of his own
architectural ideals contradicted the program. White olher architects would have avoided or ignored
one problem to solve another, Hawksmoor chose to rcconcilc ail thosc conlllcts. Examplcs arc cvidcnl
in the diffcTent solutions betwcen Hawksmoor's and Vanbrugh's dcsigm for St. George, Bloom<,nury,
and between the integrated designs of particojtawer of Hawksmoor's Church, Spitllficl(h lnd
John James' St. George, Hanovcr Square. Moreover in the case, Hawksmoor cven wenl
solely solving the confliets, and attempted at giving the building further signification. Christ Church's
J
c
1
Chapter III
'-'-"-"-rr
77. Christ Church, Spitalfields. Decomposition analysls or
west racade
103
wallftower facade does not only represent the identity of the parish tower, it a1so helps cnrich the
urban environment, both at an immediate and a widcr urban sca1es,
Hawksmoor's restless experimentation is revealed in the continuous development of ail bis
churches, His works never stopped at any particular formulae, solution, or style, Purther attempt was
always made 10 experimenl, devclop, and scareh for a new and more appropriate interpretation of the
parish church, Instances C'lO be pointed out in the progressive developments either within a single
project or bctwcen differeDI projects. The fust is clear in the totally different schemes of the earlyand
the final designs of St, George, Bloomsbury. The second cao he seen in the variollS interprctations
1
1
1
J
Chapter III
west
~
"7'
~
'f-- ;
104
Hawksmoor provided for the significant feature of the parish towcr from St. Anne, Limchouse (fig.
78) to St. George-in-the-East, Wapping Stepney (Fig. 79), and finally Christ Church, Spitalficlds
(Fig. 74).
Because of thesc two ideologies of reconciliation and experimentation, Hawksmoor's churchc'i,
like aU Mannerist architecture, rcsults in deliberatc and sophisticated interpretdtion1>. Ali hi1> works
rcflect certain charactcristics that cao be associated with the same expressive qualitics found in
sxteenth century Mannerist architecture, such as ambiguity, complcxity, contradiction etc. Dcspitc ail
c
1
Chapter III
79. Hawksmoor. St. George-In-the-East, Wapplng Stepney.
Flrst design, west rocade
lOS
these seemingly adverse implications, both Mannerist and Hawksrnoor's architecture are still as rational
as lltey are sensu al.
Crilically, Hawksmoor's architecture seerns lo be totally different frorn the sixteenth century
Italian architecture, and is rarely c1assified as Mannerist. Although sorne of bis designs, for example St.
Gcorge-in-thc-Easl (Fig. 79), may show archilccturallanguage borrowed frorn Mannerist sources, lhey
arc never mcrcly imitallons The implications always lurn ioto critical ioterprctations adapted and
appropriatcd for their changing architectural context. Apart from this, Hawksmoor's works normally
lune no rcfcrence at ail to the sixtccnth ccntury Ilalian architecture. It is the patterns of the two
1
l
l
Chapter III
critical principles of intcgration and inversion that the architecture of two rcmote pcriml., .1Ill! pl.tre.,
share. For both Mannerist architects and Hawksmoor, the patterns of the two critical prinl'iplc'i arl'
only the rctlection of thcir common underlying intention for .ln architecture of n'conl'ili.ltion .11111
expcrimentation.
..
NOTES
1. Kerry Downes, Hawksmoor (London: Thames and Hudson, 1969), 103.
2. Kerry Downes, Hawksmoor, Studies in Architecture, eds. Anthony BIunt, and Rudolf
Witlkower, vol. 2 (London: Zwemmer, 1959), 158.
3. Downes, 1969, 105-06
4. Downes, 1959, 164.
5. Downes, 1969, 132
6. The original design by Hau'ksmoor correctly had the functionaI axis of the church along
the cast-west, but provided the main public access to be possible from the south as weil as another
conventional entrance through under the tower of the west facade. However, "the parishioners found
thcir church inconvcnienl from the start, and in 1781 the interior was rearranged with the altar on the
north; subscquently the tower cntrance was blocked, and for a lime the plasterwork of the eastern apse
was boxed in" (Downes 1969, 134-35). Today the church ~ l U remains as it was after the 1781'5
renovation, but for a correct understanding of Hawksmoor's intention, the anaIysis in tbis study has
been base on the initial design of the architect.
7. Downes 1969, 136.
8. Robert Venturi, ComplCXIty and Contradiction in Architecture, 2d cd. (New York: The
Museum of Modern Art, 1977; reprint, 1988), 30 (page reference is to reprint edition).
9. Though in a diffcrent manner from Hawksmoor's Christ Church, the same attempt to
apply the triumphal arch motif together with the classical front ta the church facade can be seen in
Alberti's S. Andrea, Mantua (Fig. 48)
10. A paTaUcl case of Mannerism to this is Michclangclo's design for the slaircase of the
Ricetto, the Laurenziana Llbrary, in Florence. The triple flight staircase is the result of Michelangelo's
compromise of the popc's idea for a single breadth staircase and his initial design for twin staircases.
Sec dctailcd discussions in Chap. I.
107
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Chapter IV
CRITICISM AS ARCHIlliCfURE UF STYLIZATION
A Concluding Remark
As discussed earlier, the occurrence of critical architecture throughout Iw.tory and
a rather short-lived phenomenon. Manncrist and Hawksmoor's architectures ale only two
among many, which scrve to ilIusllate this theoretical model. Mannerism spanned only a kw
of the sixte en th ccntury. It represented a short, yet invaluable, transilional period tl1.lt hmlgl'd the gap
between Renaissance and Baroque. Similarly, Hawksmoor arose as an indlvidu,ll, import nl ligure III
the British architectural history, but one separated from the main historie.11 sequenLe. III., plulo"ophy
and style were obsolele after his dealh. Yet, his architecture stands in lhe ('fUeI.1l pO III 1 01 Ihl'
conjunction between English Baroque and neo-Palladianism.
In addition 10 the leading trend in sixtecnth ccnlury Italian architecture, anolher periml Ih.11
may faU in ta the critical zcitgcist phenomenon is the architecture of the recent conlempnrary, kn\lwn
as Post-Modern architecture. A number of buildings of this movement can also he da""IIicd .1\
archilecture of criticism. In Silvt.tti's "The Beauty of Shadows," works by such ,1\ Aldo RO\\I,
Charles Moore, Robert Venturi, John Hejduk, Peter Eisenman, and MIchael Graves have alrc.ldy becn
suggested as aiming towards this critica1 attitude.
1
The architecture of John Soane and Edwin Lut yens can be includcd in the calcgory of Ihc
critical individualist phenomenon. Many of thcir work:, can bc undcrstood in the IIgh' a.., the
critical architecturc of Mannerism and Hawksmoor. Sorne of thcsc have becn and poinlcd ouI
in Venturi's Complexity and Contradiction III Architecture.
2
Likc Soanc\ .1I1d LlltYCIl','
architecture is very persona!, and both architects had no nor 1ll0ucntl the .lrLhitcLI., o/Ihe
following decades. Interestinglyenough, the threc British architects, Soanc, antl
108
1
l
Chaptcr IV
109
81. Lincoln cathedral. Scheme or the vaults ,. ';t. Hugh's choir
share a common place in history as important individual figures who were active at the turn of the
seventeenth to eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries, respecfively.
Moreovcr, the sporadic phenomenon of critical architecture does nol seem to originale with
sixtccnth ccntury Manncrism. The same trait can also be traced back to an earlier period of the
medicval English Gothie. The design of St. Hugh's choir, Lincoln cathedral (Figs. SO, 81), particularly
its renowned crazy" vaults as expressed by Paul FrankI in "The 'crazy' Vaults of Lincoln Cathedral,"3
is an intercsting work which perhaps cao also he c1assified as a production of the critical individualist
1
Chapter IV 110
phenomenon. Although this eccentric design may not dcfinitcly fall into the resulting from lhe
two critical princip les proposed in this study, its operation on the existent codes of the (lo111le is c1C.lrty
made through the same process of de-naturalization. A for an understanding of [hb. critieal
architecture and others that may have existed clsewhere before or after this one is \cft open for turlher
investigation.
At this point for an additional study on the subject, wc return to the notion of the
on the language of criticism and ils fundamental nature of de-naturalil',,:ltion. From thc
analysis of Manncrist and Hawksmoor's architecture, wc find that although and tll
different periods and styles, lhey unexpcetedly lhe same abstraet ptlllerns wl1ldl can he ,>cen
thwugh the principles of integration and inversion. However, the critical patterns or the operations on
the language of critical architecturc arc not confined to only these IWO prinelplc,>. noth
proposed here as analytical Jevices to read this architecture, arc bUI sorne in thc
process of de-naturalization which arc commonly found in many other cxample" ln fact, .lIIy fonn of
de-naturalization of the known which aims at a sc arch for fundamental or new can he
identified as a critical operation. For a further understanding of (hose crilieal il worth
noting sorne concepts in the relatcd discourses of art, literaturc, and sem lOties, whieh h.IVC some
parallels to those of the operations of critical architecture. Sorne of thesc concepts may indced have
influenced the outlooks of many architects who have investigated similar aspects in architecture.
The parallel concepts between these relative discourses can be li"led from dc-
naturalizatioll
4
and Venturi's IlSillg convelltioll uflCollvent/OllaUI in architecture tn the S.1me notion of
de-famili(Jrizatioll in art, a concept originally introduecd by a Russian Vittor For
Sklovskij, the purpose of art is lo change the mode of our perception from prarllc.11 ln arliSl1e, mo"t
sim ply by displacing an art object from Its eustornary eontext.
7
From this, "a new form appear!> not lo
express a new content but to replace an old forrn that has lost its artislic quality."x ln other word,>, the
new form is rneant ta recover the lost artistic meanings and the hidden signification" al wlllch Silvctti's
"criticism from within" aims.
(
Chupter IV
111
In semiotics, the same idea of using the existent context to create a new one can be found in
Claude Levi-Strauss' concept of semallt;c fissio,.: "an abstract of the sign from its original context and
a rcinserlion of il into a new conlext, which cbarges it with diffcrent meanings:<9 In lbis way, an old
l>ign in a ncw context is used both for what they meant in the past and for the new connotations
attributed on the basis of present-day subcodes. As Umberto Eco points out in "Function and Sign:
Scmiotics of Architecture," it is "an engrossing and adventurous process, rediscovering, givel! a form,
the original conlcxts and crcating 11ew contexts.
IO
Anothcr analogous concept to this can be found in Iiterary discourse a type of rhetoricai figure
calkd catac"re.m. According to Jonathan Cuiter in Tlle Pursuit of Signs: Semiotics, Literature,
DeCOllslmctioll, "catachresis occurs, according to Fontanier, when a sign a1ready assigned to a frrst idea
is a!.signcd to a new ide a which had no expression--that is '0 say, where there is no existing literaI
which the figurative designation is replacing."11 An exa.nple of this, as Culler points out, is
"hcad of lellucc," in which "head," which is aIready assigned to one idea, is assigned to another idea
which has no othcr designation.
12
Interestingly Crom this example, a new meaning is created by a
reverse operation to that of semalllic fission, that is to say by a fusion of two existing signs, "head" and
"Ietluce." The same applications of catachresis in architecture are evident in the integrated designs of
hoth Palladio's facades of the Venetian churches and Hawksmoor's interpretations of the portico/tower
of the parish churches.
Ail these parallcl concepts are but the various strategies of operations on language of different
disciplines that have their ground rootcd in the same conceptual ideology: tlle idea of e.xp/oiting wllat
a/ready cxists--makillg use of tire kllow1l-in order to dise/ose i1l it latent significations Iridden in the initial
C01lte.\t. Il On one hand, these analogous concepts cao be used as a frame of reference for a further
investigation into an understanding of other critical architecture. On the other hand, the concepts
themsclvcl> can be used as creative tools in design thinking. Illustrations of the latter can he drawn
front Robert Vcnturi's experimentation of "complex and contradicted architecture" to Peter Eisenman's
hypothcticai concept of "displaced architecture."14 Although the two such diverse contemporary
architccts approach architecture from totally different, even opposite angles, (itey share a common
Chapter IV 112
intention of searching for r.ritical architecture. Both Vcnturi's and Eisenman's thcorctical concepts
have, to sorne extent, analogies to that of Silvetti's "criticism from within." Il is hcyond the !>cope of
this study to analyze further tbcir paralkl aspects, particularly the operations on the architectural
language, but SOrne remarks arc possible.
According to Eiscnman in "En Terra Firma: In Trails of Grotextes, there arc four condition1>
of "displaced architecture": textuality, twoness, betweenncss, and interiority.u From his first condItion
"textuality" which are potential traces of otherness rcprcssed in architectur.ll context, a cOllncction can
be made to SilvcUi's remark of a possibility of hidden significations in the known Next
to this, Eisenman's notions of "twoness" and "betweenncss," the conditions of two equ.11 cO'ltext1>
creating in between a third blurrcL context, open sorne conceptual paralleb tn Ventllri's notion, of
"doublc-functioning," "double-meaning" elements,16 and "both-and" architecture EIf>cnman'1>
forth notion of "interiority," a condition of being within dealing with the repres1>cd of sign
proposed by "teXluality," again cao be referred to Silveui's laient significations of exi,tent known from
within which critical architecture must unveil.
From Mannerism to H'c architecture of Hawksmoor, bad. to sever .. 1 in mcdieval
architecture, or forth to such diverse approdches to architecture like those of Venturi and
architecture has been interprcted in various forms as sclf-referential criticism. Howevcr ,hcite
architectural phcnomena may appear, they share a common role as architecture of expcrimentatior. 01
invention. They appear whcrever and whenevcr architecture seems to have rcached an apex, Irappc
by the restriction of its own architectural idcologics. Only thrm .. gh crilical operation, on il., own
existent architectural he rit age can critical architecture transcend the limit confined by the precepl!>
establishcd by its precedents. It is but the architecture of stylilation, striving on the ba'>lf> of ilf>
undeniablc Icgacy for a rossibility of a new, meaningful architecture. The of thi., architeclure
is the result of various critical interpretations of architecture appropriatc to edch parlicular place and
time under the circurnstances of an ever-changing cultural eontcxt.
(
----------------------.
NOTES
1. Jorge SilveUi, "The Beauty of Shadows," Opposition 9 (Summer 1977): 46-48, 50-53.
2. Robert Venturi, Complexity and Contradiction in Arc/litecrure, 2d ed. (New York: The
Museum of Modern Art, 1977; reprint, 1988).
3. See dctailed discussions about the Lincoln cathedral's vaults in Paul Frankl, "Tbe 'Crazy'
Vaults of Lincoln Cathedral," TIle Art Bulletin, vol. 35, no. 2 (June 1953): 95-108. See also Francis
Bond and William Watkins, "Notes on the Architectural History of Lincoln Minster from 1192 to 1255,"
R. 1. B. A., vol. 18, (November 1910): 33-50, (December 1910): 84-97.
4. Silvetti, 51.
5. Venturi,42.
6. Peter Steiner, Russian Fonnalism: A Metapoetics (Ithaca: Comell University Press,
1984), 49.
7. Ibid., 50.
8. Ibid., 56.
9. Umberto Eco, "Function and Sign: Semiotics of Architecture," Via (Philadelphia: Graduate
School of Fine Arts, University of Pennsylvania), vol. 2, Structures Implicit and Explicit (1973): 138.
10. Ibid.
11. Jonathan Culler, The Pursuit of Signs: Semiotics, Literature, Deconstruction (Ithaca: Cornell
University Press, 1981), 205.
12. Ibid.
13. Silvetti, 53.
14. For Robert Venturi's experimentation of complex and contradictory architecture," see
the discussions on his projects in bis book, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture. For Peter
Eisenman's hypothetical concept of "displaced architecture," see bis article, "En Terra Firma: In Traits
of Grotextes," Architectural Design, vol. 59, no. 1/2 (1989): 40-43.
15. Eisenman, 42-43.
16. The notions of "double Cunction" and "double meaning" are also used by Wittkower, who
perhaps initially coined the terms for bis explanation of Michelangelo's architecture in bis article,
"MichcJangelo's Biblioteca Laurenziana," The AIt Bulletin, vol. 16, no. 2 (June 1934): 208-9.
113
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