biblical literature

Encyclopdia Britannica Article

four bodies of written works: the Old Testament writings according to
the Hebrew canon; intertestamental works including the Old Testament
Apocrypha; the !ew Testament writings; and the !ew Testament
Apocrypha"
The Old Testament is a collection of writings that was first compiled and
preser#ed as the sacred books of the ancient Hebrew people" As the
Bible of the Hebrews and their $ewish descendants down to the present
these books ha#e been perhaps the most decisi#e single factor in the
preser#ation of the $ews as a cultural entity and $udaism as a religion"
The Old Testament and the !ew Testament%a body of writings that
chronicle the origin and early dissemination of &hristianity%constitute
the Bible of the &hristians"
The literature of the Bible encompassing the Old and !ew Testaments
and #arious noncanonical works has played a special role in the history
and culture of the 'estern world and has itself become the sub(ect of
intensi#e critical study" This field of scholarship including e)egesis
*critical interpretation+ and hermeneutics *the science of interpreti#e
principles+ has assumed an important place in the theologies of
$udaism and &hristianity" The methods and purposes of e)egesis and
hermeneutics are treated below" ,or the cultural and historical conte)ts
in which this literature de#eloped see $udaism and &hristianity"
-nfluence and significance
Historical and cultural importance
-n $udaism
After the kingdoms of -srael and $udah had fallen in .// B&E *before
the &ommon Era e0ui#alent to B&+ and 12.3124 B&E respecti#ely the
Hebrew people outli#ed defeat capti#ity and the loss of their national
independence largely because they possessed writings that preser#ed
their history and traditions" 5any of them did not return to 6alestine
after their e)ile" Those who did return did so to rebuild a temple and
reconstruct a society that was more nearly a religious community than
an independent nation" The religion found e)pression in the books of
the Old Testament: books of the 7aw *Torah+ history prophecy and
poetry" The sur#i#al of the $ewish religion and its subse0uent
incalculable influence in the history of 'estern culture are difficult to
e)plain without acknowledgment of the importance of the biblical
writings"
'hen the Temple in $erusalem was destroyed in .8 &E *&ommon Era
e0ui#alent to A9+ the historical priestly sacrificial worship centred in it
came to an end and was ne#er resumed" But the religion of the $ewish
people had by then gone with them into many lands where it retained
its character and #itality because it still drew its nurture from biblical
literature" The Bible was with them in their synagogues where it was
read prayed and taught" -t preser#ed their identity as a people
inspired their worship arranged their calendar permeated their family
li#es; it shaped their ideals sustained them in persecution and touched
their intellects" 'hate#er $ewish talent and genius ha#e contributed to
'estern ci#ili:ation is due in no small degree to the influence of the
Bible"
-n &hristianity
The Hebrew Bible is as basic to &hristianity as it is to $udaism" 'ithout
the Old Testament the !ew Testament could not ha#e been written and
there could ha#e been no man like $esus; &hristianity could not ha#e
been what it became" This has to do with cultural #alues basic human
#alues as much as with religious beliefs" The ;enesis stories of
prehistoric e#ents and people are a conspicuous e)ample" The Hebrew
myths of creation ha#e superseded the racial mythologies of 7atin
;ermanic <la#onic and all other 'estern peoples" This is not because
they contain historically factual information or scientifically ade0uate
accounts of the uni#erse the beginning of life or any other sub(ect of
knowledge but because they furnish a profoundly theological
interpretation of the uni#erse and human e)istence an intellectual
framework of reality large enough to make room for de#eloping
philosophies and sciences"
This biblical structure of ideas is shared by $ews and &hristians" -t
centres in the one and only ;od the &reator of all that e)ists" All things
ha#e their place in this structure of ideas" All mankind is #iewed as a
unity with no race e)isting for itself alone" The &o#enant people *i.e.,
the Hebrews in the Old Testament and &hristians in the !ew
Testament+ are chosen not to en(oy special pri#ileges but to ser#e ;od=s
will toward all nations" The indi#idual=s sacred rights condemn his
abuse e)ploitation or neglect by the rich and powerful or by society
itself" 'idows orphans the stranger the friendless and the helpless
ha#e a special claim" ;od=s will and purpose are #iewed as (ust lo#ing
and ultimately pre#ailing" The future is ;od=s when his rule will be fully
established"
The Bible went with the &hristian &hurch into e#ery land in Europe
bearing its witness to ;od" The church dri#en in part by the power of
biblical themes called men to ethical and social responsibility to a life
answerable to ;od to lo#e for all men to sonship in the family of ;od
and to citi:enship in a kingdom yet to be re#ealed" The Bible thus points
to a way of life ne#er yet perfectly embodied in any society in history"
'eighing e#ery e)isting kingdom go#ernment church party and
organi:ation it finds them wanting in that (ustice mercy and lo#e for
which they were intended"
5a(or themes and characteristics
The Bible is the literature of faith not of scientific obser#ation or
historical demonstration" ;od=s e)istence as a speculati#e problem has
no interest for the biblical writers" 'hat is problematical for them is the
human condition and destiny before ;od"
The great biblical themes are about ;od his re#ealed works of creation
pro#ision (udgment deli#erance his co#enant and his promises" The
Bible sees what happens to mankind in the light of ;od=s nature
righteousness faithfulness mercy and lo#e" The ma(or themes about
mankind relate to man=s rebellion his estrangement and per#ersion"
5an=s redemption forgi#eness reconciliation the gifts of grace the
new life the coming kingdom and the final consummation of man=s
hope are all #iewed as the gracious works of ;od"
The Old Testament contains se#eral types of literature: there are
narrati#es combined with rules and instructions *Torah or 6entateuch+
and anecdotes of Hebrew persons prophets priests kings and their
women *,ormer 6rophets+" There is an antiracist lo#e story *>uth+ the
story of a woman playing a dangerous game *Esther+ and one of a
preacher who succeeded too well *$onah+" There is a collection of
epigrams and prudential wisdom *6ro#erbs+ and a philosophic #iew of
e)istence with pessimism and poise *Ecclesiastes+" There is poetry of
the first rank de#otional poetry in the 6salms and erotic poetry in the
<ong of <ongs" 7amentations is a poetic elegy mourning o#er fallen
$erusalem" $ob is dramatic theological dialogue" The books of the great
prophets consist mainly of oral addresses in poetic form"
The !ew Testament also consists of a #ariety of literary forms" Acts is
historical narrati#e actually a second #olume following 7uke" A ;ospel
is not a history in the ordinary sense but an arrangement of remembered
acts and sayings of $esus retold to win faith in him" There is one
apocalypse >e#elation *a work describing the inter#ention of ;od in
history+" But the largest class of !ew Testament writings is epistolary
consisting of the letters of 6aul and other Apostles" Originally written to
local groups of &hristians the letters were preser#ed in the !ew
Testament and were gi#en the status of doctrinal and ethical treatises"
-nfluences
On 'estern ci#ili:ation
The Bible brought its #iew of ;od the uni#erse and mankind into all the
leading 'estern languages and thus into the intellectual processes of
'estern man" The ;reek translation of the Old Testament made it
accessible in the Hellenistic period *c. ?88 B&E@c. ?88 &E+ and
pro#ided a language for the !ew Testament and for the &hristian liturgy
and theology of the first three centuries" The Bible in 7atin shaped the
thought and life of 'estern people for a thousand years" Bible
translation led to the study and literary de#elopment of many
languages" 7uther=s translation of the Bible in the A4th century has been
called the beginning of modern ;erman" The Authori:ed Bersion
*English+ of A4AA *Cing $ames Bersion+ and the others that preceded it
caught the English language at the blooming of its first maturity" <ince
the in#ention of printing *midDA1th century+ the Bible has become more
than the translation of an ancient Oriental literature" -t has not seemed a
foreign book and it has been the most a#ailable familiar and
dependable source and arbiter of intellectual moral and spiritual ideals
in the 'est"
5illions of modern people who do not think of themsel#es as religious
li#e ne#ertheless with basic presuppositions that underlie the biblical
literature" -t would be impossible to calculate the effect of such
presuppositions on the changing ideas and attitudes of 'estern people
with regard to the nature and purpose of go#ernment social
institutions and economic theories" Theories and ideals usually rest on
prior moral assumptions%i.e., on basic (udgments of #alue" -n theory
the 'est has mo#ed from the di#ine right of kings to the di#inely gi#en
rights of e#ery citi:en from sla#ery through serfdom to the intrinsic
worth of e#ery person from freedom to own property to freedom for
e#eryone from the penalties of hopeless po#erty" Though there is a wide
difference between the ideal and the actual biblical literature continues
to pronounce its (udgment and assert that what ought to be can still be"
On the modern secular age
The assumption of many people is that the Bible has lost much of its
importance in a seculari:ed world; that is implied whene#er the modern
period is called the postD$udeoD&hristian era" -n most ways the label is
appropriate" The modern period seems to be a time in which
unprecedented numbers of people ha#e discarded traditional beliefs
and practices of both $udaism and &hristianity" But the influence of
biblical literature neither began nor ended with doctrinal propositions
or codes of beha#iour" -ts importance lies not merely in its o#ertly
religious influence but also and perhaps more decisi#ely in its
per#asi#e effect on the thinking and feeling processes the attitudes and
sense of #alues that whether recogni:ed as biblical or not still help to
make people what they are"
The deepest influence of biblical literature may be found in the arts of
'estern people their music and especially in their best poetry drama
and creati#e fiction" 5any of the most mo#ing and illuminating
interpretations of biblical material%stories themes and characters%
are made today by no#elists playwrights and poets who write simply as
human beings not as adherents of any religion" There are two #iews of
the human condition that scholars ha#e attributed to biblical influence
and that ha#e become dominant in 'estern literature"
The first of these is the #iew that the mystery of e)istence and destiny is
implicit in e#ery man and woman" -n contrast to the canons of classical
tragedy a person of any rank or station may e)perience the e)tremes of
happiness or misery e)altation or tragedy" An aged $ew of >embrandt=s
paintings or an illiterate black woman of ,aulkner=s no#els can reach the
height of human dignity" The arts also put down the mighty from their
seats and e)alt those of low degree" Any man may be E#eryman the
symbol of all human possibility"
The second #iew of the human condition is that the time of encountering
all reality is now and the place is here in man=s workaday acti#ities and
contingencies whate#er they may be" To be human is to know one short
life in mortal flesh in which the past and future are dimensions of the
present" -t is now or ne#er that the choice is made the offer of the gift of
life accepted or declined" Any kingdom there is must be entered at once
or lost fore#er" -t is here in the actual situation of work and play of lo#e
and need and not in some farDoff better time and place that the crisis is
reached and passed the issue settled and the record closed"
These #iews though here stated in language that has theological
o#ertones are not confined to adherents of $udaism or &hristianity"
They are characteristically 'estern #iews of the human condition" That
they can be put in words reminiscent of the Bible indicates that the
representation of man in 'estern literature is indeed conditioned by
biblical literature"
H" ;rady 9a#is
Ed"
Old Testament canon te)ts and #ersions
The canon
The term canon from a HebrewD;reek word meaning a cane or
measuring rod passed into &hristian usage as a norm or a rule of faith"
The &hurch ,athers of the Eth century &E first employed it in reference
to the definiti#e authoritati#e nature of the body of sacred <cripture"
The Hebrew canon
The Hebrew Bible is often known among $ews as Ta!aCh an acronym
deri#ed from the names of its three di#isions: Torah *-nstruction or 7aw
also called the 6entateuch+ !e#i=im *6rophets+ and Cetu#im
*'ritings+"
The Torah contains fi#e books: ;enesis E)odus 7e#iticus !umbers
and 9euteronomy" The !e#i=im comprise eight books subdi#ided into
the ,ormer 6rophets containing the four historical works $oshua
$udges <amuel and Cings and the 7atter 6rophets the oracular
discourses of -saiah $eremiah E:ekiel and the Twel#e *5inor%i.e.,
smaller+ 6rophets%Hosea $oel Amos Obadiah $onah 5icah !ahum
Habakkuk Fephaniah Haggai Fechariah and 5alachi" The Twel#e
were all formerly written on a single scroll and thus reckoned as one
book" The Cetu#im consist of religious poetry and wisdom literature%
6salms 6ro#erbs and $ob a collection known as the G,i#e 5egillotH
*GscrollsH; i.e., <ong of <ongs >uth 7amentations Ecclesiastes and
Esther which ha#e been grouped together according to the annual cycle
of their public reading in the synagogue+%and the books of 9aniel E:ra
and !ehemiah and &hronicles"
The number of books
The number of books in the Hebrew canon is thus /E referring to the
sum of the separate scrolls on which these works were traditionally
written in ancient times" This figure is first cited in -- Esdras in a
passage usually dated c. A88 &E and is fre0uently mentioned in rabbinic
*postbiblical+ literature but no authentic tradition e)ists to e)plain it"
$osephus a Ast century &E $ewish historian and some of the &hurch
,athers such as Origen *the great ?rdDcentury Ale)andrian theologian+
appear to ha#e had a //Dbook canon"
English Bibles list ?I books for the Old Testament because of the
practice of bisecting <amuel Cings and &hronicles and of counting
E:ra !ehemiah and the A/ 5inor 6rophets as separate books"
The tripartite canon
The threefold nature of the Hebrew Bible *the 7aw the 6rophets and
the 'ritings+ is reflected in the literature of the period of the <econd
Temple *4th@Ast centuries B&E+ and soon after it" The earliest reference
is that of the $ewish wisdom writer Ben <ira *flourished A28@A.1 B&E+
who speaks of Gthe law of the 5ost High " " " the wisdom of all the
ancients and " " " prophecies"H His grandson *c. A?/ B&E+ in the prologue
to Ben <ira=s work mentions Gthe law and the prophets and the others
that followed themH the latter also called Gthe other books of our
fathers"H The same tripartite di#ision finds e)pression in -- 5accabees
the writings of 6hilo a Hellenistic $ewish philosopher and $osephus a
Hellenistic $ewish historian as well as in the ;ospel According to 7uke"
The tripartite canon represents the three historic stages in the growth of
the canon"
The history of canoni:ation
Because no e)plicit or reliable traditions concerning the criteria of
canonicity the canoni:ing authorities the periods in which they li#ed
or the procedure adopted ha#e been preser#ed no more than a plausible
reconstruction of the successi#e stages in#ol#ed can be pro#ided" ,irst
it must be obser#ed that sanctity and canoni:ation are not synonymous
terms" The first condition must ha#e e)isted before the second could
ha#e been formally conferred" !e)t the collection and organi:ation of a
number of sacred te)ts into a canoni:ed corpus *body of writings+ is
0uite a different problem from that of the growth and formation of the
indi#idual books themsel#es"
!o longer are there compelling reasons to assume that the history of the
canon must ha#e commenced #ery late in -srael=s history as was once
accepted" The emergence in 5esopotamia already in the second half of
the /nd millennium B&E of a standardi:ed body of literature arranged
in a more or less fi)ed order and with some kind of official te)t
e)presses the notion of a canon in its secular sense" Because Babylonian
and Assyrian patterns fre0uently ser#ed as the models for imitation
throughout the !ear East sacred documents in -srael may well ha#e
been carefully stored in temples and palaces particularly if they were
used in connection with the cult or studied in the priestly or wisdom
schools" The in(unction to deposit the two tables of the 9ecalogue *Ten
&ommandments+ inside the ark of the co#enant and the book of the
Torah beside it and the chance find of a book of the Torah in the Temple
in 4// B&E tend to confirm the e)istence of such a practice in -srael"
The di#isions of the Ta!aCh
The Torah
The history of the canoni:ation of the Torah as a book must be
distinguished from the process by which the heterogeneous components
of the literature as such de#eloped and were accepted as sacred"
The Book of the &hronicles composed c. E88 B&E fre0uently refers to
the GTorah of 5osesH and e)hibits a familiarity with all the fi#e books of
the 6entateuch" The earliest record of the reading of a GTorah bookH; is
pro#ided by the narrati#e describing the reformation instituted by Cing
$osiah of $udah in 4// B&E following the fortuitous disco#ery of a Gbook
of the TorahH during the reno#ation of the Temple" The reading of the
book *probably 9euteronomy+ followed by a national co#enant
ceremony is generally interpreted as ha#ing constituted a formal act of
canoni:ation"
Between this date and E88 B&E the only other ceremony of Torah
reading is that described in !ehemiah as ha#ing taken place on the
autumnal !ew Jear festi#al" The Gbook of the Torah of 5osesH is
mentioned and the emphasis is on its instruction and e)position" The
<amaritans the descendants of -sraelites intermarried with foreigners
in the old northern kingdom that fell in .// B&E became hostile to the
$udaeans in the time of E:ra and !ehemiah *4th@1th centuries B&E+"
They would not likely ha#e accepted the Torah which they did along
with the tradition of its 5osaic origin if it had only recently been
canoni:ed under the authority of their archDenemies" The final redaction
and canoni:ation of the Torah book therefore most likely took place
during the Babylonian E)ile *4th@1th centuries B&E+"
The !e#i=im
The model of the 6entateuch probably encouraged the assemblage and
ordering of the literature of the prophets" The E)ile of the $ews to
Bablylonia in 12.3124 and the restoration half a century later enhanced
the prestige of the prophets as national figures and aroused interest in
the written records of their teachings" The canoni:ation of the !e#i=im
could not ha#e taken place before the <amaritan schism that occurred
during the time of E:ra and !ehemiah since nothing of the prophetical
literature was known to the <amaritans" On the other hand the
prophetic canon must ha#e been closed by the time the ;reeks had
displaced the 6ersians as the rulers of 6alestine in the late Eth century
B&E" The e)clusion of 9aniel would otherwise be ine)plicable as would
also the omission of &hronicles and E:ra@!ehemiah e#en though they
supplement and continue the narrati#e of the ,ormer 6rophets"
,urthermore the books of the 7atter 6rophets contain no hint of the
downfall of the 6ersian Empire and the rise of the ;reeks e#en though
the succession of great powers in the East plays a ma(or role in their
theological interpretation of history" Their language too is entirely free
of ;recisms"
These phenomena accord with the traditions of $osephus and rabbinic
sources limiting the acti#ities of the literary prophets to the 6ersian era"
The Cetu#im
That the formation of the Cetu#im as a corpus was not completed until a
#ery late date is e#idenced by the absence of a fi)ed name or indeed
any real name for the third di#ision of <cripture" Ben <ira refers to Gthe
other books of our fathersH Gthe rest of the booksH; 6hilo speaks simply
of Gother writingsH and $osephus of Gthe remaining books"H A
widespread practice of entitling the entire <criptures Gthe Torah and the
6rophetsH indicates a considerable hiatus between the canoni:ation of
the 6rophets and the Cetu#im" ;reek words are to be found in the <ong
of <ongs and in 9aniel which also refers to the disintegration of the
;reek Empire" Ben <ira omits mention of 9aniel and Esther" !o
fragments of Esther ha#e turned up among the biblical scrolls *e.g., the
9ead <ea <crolls+ from the $udaean 9esert" >abbinic sources betray
some hesitation about Esther and a decided ambi#alence about the book
of Ben <ira" A third generation Babylonian amora *rabbinical
interpreti#e scholar; pl" amoraim+ actually cites it as GCetu#imH as
opposed to Torah and 6rophets and in the midD/nd century &E the
need to deny its canonicity and prohibit its reading was still felt"
9ifferences of opinion also are recorded among the tannaim *rabbinical
scholars of tradition who compiled the 5ishna or Oral 7aw+ and
amoraim *who created the Talmud or ;emara+ about the canonical
status of 6ro#erbs <ong of <ongs Ecclesiastes and Esther"
All this indicates a prolonged state of fluidity in respect of the
canoni:ation of the Cetu#im" A synod at $abneh *c. A88 &E+ seems to
ha#e ruled on the matter but it took a generation or two before their
decisions came to be unanimously accepted and the Cetu#im regarded
as being definiti#ely closed" The destruction of the $ewish state in .8
&E the breakdown of central authority and the e#er widening 9iaspora
*collecti#ely $ews dispersed to foreign lands+ all contributed to the
urgent necessity of pro#iding a closed and authoritati#e corpus of
sacred <criptures"
The <amaritan canon
As has been mentioned the <amaritans accepted the 6entateuch from
the $ews" They know of no other section of the Bible howe#er and did
not e)pand their 6entateuchal canon e#en by the inclusion of any
strictly <amaritan compositions"
The Ale)andrian canon
The Old Testament as it has come down in ;reek translation from the
$ews of Ale)andria #ia the &hristian &hurch differs in many respects
from the Hebrew <criptures" The books of the second and third di#isions
ha#e been redistributed and arranged according to categories of
literature%history poetry wisdom and prophecy" Esther and 9aniel
contain supplementary materials and many noncanonical books
whether of Hebrew or ;reek origin ha#e been interspersed with the
canonical works" These e)tracanonical writings comprise - Esdras the
'isdom of <olomon Ecclesiasticus *Ben <ira+ Additions to Esther
$udith Tobit Baruch the Epistle of $eremiah and additions to 9aniel as
listed in the manuscript known as &ode) Baticanus *c. ?18 &E+" The
se0uence of the books #aries howe#er in the manuscripts and in the
patristic and synodic lists of the Eastern and 'estern churches some of
which include other books as well such as - and -- 5accabees"
-t should be noted that the contents and form of the inferred original
Ale)andrian $ewish canon cannot be ascertained with certainty because
all e)tant ;reek Bibles are of &hristian origin" The $ews of Ale)andria
may themsel#es ha#e e)tended the canon they recei#ed from 6alestine
or they may ha#e inherited their traditions from 6alestinian circles in
which the additional books had already been regarded as canonical" -t is
e0ually possible that the additions to the Hebrew <criptures in the
;reek Bible are of &hristian origin"
The canon at Kumran"
-n the collection of manuscripts from the $udaean 9esert%disco#ered
from the AIE8s on%there are no lists of canonical works and no codices
*manuscript #olumes+ only indi#idual scrolls" ,or these reasons nothing
can be known with certainty about the contents and se0uence of the
canon of the Kumran sectarians" <ince fragments of all the books of the
Hebrew Bible *e)cept Esther+ ha#e been found it may be assumed that
this reflects the minimum e)tent of its canon" The situation is
complicated by the presence in Kumran of e)tracanonical works%some
already known from the Apocrypha *soDcalled hidden books not
accepted as canonical by $udaism and the church+ and pseudepigrapha
*books falsely ascribed to biblical authors+ or from the &airo ;eni:a
*synagogue storeroom+ and others entirely new" <ome or all of these
additional works may ha#e been considered canonical by the members
of the sect" -t is significant howe#er that so far pesharim
*interpretations+ ha#e been found only on books of the traditional
Hebrew canon" <till the great 6salms scroll departs from the recei#ed
Hebrew te)t in both se0uence and contents" -f the 6salms scroll were a
canonical 6salter and not a liturgy then e#idence would indeed be
forthcoming for the e)istence of a ri#al canon at Kumran"
The &hristian canon
The &hristian &hurch recei#ed its Bible from ;reekDspeaking $ews and
found the ma(ority of its early con#erts in the Hellenistic world" The
;reek Bible of Ale)andria thus became the official Bible of the &hristian
community and the o#erwhelming number of 0uotations from the
Hebrew <criptures in the !ew Testament are deri#ed from it" 'hate#er
the origin of the Apocryphal books in the canon of Ale)andria these
became part of the &hristian <criptures but there seems to ha#e been
no unanimity as to their e)act canonical status" The !ew Testament
itself does not cite the Apocryphal books directly but occasional traces
of a knowledge of them are to be found" The Apostolic ,athers *late Ast@
early /nd centuries+ show e)tensi#e familiarity with this literature but a
list of the Old Testament books by 5elito bishop of <ardis in Asia
5inor */nd century+ does not include the additional writings of the
;reek Bible and Origen *c. A21@c. /1E+ e)plicitly describes the Old
Testament canon as comprising only // books"
,rom the time of Origen on the &hurch ,athers who were familiar with
Hebrew differentiated theoretically at least the Apocryphal books from
those of the Old Testament though they used them freely" -n the <yrian
East until the .th century the &hurch had only the books of the Hebrew
canon with the addition of Ecclesiasticus or the 'isdom of $esus the
son of <ira *but without &hronicles E:ra and !ehemiah+" -t also
incorporated the 'isdom of <olomon Baruch the 7etter of $eremiah
and the additions to 9aniel" The 4thDcentury manuscript of the 6eshitta
*<yriac #ersion+ known as &ode) Ambrosianus also has --- and -B
5accabees -- *sometimes -B+ Esdras and $osephus= Wars B--"
Early councils of the African &hurch held at Hippo *?I?+ and &arthage
*?I. EAI+ affirmed the use of the Apocryphal books as <cripture" -n the
Eth century also Athanasius chief theologian of &hristian orthodo)y
differentiated Gcanonical booksH from both Gthose that are readH by
&hristians only and the GApocryphal booksH re(ected alike by $ews and
&hristians" -n the preparation of a standard 7atin #ersion the biblical
scholar $erome *c. ?E.@EAI3E/8+ separated Gcanonical booksH from
Gecclesiastical booksH *i.e., the Apocryphal writings+ which he regarded
as good for spiritual edification but not authoritati#e <cripture" A
contrary #iew of Augustine *?1E@E?8+ one of the greatest 'estern
theologians pre#ailed howe#er and the works remained in the 7atin
Bulgate #ersion" The Decretum Gelasianum, a 7atin document of
uncertain authorship but recogni:ed as reflecting the #iews of the
>oman &hurch at the beginning of the 4th century includes Tobit
$udith the 'isdom of <olomon Ecclesiasticus and - and -- 5accabees
as biblical"
Throughout the 5iddle Ages the Apocryphal books were generally
regarded as Holy <cripture in the >oman and ;reek churches although
theoretical doubts were raised from time to time" Thus in A??? !icholas
of 7yra a ,rench ,ranciscan theologian had discussed the differences
between the 7atin Bulgate and the GHebrew truth"H &hristianD$ewish
polemics the increasing attention to Hebrew studies and finally the
>eformation kept the issue of the &hristian canon ali#e" 6rotestants
denied canonical status to all books not in the Hebrew Bible" The first
modern #ernacular Bible to segregate the disputed writings was a 9utch
#ersion by $acob #an 7ies#eldt *Antwerp A1/4+" 7uther=s ;erman
edition of A1?E did the same thing and entitled them GApocryphaH for
the first time noting that while they were not in e0ual esteem with
sacred <criptures they were edifying"
-n response to 6rotestant #iews the >oman &atholic church made its
position clear at the &ouncil of Trent *A1E4+ when it dogmatically
affirmed that the entire 7atin Bulgate en(oyed e0ual canonical status"
This doctrine was confirmed by the Batican &ouncil of A2.8" -n the
;reek &hurch the <ynod of $erusalem *A4./+ had e)pressly designated
as canonical se#eral Apocryphal works" -n the AIth century howe#er
>ussian Orthodo) theologians agreed to e)clude these works from the
Holy <criptures"
The history of the Old Testament canon in the English &hurch has
generally reflected a more restricti#e #iewpoint" E#en though the
'ycliffite Bible *AEth century+ included the Apocrypha its preface made
it clear that it accepted $erome=s (udgment" The translation made by the
English bishop 5iles &o#erdale *A1?1+ was the first English #ersion to
segregate these books but it did place Baruch after $eremiah" Article B-
of the ThirtyDnine Articles of religion of the &hurch of England *A14/+
e)plicitly denied their #alue for the establishment of doctrine although
it admitted that they should be read for their didactic worth" The first
Bible in English to e)clude the Apocrypha was the ;ene#a Bible of A1II"
The Cing $ames Bersion of A4AA placed it between the Old and !ew
Testaments" -n A4A1 Archbishop ;eorge Abbot forbade the issuance of
Bibles without the Apocrypha but editions of the Cing $ames Bersion
from A4?8 on often omitted it from the bound copies" The ;ene#a Bible
edition of A4E8 was probably the first to be intentionally printed in
England without the Apocrypha followed in A4E/ by the Cing $ames
Bersion" -n A4EE the 7ong 6arliament actually forbade the public
reading of these books and three years later the 'estminster
&onfession of the 6resbyterians decreed them to be no part of the
canon" The British and ,oreign Bible <ociety in A2/. resol#ed ne#er to
print or circulate copies containing the Apocrypha" 5ost English
6rotestant Bibles in the /8th century ha#e omitted the disputed books
or ha#e them as a separate #olume e)cept in library editions in which
they are included with the Old and !ew Testaments"
Te)ts and #ersions
Te)tual criticism: manuscript problems
The te)t of the Hebrew printed Bible consists of consonants #owel
signs and cantillation *musical or tonal+ marks" The two latter
components are the product of the school of 5asoretes *Traditionalists+
that flourished in Tiberias *in 6alestine+ between the .th and Ith
centuries &E" The history of the bare consonantal te)t stretches back
into hoary anti0uity and can be only partially traced"
The earliest printed editions of the Hebrew Bible deri#e from the last
0uarter of the A1th century and the first 0uarter of the A4th century" The
oldest 5asoretic codices stem from the end of the Ith century and the
beginning of the A8th" A comparison of the two shows that no te)tual
de#elopments took place during the inter#ening 488 years" A single
standardi:ed recension en(oyed an absolute monopoly and was
transmitted by the scribes with ama:ing fidelity" !ot one of the
medie#al Hebrew manuscripts and none of the thousands of fragments
preser#ed in the &airo ;eni:a *synagogue storeroom+ contains
departures of any real significance from the recei#ed te)t"
This situation howe#er was a relati#ely late de#elopment; there is
much e#idence for the e)istence of a period when more than one
Hebrew te)tDform of a gi#en book was current" -n fact both the #ariety
of witnesses and the degree of te)tual di#ergence between them
increase in proportion to their anti0uity"
!o single e)planation can satisfactorily account for this phenomenon" -n
the case of some biblical literature there e)ists the real possibility
though it cannot be pro#en that it must ha#e endured a long period of
oral transmission before its committal to writing" -n the inter#al the
material might well ha#e undergone abridgement amplification and
alteration at the hands of transmitters so that not only would the
original ha#e been transformed but the process of transmission would
ha#e engendered more than one recension from the #ery beginning of
its written literary career"
The problem is complicated further by the great difference in time
between the autograph *original writing+ of a biblical work e#en when it
assumed written form from its inception and its oldest e)tant
e)emplars" -n some instances this may amount to well o#er a thousand
years of scribal acti#ity" 'hate#er the inter#al the possibility of
inad#ertent and deliberate change something that affects all
manuscript copying was always present"
The e#idence that such indeed took place is rich and #aried" ,irst there
are numerous di#ergences between the many passages duplicated
within the Hebrew Bible itself%e.g., the parallels between <amuel@
Cings and &hronicles" Then there are the citations of the Old Testament
to be found in the books of the Apocrypha and apocalyptic literature
*works describing the inter#ention of ;od in history in cryptic terms+ in
the works of 6hilo and $osephus in the !ew Testament and in rabbinic
and patristic *early &hurch ,athers+ literature" There are also rabbinic
traditions about the te)tDcritical acti#ities of the scribes *soferim+ in
<econd Temple times" These tell of di#ergent readings in Temple scrolls
of the 6entateuch of official Gbook correctorsH in $erusalem of te)tual
emendations on the part of scribes and of the utili:ation of sigla *signs
or abbre#iations+ for marking suspect readings and disarranged #erses"
The <amaritan 6entateuch and the preD5asoretic #ersions of the Old
Testament made directly from Hebrew originals are all replete with
di#ergences from current 5asoretic Bibles" ,inally the scrolls from the
$udaean 9esert especially those from the ca#es of Kumran ha#e
pro#ided at least illustrations of many of the scribal processes by
which de#iant te)ts came into being" The #ariants and their respecti#e
causes may be classified as follows: aurally conditioned #isual in origin
e)egetical and deliberate"
6roblems resulting from aural conditioning
Aural conditioning would result from a mishearing of similar sounding
consonants when a te)t is dictated to the copyist" A negati#e particle
lo', for e)ample could be confused with the prepositional lo, Gto himH
or a guttural het with spirant kaf so that ah GbrotherH might be written
for akh Gsurely"H
6roblems #isual in origin
The confusion of graphically similar letters whether in the paleoD
Hebrew or Aramaic script is another cause for #ariations" Thus the
prepositions bet *GinH+ and kaf *GlikeH+ are interchanged in the
5asoretic and 9ead <ea <croll te)ts of -saiah"
The order of letters also might be in#erted" <uch metathesis as it is
called appears in 6salms in which qirbam *Gtheir inward thoughtsH+
stands for qibram *Gtheir gra#eH+"
9ittography or the inad#ertent duplication of one or more letters or
words also occurs as for e)ample in the 9ead <ea <croll te)t of -saiah
and in the 5asoretic te)t of E:ekiel"
Haplography or the accidental omission of a letter or word that occurs
twice in close pro)imity can be found for e)ample in the 9ead <ea
<croll te)t of -saiah"
Homoeoteleuton occurs when two separate phrases or lines ha#e
identical endings and the copyist=s eye slips from one to the other and
omits the inter#ening words" A comparison of the 5asoretic te)t -
<amuel chapter AE #erse EA with the <eptuagint and the Bulgate
#ersions clearly identifies such an aberration"
E)egetical problems
This third category does not in#ol#e any consonantal alteration but
results solely from the different possibilities inherent in the consonantal
spelling" Thus the lack of #owel signs may permit the word DBR to be
read as a #erb DiBeR *Ghe spokeH as in the 5asoretic te)t of Hosea+ or
as a noun DeBaR *Gthe word ofH as in the <eptuagint+" The absence of
word di#iders could lead to different di#isions of the consonants" Thus
BBQRYM in Amos could be understood as either BaBeQaRYM *Gwith
o)enH as in the 5asoretic te)t+ or as BaBaQaR YaM *Gthe sea with an
o)H+" The incorrect solution by later copyists of abbre#iations is another
source of error" That such occurred is pro#ed by a comparison of the
Hebrew te)t with the <eptuagint #ersion in for e)ample -- <amuel
chapter A #erse A/; E:ekiel chapter A/ #erse /?; and Amos chapter ?
#erse I"
9eliberate changes
Apart from mechanical alterations of a te)t many #ariants must ha#e
been consciously introduced by scribes some by way of glossing%i.e.,
the insertion of a more common word to e)plain a rare one%and others
by e)planatory comments incorporated into the te)t" ,urthermore a
scribe who had before him two manuscripts of a single work containing
#ariant readings and unable to decide between them might incorporate
both readings into his scroll and thus create a conflate te)t"
Te)tual criticism: scholarly problems
The situation so far described poses two ma(or scholarly problems" The
first in#ol#es the history of the Hebrew te)t the second deals with
attempts to reconstruct its GoriginalH form"
As to when and how a single te)t type gained hegemony and then
displaced all others it is clear that the early and widespread public
reading of the <criptures in the synagogues of 6alestine Ale)andria
and Babylon was bound to lead to a heightened sensiti#ity of the idea of
a GcorrectH te)t and to gi#e prestige to the particular te)t form selected
for reading" Also the natural conser#atism of ritual would tend to
perpetuate the form of such a te)t" The etter of !risteas, a document
deri#ed from the middle of the /nd century B&E that describes the
origin of the <eptuagint recogni:es the distinction between carelessly
copied scrolls of the 6entateuch and an authoritati#e Temple scroll in
the hands of the high priest in $erusalem" The >abbinic traditions *see
abo#e+ about the te)tual criticism of TempleDbased scribes actually
reflect a mo#ement towards the final stabili:ation of the te)t in the
<econd Temple period" $osephus writing not long after .8 &E boasts of
the e)istence of a longDstanding fi)ed te)t of the $ewish <criptures" The
loss of national independence and the destruction of the spiritual centre
of $ewry in .8 accompanied by an e#erDwidening 9iaspora and the
&hristian schism within $udaism all made the e)clusi#e dissemination
of a single authoritati#e te)t a #itally needed cohesi#e force" The te)t
type later known as 5asoretic is already well represented at preD
&hristian Kumran" <crolls from 'adi alD5urabba=at !ahal Fe=elim and
5asada from the /nd century &E are practically identical with the
recei#ed te)t that by then had gained #ictory o#er all its ri#als"
-n regard to an attempt to reco#er the original te)t of a biblical passage
%especially an unintelligible one%in the light of #ariants among
different #ersions and manuscripts and known causes of corruption it
should be understood that all reconstruction must necessarily be
con(ectural and perforce tentati#e because of the irretrie#able loss of
the original edition" But not all te)tual difficulties need presuppose
underlying mutilation" The Hebrew Bible represents but a small portion
of the literature of ancient -srael and hence a limited segment of the
language" A te)tual problem may be the product of present limited
knowledge of ancient Hebrew because scholars might be dealing with
dialectic phenomena or foreign loanDwords" &omparati#e <emitic
linguistic studies ha#e yielded hitherto unrecogni:ed features of
grammar synta) and le)icography that ha#e often eliminated the need
for emendation" ,urthermore each #ersion indeed each biblical book
within it has its own history and the translation techni0ues and
stylistic characteristics must be e)amined and taken into account"
,inally the number of manuscripts that attest to a certain reading is of
less importance than the weight gi#en to a specific manuscript"
!one of this means that a Hebrew manuscript an ancient #ersion or a
con(ectural emendation cannot yield a reading superior to that in the
recei#ed Hebrew te)t" -t does mean howe#er that these tools ha#e to
be employed with great caution and proper methodology"
Te)ts and manuscripts
<ources of the <eptuagint
A ;reek translation of the Old Testament known as the <eptuagint
because there allegedly were .8 or ./ translators si) from each of the
A/ tribes of -srael and designated 7LL is a composite of the work of
many translators labouring for well o#er A88 years" -t was made directly
from Hebrew originals that fre0uently differed considerably from the
present 5asoretic te)t" Apart from other limitations attendant upon the
use of a translation for such purposes the identification of the parent
te)t used by the ;reek translators is still an unsettled 0uestion" The
6entateuch of the <eptuagint manifests a basic coincidence with the
5asoretic te)t" The Kumran scrolls ha#e now pro#en that the
<eptuagint book of <amuel@Cings goes back to an old 6alestinian te)t
tradition that must be earlier than the Eth century B&E and from the
same source comes a short Hebrew recension of $eremiah that probably
underlies the ;reek"
The <amaritan 6entateuch
The importance of the recension known as the <amaritan 6entateuch
lies in the fact that it constitutes an independent Hebrew witness to the
te)t written in a late and de#eloped form of the paleoDHebrew script"
<ome of the E)odus fragments from Kumran demonstrate that it has
close affinities with a preD&hristian 6alestinian te)t type and testify to
the faithfulness with which it has been preser#ed" -t contains about
4888 #ariants from the 5asoretic te)t of which nearly a third agree
with the <eptuagint" Only a minority howe#er are genuine #ariants
most being dogmatic e)egetical grammatical or merely orthographic
in character"
The <amaritan 6entateuch first became known in the 'est through a
manuscript secured in 9amascus in A4A4 by 6ietro della Balle an -talian
tra#eler" -t was published in the 6aris *A4/2@E1+ and 7ondon 6olyglots
*A41E@1.+ written in se#eral languages in comparati#e columns" 5any
manuscripts of the <amaritan 6entateuch are now a#ailable" The A#isha=
<croll the sacred copy of the <amaritans has recently been
photographed and critically e)amined" Only !umbers chapter ?1 to
9euteronomy chapter ?E appears to be #ery old the rest stemming from
the AEth century" A new definiti#e edition of the <amaritan 6entateuch
is being prepared in 5adrid by ," 6Mre: &astro"
The Kumran te)ts and other scrolls
Nntil the disco#ery of the $udaean 9esert scrolls the only preDmedie#al
fragment of the Hebrew Bible known to scholars was the !ash 6apyrus
*c. A18 B&E+ from Egypt containing the 9ecalogue and 9euteronomy"
!ow howe#er fragments of about A28 different manuscripts of biblical
books are a#ailable" Their dates #ary between the ?rd century B&E and
the /nd century &E and all but A8 stem from the ca#es of Kumran" All
are written on either leather or papyrus in columns and on one side only"
The most important manuscripts from what is now identified as &a#e A
of Kumran are a practically complete -saiah scroll *AK-sa
a
+ dated c.
A88@.1 B&E and another #ery fragmentary manuscript *AK-sa
b
+ of the
same book" The first contains many #ariants from the 5asoretic te)t in
both orthography and te)t; the second is #ery close to the 5asoretic
type and contains few genuine #ariants" The richest hoard comes from
&a#e E and includes fragments of fi#e copies of ;enesis eight of
E)odus one of 7e#iticus AE of 9euteronomy two of $oshua three of
<amuel A/ of -saiah four of $eremiah eight of the 5inor 6rophets one
of 6ro#erbs and three of 9aniel" &a#e AA yielded a 6salter containing
the last third of the book in a form different from that of the 5asoretic
te)t as well as a manuscript of 7e#iticus"
The importance of the Kumran scrolls cannot be e)aggerated" Their
great anti0uity brings them close to the Old Testament period itself%
from as early as /18@/88 B&E" ,or the first time Hebrew #ariant te)ts
are e)tant and all known ma(or te)t types are present" <ome are close to
the <eptuagint others to the <amaritan" On the other hand many of the
scrolls are practically identical with the 5asoretic te)t which thus takes
this recension back in history to preD&hristian times" <e#eral te)ts in the
paleoDHebrew script show that this script continued to be used side by
side with the Aramaic script for a long time"
Of 0uite a different order are scrolls from other areas of the $udaean
9esert" All of these are practically identical with the recei#ed te)t" This
applies to fragments of 7e#iticus 9euteronomy E:ekiel and 6salms
disco#ered at 5asada *the $ewish fortress destroyed by the >omans in
&E .?+ as well as to the finds at 'adi alD5urabba=at the latest date of
which is &E A?1" Here were found fragments of ;enesis E)odus
7e#iticus and -saiah in addition to the substantially preser#ed 5inor
6rophets scroll" Bariants from the 5asoretic te)t are negligible" The
same phenomenon characteri:es the fragments of !umbers found at
!ahal He#er"
5asoretic te)ts
!o biblical manuscripts ha#e sur#i#ed from the si) centuries that
separate the latest of the $udaean 9esert scrolls from the earliest of the
5asoretic period" A G&ode) 5ugahH fre0uently referred to as an
authority in the early A8th century and the G&ode) HilleliH said to ha#e
been written c. 488 by >abbi Hillel ben 5oses ben Hillel ha#e both
#anished"
The earliest e)tant Hebrew Bible code) is the &airo 6rophets written
and punctuated by 5oses ben Asher in Tiberias *in 6alestine+ in 2I1"
!e)t in age is the 7eningrad &ode) of the 7atter 6rophets dated to IA4
which was not originally the work of Ben Asher but its Babylonian
pointing%i.e., #owel signs used for pronunciation purposes%was
brought into line with the Tiberian 5asoretic system"
The outstanding e#ent in the history of that system was the production
of the model soDcalled Aleppo &ode) now in $erusalem" 'ritten by
<olomon ben Buya=a it was corrected punctuated and furnished with a
5asoretic apparatus by Aaron ben 5oses ben Asher c. I?8" Originally
containing the entire Old Testament in about ?28 folios of which /IE
are e)tant the Aleppo &ode) remains the only known true
representati#e of Aaron ben Asher=s te)t and the most important
witness to that particular 5asoretic tradition that achie#ed hegemony
throughout $ewry"
Two other notable manuscripts based on Aaron=s system are the
manuscript designated as B5 or" EEE1 which contains most of the
6entateuch and which utili:ed a 5asora *te)t tradition+ c. I18 and the
7eningrad complete Old Testament designated 5<B AIa of A882" &ode)
>euchliana of the 6rophets written in AA81 now in Carlsruhe
*;ermany+ represents the system of 5oses ben 9a#id ben !aphtali
which was more faithful to that of 5oses ben Asher"
&ollations of the 5asoretic materials
The earliest e)tant attempt at collating the differences between the Ben
Asher and Ben !aphtali 5asoretic traditions was made by 5ishael ben
N::iel in his "itaG Gi#$ulaf *before A818+" A #ast amount of 5asoretic
information drawn chiefly from <panish manuscripts is to be found in
the te)tDcritical commentary known as Minhath %hai, by <olomon
$edidiah !or:i completed in A4/4 and printed in the 5antua Bible of
A.E/" Ben(amin Cennicott collected the #ariants of 4A1 manuscripts and
1/ printed editions */ #ol" A..4@28 O)ford+" ;io#anni Bernado 9e
>ossi published his additional collections of .?A manuscripts and ?88
prints *E #ol" A.2E@22 6arma+ and &"9" ;insburg did the same for .8
manuscripts largely from the British 5useum and A. early printed
editions *? #ol" in E AI82@/4 7ondon+"
6rinted editions
Nntil AE22 only separate parts of the Hebrew Bible had been printed
all with rabbinic commentaries" The earliest was the 6salms *AE..+
followed by the 6entateuch *AE2/+ the 6rophets *AE21324+ and the
Hagiographa *AE2432.+ all printed in -taly"
The first edition of the entire Hebrew Bible was printed at <oncino *in
-taly+ in AE22 with punctuation and accents but without any
commentary" The second complete Bible was printed in !aples in
AEIA3I? and the third in Brescia in AEIE" All these editions were the
work of $ews" The first &hristian production was a magnificent
&omplutensian 6olyglot *under the direction of &ardinal ,rancisco
$imMne: of <pain+ in si) #olumes four of which contained the Hebrew
Bible and ;reek and 7atin translations together with the Aramaic
rendering *Targum+ of the 6entateuch that has been ascribed to
Onkelos" 6rinted at Alcala *A1AE@A.+ and circulated about A1// this
Bible pro#ed to be a turning point in the study of the Hebrew te)t in
western Europe"
The first rabbinic Bible%i.e., the Hebrew te)t furnished with full #owel
points and accents accompanied by the Aramaic Targums and the ma(or
medie#al $ewish commentaries%was edited by ,eli) 6ratensis and
published by 9aniel Bomberg *Benice A1A43A.+" The second edition
edited by $acob ben Hayyim ibn Adoni(ah and issued by Bomberg in four
#olumes *Benice A1/E3/1+ became the prototype of future Hebrew
Bibles down to the /8th century" -t contained a #ast te)tDcritical
apparatus of 5asoretic notes ne#er since e0ualled in any edition"
Nnfortunately Ben Hayyim had made use of late manuscripts and the
te)t and notes are eclectic"
-n 7ondon &hristian 9a#id ;insburg an emigrant 6olish $ew and
&hristian con#ert produced a critical edition of the complete Hebrew
Bible *A2IE AI82 AI/4+ re#ised according to the 5asora and early
prints with #ariant readings from manuscripts and ancient #ersions" -t
was soon displaced by the Biblica $ebraica *AI84 AIA/+ by >udolf
Cittel and 6aul Cahle two ;erman biblical scholars" The third edition of
this work completed by Albrecht Alt and Otto Eissfeldt *<tuttgart
AI?.+ finally abandoned Ben Hayyim=s te)t substituting that of the
7eningrad &ode) *B AIa+" -t has a dual critical apparatus with te)tual
emendations separated from the manuscript and #ersional #ariants"
<ince AI1. #ariants from the soDcalled $udaean 9esert scrolls ha#e been
included" -n progress at the Hebrew Nni#ersity of $erusalem in the early
AI.8s was the preparation of a new te)t of the entire Hebrew Bible
based on the Aleppo &ode) to include all its own 5asoretic notes
together with te)tual differences found in all pertinent sources" A
sample edition of the Book of -saiah appeared in AI41"
Early #ersions
The Aramaic Targums
-n the course of the 1th and 4th centuries B&E Aramaic became the
official language of the 6ersian Empire" -n the succeeding centuries it
was used as the #ernacular o#er a wide area and was increasingly
spoken by the poste)ilic $ewish communities of 6alestine and elsewhere
in the 9iaspora" -n response to liturgical needs the institution of a
turgeman *or meturgeman, GtranslatorH+ arose in the synagogues"
These men translated the Torah and prophetic lectionaries into Aramaic"
The rendering remained for long solely an oral impromptu e)ercise but
gradually by dint of repetition certain #erbal forms and phrases
became fi)ed and e#entually committed to writing"
There are se#eral Targums *translations+ of the 6entateuch" The
Babylonian Targum is known as GOnkelosH named after its reputed
author" The Targum is 6alestinian in origin but it was early transferred
to Babylon where it was re#ised and achie#ed great authority" At a later
date probably not before the Ith century &E it was reDe)ported to
6alestine to displace other local Targums" On the whole Onkelos is
0uite literal but it shows a tendency to obscure e)pressions attributing
human form and feelings to ;od" -t also usually faithfully reflects
rabbinic e)egesis"
The most famous of the 6alestinian Targums is that popularly known as
G$onathanH a name deri#ed from a AEthDcentury scribal mistake that
sol#ed a manuscript abbre#iation GT$H as GTargum $onathanH instead of
GTargum $erusalem"H -n contrast with two other Targums which are
highly fragmentary *$erusalem -- and ---+ 6seudoD$onathan *or
$erusalem -+ is #irtually complete" -t is a composite of the Old
6alestinian Targum and an early #ersion of Onkelos with an admi)ture
of material from di#erse periods" -t contains much rabbinic material as
well as homiletic and didactic amplifications" There is e#idence of great
anti0uity but also much late material indicating that 6seudoD$onathan
could not ha#e recei#ed its present form before the -slamic period"
Another e)tant Aramaic #ersion is the Targum to the <amaritan
6entateuch" -t is less literal than the $ewish Targums and its te)t was
ne#er officially fi)ed"
The Targum to the 6rophets also originated in 6alestine and recei#ed its
final editing in Babylonia" -t is ascribed to $onathan ben N::iel a pupil
of Hillel the famous Ast century B&E@Ast century &E rabbinic sage
though it is in fact a composite work of #arying ages" -n its present form
it discloses a dependence on Onkelos though it is less literal"
The Aramaic renderings of the Hagiographa are relati#ely late
productions none of them antedating the 1th century &E"
The <eptuagint *7LL+
The story of the ;reek translation of the 6entateuch is told in the etter
of !risteas, which purports to be a contemporary document written by
Aristeas a ;reek official at the Egyptian court of 6tolemy --
6hiladelphus */21@/E4 B&E+" -t recounts how the law of the $ews was
translated into ;reek by $ewish scholars sent from $erusalem at the
re0uest of the king"
This narrati#e repeated in one form or another by 6hilo and rabbinic
sources is full of inaccuracies that pro#e that the author was an
Ale)andrian $ew writing well after the e#ents he described had taken
place" The <eptuagint 6entateuch which is all that is discussed does
howe#er constitute an independent corpus within the ;reek Bible and
it was probably first translated as a unit by a company of scholars in
Ale)andria about the middle of the ?rd century B&E"
The <eptuagint as the entire ;reek Bible came to be called has a long
and comple) history and took well o#er a century to be completed" -t is
for this reason not a unified or consistent translation" The <eptuagint
became the instrument whereby the basic teachings of $udaism were
mediated to the pagan world and it became an indispensable factor in
the spread of &hristianity"
The adoption of the <eptuagint as the Bible of the &hristians naturally
engendered suspicion on the part of $ews" -n addition the emergence of
a single authoritati#e te)t type after the destruction of the Temple made
the great differences between it and the <eptuagint increasingly
intolerable and the need for a ;reek translation based upon the current
Hebrew te)t in circulation was felt"
The #ersion of A0uila
About A?8 &E A0uila a con#ert to $udaism from 6ontus in Asia 5inor
translated the Hebrew Bible into ;reek under the super#ision of >abbi
Akiba" E)ecuted with sla#ish literalness it attempted to reproduce the
most minute detail of the original e#en to the e)tent of coining
deri#ations from ;reek roots to correspond to Hebrew usage" 7ittle of it
has sur#i#ed howe#er e)cept in 0uotations fragments of the He)apla
*see &rigen's $e'apla, below+ and palimpsests *parchments erased and
used again+ from the &airo ;eni:a"
The re#ision of Theodotion
A second re#ision of the ;reek te)t was made by Theodotion *of
unknown origins+ late in the /nd century though it is not entirely clear
whether it was the <eptuagint or some other ;reek #ersion that
underlay his re#ision" The new rendering was characteri:ed by a
tendency toward #erbal consistency and much transliteration of Hebrew
words"
The translation of <ymmachus
<till another ;reek translation was made toward the end of the same
century by <ymmachus an otherwise unknown scholar who made use
of his predecessors" His influence was small despite the superior
elegance of his work" $erome did utili:e <ymmachus for his Bulgate but
other than that his translation is known largely through fragments of
the He)apla"
Origen=s He)apla
The multiplication of #ersions doubtless pro#ed to be a source of
increasing confusion in the ?rd century" This situation the Ale)andrian
theologian Origen working at &aesarea between /?8 and /E8 &E
sought to remedy" -n his He)apla *Gsi)DfoldH+ he presented in parallel
#ertical columns the Hebrew te)t the same in ;reek letters and the
#ersions of A0uila <ymmachus the <eptuagint and Theodotion in that
order" -n the case of some books 6salms for instance three more
columns were added" The He)apla ser#es as an important guide to
6alestinian preD5asoretic pronunciation of the language" The main
interest of Origen lay in the fifth column the <eptuagint which he
edited on the basis of the Hebrew" He used the obels * or O+ and asterisk
*P+ to mark respecti#ely words found in the ;reek te)t but not in the
Hebrew and #ice #ersa"
The He)apla was a work of such magnitude that it is unlikely to ha#e
been copied as a whole" Origen himself produced an abbre#iated
edition the Tetrapla containing only the last four columns" The original
manuscript of the He)apla is known to ha#e been e)tant as late as c.
488 &E" Today it sur#i#es only in fragments"
5anuscripts and printed editions of the <eptuagint
The manuscripts are con#eniently classified by papyri uncials *capital
letters+ and minuscules *cursi#e script+" The papyri fragments run into
the hundreds of #arying si:es and importance ranging from the
formati#e period of the <eptuagint through the middle of the .th
century" Two preD&hristian fragments of 9euteronomy from Egypt are of
outstanding significance" Although not written on papyrus but on
parchment or leather the fragments from Kumran of E)odus 7e#iticus
and !umbers and the leather scroll of the 5inor 6rophets from !ahal
He#er from the first preD&hristian and postD&hristian centuries deser#e
special mention among the earliest e)tant" The most important papyri
are those of the &hester Beatty collection which contains parts of AA
codices preser#ing fragments of nine Old Testament books" Their dates
#ary between the /nd and Eth centuries" 9uring the ne)t ?88 years
papyri te)ts multiplied rapidly and remnants of about /88 are known"
The uncials are all codices written on #ellum between the Eth and A8th
centuries" The most outstanding are Baticanus which is an almost
complete EthDcentury Old Testament <inaiticus of the same period but
less complete and the practically complete 1thDcentury Ale)andrinus"
These three originally contained both Testaments" 5any others were
partial manuscripts from the beginning" One of the most #aluable of
these is the &ode) 5archalianus of the 6rophets written in the 4th
century"
The minuscule codices begin to appear in the Ith century" ,rom the AAth
to the A4th century they are the only ones found and nearly A188 ha#e
been recorded"
The first printed <eptuagint was that of the &omplutensian 6olyglot
*A1AE@A.+" <ince it was not released until A1// howe#er the A1A2
Aldine Benice edition actually was a#ailable first" The standard edition
until modern times was that of 6ope <i)tus B A12." -n the AIth and
/8th centuries se#eral critical editions ha#e been printed"
&optic #ersions
The spread of &hristianity among the nonD;reek speaking peasant
communities of Egypt necessitated the translation of the <criptures into
the nati#e tongue *&optic+" These #ersions may be considered to be
wholly &hristian in origin and largely based on the ;reek Bible" They
also display certain affinities with the Old 7atin" !othing certain is
known about the &optic translations e)cept that they probably antedate
the earliest known manuscripts from the end of the ?rd and the
beginning of the Eth centuries &E"
The Armenian #ersion
The Armenian #ersion is an e)pression of a nationalist mo#ement that
brought about a separation from the rest of the &hurch *midD1th
century+ the discontinuance of <yriac in ;reek worship and the
in#ention of a national alphabet by <t" 5esrob also called 5ashtots *c.
?4A@E?I3EE8+" According to tradition <t" 5esrob first translated
6ro#erbs from the <yriac" E)isting manuscripts of the official Armenian
recension howe#er are based on the He)aplaric <eptuagint though
they show some 6eshitta *<yriac #ersion+ influence" The Armenian Bible
is noted for its beauty and accuracy"
The ;eorgian #ersion
According to Armenian tradition the ;eorgian #ersion was also the
work of 5esrob but the 6salter the oldest part of the ;eorgian Old
Testament is probably not earlier than the 1th century" <ome
manuscripts were based upon ;reek #ersions others upon the
Armenian"
The Ethiopic #ersion
The Ethiopic #ersion poses special problems" The earliest Bible probably
was based on ;reek #ersions after Ethiopia had been con#erted to
&hristianity during the Eth and 1th centuries" The earliest e)isting
manuscripts howe#er belong to the A?th century" 5ost manuscripts
from the AEth century on seem to reflect Arabic or &optic influence and
it is not certain whether these represent the original translation or later
ones" 5any readings agree with the Hebrew against the <eptuagint
which may ha#e been caused by a He)aplaric influence"
The ;othic #ersion
The ;othic #ersion was produced in the midDEth century by Nlfilas a
&hristian missionary who also in#ented the ;othic alphabet" -t
constitutes practically all that is left of ;othic literature" The translation
of the Old Testament has entirely disappeared e)cept for fragments of
E:ra and !ehemiah" Though a ;reek base is certain some scholars deny
the attribution of these remnants to Nlfilas"
The Old 7atin #ersion
The e)istence of a 7atin translation can be attested in !orth Africa and
southern ;aul as early as the second half of the /nd century &E and in
>ome at the beginning of the following century" -ts origins may possibly
be attributed to a &hristian adoption of biblical #ersions made by $ews
in the >oman pro#ince of Africa where the #ernacular was e)clusi#ely
7atin" Only portions or 0uotations from it howe#er ha#e been
preser#ed and from these it can be assumed that the translation was
made not from Hebrew but from ;reek" ,or this reason the Old 7atin
#ersion is especially #aluable because it reflects the state of the
<eptuagint before Origen=s re#ision" By the ?rd century se#eral 7atin
#ersions circulated and African and European recensions can be
differentiated" 'hether they all di#erged from an original single
translation or e)isted from the beginning independently cannot be
determined" The te)tual confusion and the #ulgar and collo0uial nature
of the Old 7atin recension had become intolerable to the church
authorities by the last decade of the Eth century and c. ?2/ 6ope
9amasus decided to remedy the situation"
Bersions after the Eth century
The Bulgate
The task of re#ision fell to Eusebius Hieronymus generally known as <t"
$erome *died EAI3E/8+ whose knowledge of 7atin ;reek and Hebrew
made him the outstanding &hristian biblical scholar of his time"
$erome produced three re#isions of the 6salms all e)tant" The first was
based on the <eptuagint and is known as the >oman 6salter because it
was incorporated into the liturgy at >ome" The second produced in
6alestine from the He)aplaric <eptuagint tended to bring the 7atin
closer to the Hebrew" -ts popularity in ;aul was such that it came to be
known as the ;allican 6salter" This #ersion was later adopted into the
Bulgate" The third re#ision actually a fresh translation was made
directly from the Hebrew but it ne#er en(oyed wide circulation" -n the
course of preparing the latter $erome reali:ed the futility of re#ising the
Old 7atin solely on the basis of the ;reek and apparently left that task
unfinished" By the end of E81 he had e)ecuted his own 7atin translation
of the entire Old Testament based on the GHebrew truthH *$ebraica
(eritas+"
Because of the canonical status of the ;reek #ersion within the church
$erome=s #ersion was recei#ed at first with much suspicion for it
seemed to cast doubt on the authenticity of the <eptuagint and
e)hibited di#ergences from the Old 7atin that sounded discordant to
those familiar with the traditional renderings" Augustine feared a
conse0uent split between the ;reek and 7atin churches" The innate
superiority of $erome=s #ersion howe#er assured its ultimate #ictory
and by the 2th century it had become the 7atin Bulgate *Gthe common
#ersionH+ throughout the churches of 'estern &hristendom where it
remained the chief Bible until the >eformation"
-n the course of centuries of ri#al coe)istence the Old 7atin and
$erome=s Bulgate tended to react upon each other so that the Bulgate
te)t became a composite" Other corruptions%noted in o#er 2888
sur#i#ing manuscripts%crept in as a result of scribal transmission"
<e#eral medie#al attempts were made to purify the Bulgate but with
little success" -n A1E4 the reforming &ouncil of Trent accorded this
#ersion GauthenticH status and the need for a corrected te)t became
immediate especially because printing *introduced in the midDA1th
century+ could ensure at last a stabili:ed te)t" Because the <i)tine
edition of 6ope <i)tus B *A1I8+ did not recei#e widespread support
6ope &lement B--- produced a fresh re#ision in A1I/" This &lementine
te)t remained the official edition of the >oman &hurch" <ince AI8. the
Benedictine Order on the initiati#e of 6ope 6ius L has been preparing a
comprehensi#e edition" By AI4I only the 6rophets still awaited
publication to complete the Old Testament" A year later a papal
commission under &ardinal Augustinus Bea of ;ermany was charged
with the task of preparing a new Gre#ision of the BulgateH taking the
Benedictine edition as its working base"
<yriac #ersions
The Bible of the <yriac &hurches is known as the 6eshitta *GsimpleH
translation+" Though neither the reason for the title nor the origins of
the #ersions are known the earliest translations most likely ser#ed the
needs of the $ewish communities in the region of Adiabene *in
5esopotamia+ which are known to ha#e e)isted as early as the Ast
century &E" This probably e)plains the archaic stratum un0uestionably
present in the 6entateuch 6rophets and 6salms of the 6eshitta as well
as the undoubtedly $ewish influences generally though $ewishD
&hristians also may ha#e been in#ol#ed in the rendering"
The 6eshitta displays great #ariety in its style and in the translation
techni0ues adopted" The 6entateuch is closest to the 5asoretic te)t but
elsewhere there is much affinity with the <eptuagint" This latter
phenomenon might ha#e resulted from later &hristian re#ision"
,ollowing the split in the <yriac &hurch in the 1th century into
!estorian *East <yrian+ and $acobite *'est <yrian+ traditions the
te)tual history of the 6eshitta became bifurcated" Because the !estorian
&hurch was relati#ely isolated its manuscripts are considered to be
superior"
A re#ision of the <yriac translation was made in the early 4th century by
6hilo)enos bishop of 5abbug based on the 7ucianic recension of the
<eptuagint" Another *the <yroDHe)aplaric #ersion+ was made by Bishop
6aul of Tella in 4A. from the He)aplaric te)t of the <eptuagint" A
6alestinian <yriac #ersion e)tant in fragments is known to go back to
at least .88 and a fresh recension was made by $acob of Edessa *died
.82+"
There are many manuscripts of the 6eshitta of which the oldest bears
the date EE/" Only four complete codices are e)tant from between the
1th and A/th centuries" !o critical edition yet e)ists but one is being
prepared by the 6eshitta &ommission of the -nternational Organi:ation
for the <tudy of the Old Testament"
Arabic #ersions
There is no reliable e#idence of any preD-slamic Arabic translation" Only
when large $ewish and &hristian communities found themsel#es under
5uslim rule after the Arab con0uests of the .th century did the need for
an Arabic #ernacular <cripture arise" The first and most important was
that of <a=adia ben $oseph *2I/@IE/+ made directly from Hebrew and
written in Hebrew script which became the standard #ersion for all $ews
in 5uslim countries" The #ersion also e)ercised its influence upon
Egyptian &hristians and its rendering of the 6entateuch was adapted by
Abu alDHasan to the <amaritan Torah in the AAth@A/th centuries"
Another <amaritan Arabic #ersion of the 6entateuch was made by Abu
<a=id *Abu alDBarakat+ in the A?th century" Among other translations
from the Hebrew that of the A8thDcentury Caraite Japhith ibn =Ali is the
most noteworthy"
-n IE4 a <panish &hristian of &Qrdo#a -saac son of BelRs0ue: made a
#ersion of the ;ospels from 7atin" 5anuscripts of A4thDcentury Arabic
translations of both testaments e)ist in 7eningrad and both the 6aris
and 7ondon polyglots of the A.th century included Arabic #ersions" -n
general the Arabic manuscripts re#eal a bewildering #ariety of
renderings dependent on Hebrew ;reek <amaritan <yriac &optic and
7atin translations" As such they ha#e no #alue for critical studies"
<e#eral modern Arabic translations by both 6rotestants and &atholics
were made in the AIth and /8th centuries"
7ater and modern #ersions: English
Cnowledge of the preD'ycliffite English renditions stems from the many
actual manuscripts that ha#e sur#i#ed and from secondary literature
such as booklists wills citations by later authors and references in
polemical works that ha#e preser#ed the memory of many a translation
effort"
AngloD<a)on #ersions
,or about se#en centuries after the con#ersion of England to &hristianity
*beginning in the ?rd century+ the common man had no direct access to
the te)t of the <criptures" -gnorant of 7atin his knowledge was deri#ed
principally from sermons and metrical prose paraphrases and
summaries" The earliest poetic rendering of any part of the Bible is
credited to &aedmon *flourished 412@428+ but only the opening lines of
his poem on the &reation in the !orthumbrian dialect ha#e been
preser#ed"
An actual translation of the 6salter into AngloD<a)on is ascribed to
Aldhelm bishop of <herborne *died .8I+ but nothing has sur#i#ed by
which its true character if it actually e)isted might be determined"
7inguistic considerations alone rule out the possibility that the prose
translation of 6salms A@18 e)tant in the BibliothS0ue !ationale at 6aris
is a .thDcentury production" -n the ne)t century Bede *died .?1+ is said
to ha#e translated parts of the ;ospels and though he knew ;reek and
possibly e#en some Hebrew he does not appear to ha#e applied himself
to the Old Testament"
The outstanding name of the Ith century is that of Cing Alfred the
;reat" He appended to his laws a free translation of the Ten
&ommandments and an abridgment of the enactments of E)odus /A@/?"
These actually constitute the earliest sur#i#ing e)amples of a portion of
the Old Testament in AngloD<a)on prose"
An important step towards the emergence of a true English translation
was the de#elopment of the interlinear gloss a #aluable pedagogic
de#ice for the introduction of youthful members of monastic schools to
the study of the Bible" The Bespasian 6salter is the outstanding
sur#i#ing e)ample of the techni0ue from the Ith century" -n the ne)t
century the 7indisfarne ;ospels written in 7atin c. .88 were glossed in
AngloD<a)on c. I18"
The last significant figure associated with the #ernacular Bible before
the !orman &on0uest was the soDcalled Aelfric the ;rammarian *c. I11@
A8/8+" Though he claimed to ha#e rendered se#eral books into English
his work is more a paraphrase and abridgment than a continuous
translation"
AngloD!orman #ersions
The displacement of the English upper class with the conse0uent
decline of the AngloD<a)on tradition attendant upon the !orman
in#asion arrested for a while the mo#ement toward the production of
the English Bible" 'ithin about 18 years *c. AA/8+ of the &on0uest
Eadwine=s )salterium triple', which contained the 7atin #ersion
accompanied by AngloD!orman and AngloD<a)on renderings appeared"
The contemporary O)ford 6salter achie#ed such influence that it
became the basis of all subse0uent AngloD!orman #ersions" By A?4A a
prose translation of most of <cripture in this dialect had been e)ecuted"
The 'ycliffite #ersions
By the middle of the A?th century the English component in the AngloD
!orman amalgam had begun to assert itself and the close of the century
witnessed a !orthumbrian #ersion of the 6salter made directly from
7atin which because it sur#i#ed in se#eral manuscripts must ha#e
achie#ed relati#ely wide circulation" By the ne)t century English had
gradually superseded ,rench among the upper classes" 'hen the first
complete translation of the Bible into English emerged it became the
ob(ect of #iolent contro#ersy because it was inspired by the heretical
teachings of $ohn 'ycliffe" -ntended for the common man it became the
instrument of opposition to ecclesiastical authority"
The e)act degree of 'ycliffe=s personal in#ol#ement in the <criptures
that came to bear his name is not clear" Because a note containing the
words GHere ends the translation of !icholas of HerefordH is found in a
manuscript copy of the original *and incomplete+ translation it may be
presumed that though there must ha#e been other assistants Hereford
can be credited with o#erall responsibility for most of the translation
and that his summons before a synod in 7ondon and his subse0uent
departure for >ome in A?2/ terminated his participation in the work"
'ho completed it is uncertain"
The 'ycliffite translations encountered increasing ecclesiastical
opposition" -n AE82 a synod of clergy summoned to O)ford by
Archbishop Arundel forbade the translation and use of <cripture in the
#ernacular" The proscription was rigorously enforced but remained
ineffectual" -n the course of the ne)t century the 'ycliffite Bible the
only e)isting English #ersion achie#ed wide popularity as is e#idenced
by the nearly /88 manuscripts e)tant most of them copied between
AE/8 and AE18"
English translations after the >eformation
The translation of 'illiam Tyndale
Because of the influence of printing and a demand for scriptures in the
#ernacular 'illiam Tyndale began working on a !ew Testament
translation directly from the ;reek in A1/?" The work could not be
continued in England because of political and ecclesiastical pressures
and the printing of his translation began in &ologne *in ;ermany+ in
A1/1" Again under pressure this time from the city authorities Tyndale
had to flee to 'orms where two complete editions were published in
A1/1" &opies were smuggled into England where they were at once
proscribed" Of A2888 copies printed *A1/1@/2+ two complete #olumes
and a fragment are all that remain"
'hen the !ew Testament was finished Tyndale began work on the Old
Testament" The 6entateuch was issued in 5arburg in A1?8 each of the
fi#e books being separately published and circulated" Tyndale=s greatest
achie#ement was the ability to strike a felicitous balance between the
needs of scholarship simplicity of e)pression and literary gracefulness
all in a uniform dialect" The effect was the creation of an English style of
Bible translation tinged with Hebraisms that was to ser#e as the model
for all future English #ersions for nearly E88 years"
The translation of 5iles &o#erdale
A change in atmosphere in England found e)pression in a translation
that for all its great significance turned out to be a retrograde step in
the manner of its e)ecution although it pro#ed to be a #indication of
Tyndale=s work" On October E A1?1 the first complete English Bible
the work of 5iles &o#erdale came off the press either in FTrich or in
&ologne" The edition was soon e)hausted" A second impression
appeared in the same year and a third in A1?4" A new edition Go#erseen
and correctedH was published in England by $ames !ycholson in
<outhwark in A1?." Another edition of the same year bore the
announcement Gset forth with the king=s most gracious license"H -n
A1?2 a re#ised edition of &o#erdale=s !ew Testament printed with the
7atin Bulgate in parallel columns issued in England was so full of errors
that &o#erdale promptly arranged for a ri#al corrected #ersion to appear
in 6aris"
The Thomas 5atthew #ersion
-n the same year that &o#erdale=s authori:ed #ersion appeared another
English Bible was issued under royal license and with the
encouragement of ecclesiastical and political power" -t appeared
*AntwerpU+ under the name of Thomas 5atthew but it is certainly the
work of $ohn >ogers a close friend of Tyndale" Although the #ersion
claimed to be Gtruly and purely translated into EnglishH it was in reality
a combination of the labours of Tyndale and &o#erdale" >ogers used the
former=s 6entateuch and A1?1 re#ision of the !ew Testament and the
latter=s translation from E:ra to 5alachi and his Apocrypha" >ogers=
own contribution was primarily editorial"
The ;reat Bible
-n an in(unction of A1?2 Henry B--- commanded the clergy to install in a
con#enient place in e#ery parish church Gone book of the whole Bible of
the largest #olume in English"H The order seems to refer to an
anticipated re#ision of the 5atthew Bible" The first edition was printed
in 6aris and appeared in 7ondon in April A1?I in /188 copies" The huge
page si:e earned it the sobri0uet the ;reat Bible" -t was recei#ed with
immediate and wholehearted enthusiasm"
The first printing was e)hausted within a short while and it went
through si) subse0uent editions between A1E8 and A1EA" GEditionsH is
preferred to GimpressionsH here since the si) successi#e issues were not
identical"
The ;ene#a Bible
The brief efflorescence of the 6rotestant mo#ement during the short
reign of Edward B- *A1E.@1?+ saw the reissue of the <criptures but no
fresh attempts at re#ision" The repressi#e rule of Edward=s successor
5ary a >oman &atholic put an end to the printing of Bibles in England
for se#eral years" Their public reading was proscribed and their
presence in the churches discontinued"
The persecutions of 6rotestants caused the focus of English biblical
scholarship to be shifted abroad where it flourished in greater freedom"
A colony of 6rotestant e)iles led by &o#erdale and $ohn Cno) *the
<cottish >eformer+ and under the influence of $ohn &al#in published
the !ew Testament in A11."
The editors of the ;ene#a Bible *or GBreeches BibleH soDnamed because
of its rendering of the first garments made for Adam and E#e in chapter
three #erse se#en of ;enesis+%published in A148%may almost
certainly be identified as 'illiam 'hittingham the brotherDinDlaw of
&al#in=s wife and his assistants Anthony ;ilby and Thomas <ampson"
The ;ene#a Bible was not printed in England until A1.4 but it was
allowed to be imported without hindrance" The accession of Eli:abeth in
A112 put an end to the persecutions and the ;reat Bible was soon
reinstated in the churches" The ;ene#a Bible howe#er gained
instantaneous and lasting popularity o#er against its ri#al the ;reat
Bible" -ts technical inno#ations contributed not a little to its becoming
for a long time the family Bible of England which ne)t to Tyndale
e)ercised the greatest influence upon the Cing $ames Bersion"
The Bishops= Bible
The failure of the ;reat Bible to win popular acceptance against the
ob#ious superiority of its ;ene#a ri#al and the ob(ectionable partisan
fla#our of the latter=s marginal annotations made a new re#ision a
necessity" By about A14?@4E Archbishop 5atthew 6arker of &anterbury
had determined upon its e)ecution and the work was apportioned
among many scholars most of them bishops from which the popular
name was deri#ed"
The Bishops= Bible came off the press in A142 as a handsome folio
#olume the most impressi#e of all A4thDcentury English Bibles in
respect of the 0uality of paper typography and illustrations" A portrait
of the Kueen adorned the engra#ed title page but it contained no
dedication" ,or some reason Kueen Eli:abeth ne#er officially authori:ed
the work but sanction for its public use came from the &on#ocation
*church synod or assembly+ of A1.A and it thereby became in effect the
second authori:ed #ersion"
The 9ouai@>eims Bible
The >oman &atholics addressed themsel#es affirmati#ely to the same
problem faced by the Anglican &hurch: a Bible in the #ernacular" The
initiator of the first such attempt was &ardinal Allen of >eims *in
,rance+ although the burden of the work fell to ;regory 5artin
professor of Hebrew at 9ouai" The !ew Testament appeared in A12/
but the Old Testament delayed by lack of funds did not appear until
A48I when it was finally published at 9ouai under the editorship of
Thomas 'orthington" -n the inter#ening period it had been brought into
line with the new te)t of the Bulgate authori:ed by &lement B--- in A1I/"
The Cing $ames and subse0uent #ersions
The Cing $ames *Authori:ed+ Bersion
Because of changing conditions another official re#ision of the
6rotestant Bible in English was needed" The reign of Kueen Eli:abeth
had succeeded in imposing a high degree of uniformity upon the church"
The failure of the Bishops= Bible to supplant its ;ene#a ri#al made for a
discordant note in the 0uest for unity"
A conference of churchmen in A48E became noteworthy for its re0uest
that the English Bible be re#ised because e)isting translations Gwere
corrupt and not answerable to the truth of the original"H Cing $ames -
was 0uick to appreciate the broader #alue of the proposal and at once
made the pro(ect his own"
By $une ?8 A48E Cing $ames had appro#ed a list of 1E re#isers
although e)tant records show that E. scholars actually participated"
They were organi:ed into si) companies two each working separately at
'estminster O)ford and &ambridge on sections of the Bible assigned
to them" -t was finally published in A4AA"
!ot since the <eptuagint had a translation of the Bible been undertaken
under royal sponsorship as a cooperati#e #enture on so grandiose a
scale" An elaborate set of rules was contri#ed to curb indi#idual
procli#ities and to ensure its scholarly and nonpartisan character" -n
contrast to earlier practice the new #ersion was to preser#e #ulgarly
used forms of proper names in keeping with its aim to make the
<criptures popular and familiar"
The impact of $ewish sources upon the Cing $ames Bersion is one of its
noteworthy features" The wealth of scholarly tools a#ailable to the
translators made their final choice of rendering an e)ercise in originality
and independent (udgment" ,or this reason the new #ersion was more
faithful to the original languages of the Bible and more scholarly than
any of its predecessors" The impact of the Hebrew upon the re#isers was
so pronounced that they seem to ha#e made a conscious effort to
imitate its rhythm and style in the Old Testament" The English of the
!ew Testament actually turned out to be superior to its ;reek original"
Two editions were actually printed in A4AA later distinguished as the
GHeH and G<heH Bibles because of the #ariant reading GheH and GsheH in
the final clause of chapter ? #erse A1 of >uth: Gand he went into the
city"H Both printings contained errors" <ome errors in subse0uent
editions ha#e become famous: The soDcalled 'icked Bible *A4?A+
deri#es from the omission of GnotH in chapter /8 #erse AE of E)odus
GThou shalt commit adulteryH for which the printers were fined V?88;
the GBinegar BibleH *A.A.+ stems from a misprinting of G#ineyardH in
the heading of 7uke chapter /8"
The English >e#ised Bersion
The remarkable and total #ictory of the Cing $ames Bersion could not
entirely obscure those inherent weaknesses that were independent of its
typographical errors" The manner of its e)ecution had resulted in a
certain une0ualness and lack of consistency" The translators=
understanding of the Hebrew tense system was often limited so that
their #ersion contains inaccurate and infelicitous renderings" -n
particular the ;reek te)t of the !ew Testament which they used as
their base was a poor one" The great early ;reek codices were not then
known or a#ailable and Hellenistic papyri which were to shed light on
the common ;reek dialect had not yet been disco#ered"
A committee established by the &on#ocation of &anterbury in ,ebruary
A2.8 reported fa#ourably three months later on the idea of re#ising the
Cing $ames Bersion: two companies were formed one each for the Old
and !ew Testaments" A no#el de#elopment was the inclusion of
scholars representati#e of the ma(or &hristian denominations e)cept
the >oman &atholics *who declined the in#itation to participate+"
Another inno#ation was the formation of parallel companies in the
Nnited <tates to whom the work of the English scholars was submitted
and who in turn sent back their reactions" The instructions to the
committees made clear that only a re#ision and not a new translation
was contemplated"
The !ew Testament was published in England on 5ay A. A22A and
three days later in the Nnited <tates after AA years of labour" O#er
?8888 changes were made of which more than 1888 represent
differences in the ;reek te)t from that used as the basis of the Cing
$ames Bersion" 5ost of the others were made in the interests of
consistency or moderni:ation"
The publication of the Old Testament in A221 stirred far less
e)citement partly because it was less well known than the !ew
Testament and partly because fewer changes were in#ol#ed" The
poetical and prophetical books especially $ob Ecclesiastes and -saiah
benefitted greatly"
The re#ision of the Apocrypha not originally contemplated came to be
included only because of copyright arrangements made with the
uni#ersity presses of O)ford and &ambridge and was first published in
A2I1"
The American <tandard Bersion
According to the original agreement the preferred readings and
renderings of the American re#isers which their British counterparts
had declined to accept were published in an appendi) to the >e#ised
Bersion" -n AI88 the American edition of the !ew Testament which
incorporated the American scholars= preferences into the body of the
te)t was produced" A year later the Old Testament was added but not
the Apocrypha" The alterations co#ered a large number of obsolete
words and e)pressions and replaced Anglicisms by the diction then in
#ogue in the Nnited <tates"
The >e#ised <tandard Bersion
The American <tandard Bersion had been an e)pression of sensiti#ity to
the needs of the American public" At the same time se#eral indi#idual
and unofficial translations into modern speech made from A221 on had
gained popularity their appeal reinforced by the disco#ery that the
;reek of the !ew Testament used the common nonliterary #ariety of the
language spoken throughout the >oman Empire when &hristianity was
in its formati#e stage" The notion that a nonliterary modern rendering of
the !ew Testament best e)pressed the form and spirit of the original
was hard to refute" This plus a new maturity of classical Hebraic and
theological scholarship in the Nnited <tates led to a desire to produce a
nati#e American #ersion of the English Bible"
-n AI/2 the copyright of the American <tandard Bersion was ac0uired
by the -nternational &ouncil of >eligious Education and thereby passed
into the ownership of churches representing E8 ma(or denominations in
the Nnited <tates and &anada" A twoDyear study by a special committee
recommended a thorough re#ision and in AI?. the council ga#e its
authori:ation to the proposal" !ot until AIE4 howe#er did the re#ision
of the !ew Testament appear in print and another si) years elapsed
before the complete >e#ised <tandard Bersion *><B+ was published the
work of ?/ scholars one of them $ewish drawn from the faculties of /8
uni#ersities and theological seminaries" A decision to translate the
Apocrypha was not made until AI1/ and the re#ision appeared in AI1."
-nsofar as the ><B was the first to make use of the 9ead <ea <croll of
-saiah it was re#olutionary"
The >e#ised <tandard Bersion was essentially not a new translation into
modern speech but a re#ision" -t did engage in a good deal of
moderni:ation howe#er" -t dispensed with archaic pronouns retaining
GthouH only for the 9eity" But its basic conser#atism was displayed in
the retention of forms or e)pressions in passages that ha#e special
de#otional or literary associations e#en where this practice makes for
inconsistency" The primary aim was to produce a #ersion for use in
pri#ate and public worship"
$ewish #ersions
Though $ews in EnglishDspeaking lands generally utili:ed the Cing
$ames Bersion and the >e#ised Bersion the English #ersions ha#e
presented great difficulties" They contain departures from the
traditional Hebrew te)t; they sometimes embody &hristological
interpretations; the headings were often doctrinally ob(ectionable and
the renderings in the legal portions of the 6entateuch fre0uently
di#erged from traditional $ewish e)egesis" -n addition where the
meaning of the original was obscure $ewish readers preferred to use the
wellDknown medie#al $ewish commentators" ,inally the order of the
$ewish canon differs from &hristian practice and the liturgical needs of
$ews make a #ersion that does not mark the scriptural readings for
<abbaths and festi#als incon#enient"
Nntil AIA. all $ewish translations were the efforts of indi#iduals"
6lanned in A2I/ the pro(ect of the $ewish 6ublication <ociety of
America was the first translation for which a group representing $ewish
learning among EnglishDspeaking $ews assumed (oint responsibility"
This #ersion essentially retained the Eli:abethan diction" -t stuck
unswer#ingly to the recei#ed Hebrew te)t that it interpreted in
accordance with $ewish tradition and the best scholarship of the day"
,or o#er half a century it remained authoritati#e e#en though it laid no
claim to any official ecclesiastical sanction"
'ith an increasingly felt need for moderni:ation a committee of
translators was established composed of three professional biblical and
<emitic scholars and three rabbis" -t began its work in AI11 and the
6entateuch was issued in AI4/" The <ong of <ongs >uth 7amentations
Ecclesiastes Esther and $onah all in a single #olume for the
con#enience of synagogue use followed in AI4I; and -saiah and 6salms
appeared in AI.?" A second committee had been set up in AI11 to work
separately on the rest of the Hagiographa *Cetu#im+"
The !ew English Bible
The idea of a completely new translation into British English was first
broached in AIE4" Nnder a (oint committee representati#e of the ma(or
6rotestant churches of the British -sles with >oman &atholics appointed
as obser#ers the !ew Testament was published in AI4A and a second
edition appeared in AI.8" The Old Testament and Apocrypha were also
published in AI.8"
The !ew English Bible pro#ed to be an instant commercial success
selling at a rate of ??888 copies a week in AI.8" The translation
differed from the English mainstream Bible in that it was not a re#ision
but a completely fresh #ersion from the original tongues" -t abandoned
the tradition of Gbiblical EnglishH and e)cept for the retention of GthouH
and GthyH in addressing ;od freed itself of all archaisms" -t
endea#oured to render the original into the idiom of contemporary
English and to a#oid ephemeral modernisms"
&atholic #ersions
'ith the e)ception of a #ersion by -rishDAmerican archbishop ,rancis
6atrick Cenrick *A2EI@48+ all translations up to the /8th century were
merely #ersions of the 9ouai@>eims Bible" A celebrated translation was
that of >onald Cno) *!ew Testament AIE1; Old Testament AIEI;
complete edition with Old Testament re#ised AI11+"
The most significant de#elopment in modern &atholic translations was
initiated by the &onfraternity of &hristian 9octrine in AI?4" A !ew
Testament #ersion of the 7atin &lementine Bulgate *AIEA+ intended as a
re#ision in effect was a new translation into clear and simple English"
The Old Testament re#ision remained unfinished the work ha#ing been
interrupted by a decision inspired by the 6ontifical Biblical &ommission
in AIE? to encourage modern #ernacular translations from the original
languages instead of from the 7atin Bulgate" Accordingly both the Old
and !ew Testaments were respecti#ely retranslated into modern
English from the Hebrew and ;reek originals" The resultant
&onfraternity Bersion *AI1/@4A+ was later issued as the !ew American
Bible *AI.8+" Another modern #ersion more collo0uial is the $erusalem
Bible *AI44+ translated from the ,rench &atholic Bible de $Mrusalem
*oneD#olume edition AI4A+"
7ater and modern #ersions: 9utch ,rench and ;erman
9utch #ersions
Nntil the >eformation 9utch Bible translations were largely free
adaptations paraphrases or rhymed #erse renderings of single books or
parts thereof" A popular religious re#i#al at the end of the A/th century
accelerated the demand for the #ernacular <criptures and one of the
earliest e)tant e)amples is the 7iSge manuscript *c. A/.8+ translation of
the Diatessaron *a composite rendering of the four ;ospels+ by Tatian a
/nd century <yrian &hristian heretical scholar; it is belie#ed to deri#e
from a lost Old 7atin original" Best known of all the rhymed #ersions is
the Ri*mbi*bel of $acob #an 5aerlant *A/.A+ based on 6eter &omestar=s
$istoria scholastica. 9espite the poor 0uality of $ohan <chutken=s
translation of the !ew Testament and 6salms *A?2E+ it became the
most widely used of medie#al 9utch #ersions"
'ith the >eformation came a renewed interest in the study of the
<criptures" 7uther=s Bible *see ;erman #ersions below+ was repeatedly
rendered into 9utch the most important #ersion being that of $acob #an
7ies#eldt *A1/4+" -t was mainly to counter the popularity of this edition
that >oman &atholics produced their own 9utch Bible e)ecuted by
!icolaas #an 'inghe *7ou#ain A1E2+" A re#ision printed by $an
5oerentorf *5oretus A1II+ became the standard #ersion until it was
superseded by that of the 6eter &anisius Association *AI/I@?I+ now in
general use" A fresh translation of the !ew Testament in modern 9utch
appeared in AI4A"
,rench #ersions
The deep conflicts that characteri:ed the history of &hristianity in
,rance made it difficult for one authoritati#e #ersion to emerge"
The first complete Bible was produced in the A?th century at the
Nni#ersity of 6aris and toward the end of that century ;uyart des
5oulins e)ecuted his Bible $istoriale. Both works ser#ed as the basis of
future redactions of which the Bible printed in 6aris *date gi#en
#ariously as AE2. AEI4 AEI2+ by order of Cing &harles B--- is a good
e)ample"
The real history of the ,rench Bible began in 6aris in A1/? with the
publication of the !ew Testament almost certainly the work of the
>eformer $ac0ues 7efS#re d=Wtaples *,aber <tapulensis+" The Old
Testament appeared in Antwerp in A1/2 and the two together in A1?8 as
the Antwerp Bible" The first true 6rotestant #ersion came out in
<erriSres near !euchXtel fi#e years later the work of 6ierre >obert
called Oli#Mtan" This #ersion was fre0uently re#ised throughout the A4th
century the most celebrated editions being &al#in=s of A1E4 and that of
>obert Estienne *<tephanus+ of A11?" The >oman &atholics produced a
new #ersion the 7ou#ain Bible of A118 based on both 7efS#re and
Oli#Mtan" 5oderni:ations of Oli#Mtan appeared in succeeding centuries"
The most important ,rench #ersion of the /8th century is the $erusalem
Bible prepared by professors at the 9ominican Wcole Bibli0ue de
$Mrusalem *6aris AIEI@1E complete AI14+"
;erman #ersions
The early Old Testament in ;othic has already been described" The !ew
Testament remains are far more e)tensi#e and are preser#ed mainly in
the &ode) Argenteus *c. 1/1+ and &ode) ;issensis" The translation
essentially based on a By:antine te)t is e)ceedingly literal and not
homogeneous" -t is difficult to determine the degree of contamination
that the original ;ospels translation of Nlfilas had undergone by the
time it appeared in these codices"
!othing is known of the #ernacular <criptures in ;ermany prior to the
2th century when an idiomatic translation of 5atthew from 7atin into
the Ba#arian dialect was made" ,rom ,ulda *in ;ermany+ c. 2?8 came a
more literal East ,ranconian ;erman translation of the ;ospel story" -n
the same period was produced the $elian+ *G<a#iourH+ a #ersified
#ersion of the ;ospels" <uch poetic renderings cannot strictly speaking
be regarded as translations" There is e#idence howe#er for the
e)istence of ;erman 6salters from the Ith century on" By the A?th
century the different sects and mo#ements that characteri:ed the
religious situation in ;ermany had stimulated a demand for popular
Bible reading" <ince all the early printed Bibles deri#ed from a single
family of late AEthDcentury manuscripts ;erman translations must ha#e
gained wide popularity" Another impetus towards the use of the ;erman
<criptures in this period can be traced to mystics of the Npper >hine" A
complete !ew Testament the Augsburg Bible can be dated to A?18
and another from Bohemia &ode) Teplensis *c. AE88+ has also
sur#i#ed"
The 'en:el Bible an Old Testament made between A?2I and AE88 is
said to ha#e been ordered by Cing 'enceslas and large numbers of
A1thDcentury manuscripts ha#e been preser#ed"
The first printed Bible *the 5entel Bible+ appeared at <trassburg no
later than AE44 and ran through A2 editions before A1//" 9espite some
e#idence that ecclesiastical authority did not entirely look with fa#our
upon this #ernacular de#elopment the printed Bible appeared in
;ermany earlier and in more editions and in greater 0uantity than
anywhere else"
A new era opened up with the work of 5artin 7uther to whom a
translation from the original languages was a necessary and logical
conclusion of his doctrine of (ustification by faith%to which the
<criptures pro#ided the only true key" His !ew Testament *'ittenberg
A1//+ was made from the second edition of Erasmus= ;reek Testament"
The Old Testament followed in successi#e parts based on the Brescia
Hebrew Bible *AEIE+" 7uther=s knowledge of Hebrew and Aramaic was
limited but his rendering shows much influence of >ashi the great
AAth@A/thDcentury ,rench rabbinical scholar and commentator through
the use of the notes of !icholas of 7yra" The complete 7utheran Bible
emerged from the press in A1?E" 7uther was constantly re#ising his
work with the assistance of other scholars and between A1?E and his
death in A1E4 AA editions were printed the last posthumously" His
Bible truly fulfilled 7uther=s ob(ecti#e of ser#ing the needs of the
common man and it in turn formed the basis of the first translations in
those lands to which 7utheranism spread" -t pro#ed to be a landmark in
;erman prose literature and contributed greatly to the de#elopment of
the modern language"
The phenomenal success of 7uther=s Bible and the failure of attempts to
repress it led to the creation of ;erman &atholic #ersions largely
adaptations of 7uther" Hieronymus Emser=s edition simply brought the
latter into line with the Bulgate" $ohann 9ietenberger issued a re#ision
of Emser *5ain: A1?E+ and used 7uther=s Old Testament in con(unction
with an Anabaptist *radical 6rotestant group+ #ersion and the FTrich
*<wit:erland+ #ersion of A1/I" -t became the standard &atholic #ersion"
Of the /8thDcentury translations the ;rTnewald Bible which reached a
se#enth edition in AI14 is one of the most noteworthy"
;erman glosses in Hebrew script attached to Hebrew Bibles in the A/th
and A?th centuries constitute the earliest $ewish attempts to render the
<criptures into that ;erman dialect current among the $ews of middle
Europe the dialect that de#eloped into $udeoD;erman or Jiddish" The
first translation proper has been partially preser#ed in a manuscript
from 5antua dated AE/A" The earliest printed translation is that of the
<criptural dictionaries prepared by a bapti:ed $ew 5ichael Adam
*&onstance A1E?@EE; Basel A12? A48.+" The #ersion of $acob ben -saac
Ashkena:i of $anQw known as the ,-'enah u#Re'na *7ublin A4A4+
became one of the most popular and widely diffused works of its kind"
The first $ewish translation into pure High ;erman though in Hebrew
characters *A.28@2?+ made by 5oses 5endelssohn opened a new
epoch in ;ermanD$ewish life" The first $ewish rendering of the entire
Hebrew Bible in ;erman characters was made by ;otthold <alomon
*Altona A2?.+" An attempt to preser#e the 0uality of the Hebrew style
in ;erman garb was the (oint translation of two $ewish religious
philosophers 5artin Buber and ,ran: >osen:weig *A1 #ol" Berlin
AI/1@?.; re#ised ed" &ologne E #ol" AI1E@4/+"
;reek Hungarian -talian and 6ortuguese translations
;reek #ersions
A A?thDcentury manuscript of $onah by a $ew is the earliest known postD
Hellenistic ;reek biblical work" A rendering of 6salms was published by
a &retan monk Agapiou in A14?" A #ersion in Hebrew characters *a large
part of the Old Testament+ appeared in the &onstantinople 6olyglot
6entateuch in A1E."
The first !ew Testament was done by 5a)imus of ;allipoli in A4?2 *at
;ene#aU+" The British and ,oreign Bible <ociety published the Old
Testament in A2E8 *7ondon+ and the !ew Testament in A2E2 *Athens+"
Between AI88 and AI/E howe#er the use of a modern ;reek #ersion
was prohibited" The theological faculty of the Nni#ersity of Athens is
now preparing a fresh translation"
Hungarian #ersions
The spread of 7utheranism in the >eformation period ga#e rise to
se#eral #ernacular #ersions" $Rnos <yl#ester *Erdosi+ produced the first
!ew Testament made from the ;reek *<Rr#Rr A1EA+" The Turkish
occupation of much of Hungary and the measures of the &ounterD
>eformation arrested further printing of the #ernacular Bible e)cept in
the semiDindependent principality of Transyl#ania" The first complete
Hungarian Bible issued at Bi:soly in A1I8 became the 6rotestant
&hurch Bible"
-n the /8th century a new standard edition for 6rotestants was
published the !ew Testament appearing in AI14 and the Old
Testament *;enesis to $ob+ in AI1A and following" A new moderni:ed
&atholic edition of the !ew Testament from the ;reek appeared in >ome
in AI1."
-talian #ersions
The #ernacular <criptures made a relati#ely late appearance in -taly"
E)isting manuscripts of indi#idual books deri#e from the A?th century
and mainly consist of the ;ospels and the 6salms"
These medie#al #ersions were ne#er made from the original languages"
They were influenced by ,rench and 6ro#enYal renderings as well as by
the form of the 7atin Bulgate current in the A/th and A?th centuries in
southern ,rance" There is e#idence for a $ewish translation made
directly from the Hebrew as early as the A?th century"
The first printed -talian Bible appeared in Benice in AE.A translated
from the 7atin Bulgate by !iccolZ 5alermi" -n A11I 6aul -B proscribed
all printing and reading of the #ernacular <criptures e)cept by
permission of the church" This mo#e reaffirmed by 6ius -B in A14E
effecti#ely stopped further &atholic translation work for the ne)t /88
years"
The first 6rotestant Bible *;ene#a A48. re#ised A4EA+ was the work of
;io#anni 9iodati a Hebrew and ;reek scholar" ,re0uently reprinted it
became the standard 6rotestant #ersion until the /8th century" &atholic
acti#ity was renewed after a modification of the ban by 6ope Benedict
L-B in A.1." A complete Bible in translation made directly from the
Hebrew and ;reek has been in progress under the sponsorship of the
6ontifical Biblical -nstitute since the AI/8s"
6ortuguese #ersions
The first 6ortuguese !ew Testament *Amsterdam+ the work of $o[o
,erreira d=Almeida did not appear until A42A" The first complete Bible
*/ #ol" A.E2@1?+ was printed in Bata#ia *in Holland+" !ot until late in
the A2th century did the first locally published #ernacular <criptures
appear in 6ortugal" A re#ision of d=Almeida was issued in >io de $aneiro
*in Bra:il+ the !ew Testament in AIA8 and the complete Bible in AIAE
and AI/4; an authori:ed edition in moderni:ed orthography was
published by the Bible <ociety of Bra:il *!ew Testament AI1A; Old
Testament AI12+" A new translation of the !ew Testament from ;reek
by $osM ,alc[o came out in 7isbon *AI14@41+"
<candina#ian <la#ic <panish and <wiss translations
<candina#ian #ersions
-n preD>eformation times only partial translations were made all on the
basis of the 7atin Bulgate and all somewhat free" The earliest and most
celebrated is that of ;enesis@Cings in the soDcalled %t*.rn *G;uidanceH;
i.e., of ;od+ manuscript in the Old !orwegian language probably to be
dated about A?88" <wedish #ersions of the 6entateuch and of Acts ha#e
sur#i#ed from the AEth century and a manuscript of $oshua@$udges by
!icholaus >agn#aldi of Badstena from c. A188" The oldest 9anish
#ersion co#ering ;enesis@Cings deri#es from AE.8"
'ithin two years of publication 7uther=s !ew Testament had already
influenced a 9anish translation made at the re0uest of the e)iled king
&hristian -- by &hristiern Binter and Hans 5ikkelsen *'ittenberg
A1/E+" -n A118 9enmark recei#ed a complete Bible commissioned by
royal command *the &hristian --- Bible &openhagen+" A re#ision
appeared in A12I *the ,rederick -- Bible+ and another in A4?? *the
&hristian -B Bible+"
A rendering by Hans 6aulsen >esen *A481@8.+ was distinguished by its
accuracy and learning and was the first made directly from Hebrew and
;reek but its style was not felicitous and a re#ision was undertaken by
Hans <#ane *A4E.+" !early /88 years later *A2AI+ a combination of the
<#aning Old Testament and the >esen@<#ane !ew Testament was
published" -n AI?A a royal commission produced a new translation of
the Old Testament with the !ew Testament following in AIE2 and the
Apocrypha in AI1."
The separation of !orway from 9enmark in A2AE stimulated the re#i#al
of literature in the nati#e language" The Old Testament of A2E/@2.
*re#ised A2IA+ and !ew Testament of A2.8@AI8E were still intelligible
to 9anish readers but the #ersion of E" Bli) *!ew Testament A22I;
complete Bible AI/A+ is in !ew !orwegian" A re#ised Bible in this
standardi:ed form of the language e)ecuted by >" -ndreb\ was
published by the !orwegian Bible <ociety in AI?2"
The first -celandic !ew Testament was the work of Oddur ;ottskRlksson
*>oskilde 9enmark A1E8+ based on the 7atin Bulgate and 7uther" -t
was not until A12E that the complete -celandic <criptures were printed
*at HQlar+ mainly e)ecuted by ;udbrandur ThorlRksson" -t was #ery
successful and became the &hurch Bible until displaced by the re#ision
of ThorlRkur <k]lason *A4/.@11+ based apparently on >esen=s 9anish
translation" -n A2/. the -celandic Bible <ociety published a new !ew
Testament and a complete Bible in A2EA *Bidey(ar; A21I >eyk(a#^k+
re#ised and reprinted at O)ford in A244" A completely new edition
*>eyk(a#^k AIA/+ became the official &hurch Bible"
<oon after <weden achie#ed independence from 9enmark in the early
A4th century it ac0uired its own #ersion of the !ew Testament
published by the royal press *<tockholm A1/4+" 7uther=s !ew
Testament of A1// ser#ed as its foundation but the 7atin Bulgate and
Erasmus= ;reek were also consulted" The first official complete Bible
and the first such in any <candina#ian country was the ;usta# Basa
Bible *Nppsala; A1EA+ named for the <wedish king under whose reign it
was printed" -t utili:ed earlier <wedish translations as well as 7uther=s"
A corrected #ersion *the ;usta#us Adolphus Bible named for the
reigning <wedish king+ was issued in A4A2 and another with minor
alterations by Eric Ben:elius in A.8?" The altered Bible was called the
&harles L-- Bible because it was printed during the reign of &harles L--"
-n AIA. the church diet of the 7utheran &hurch published a completely
fresh translation directly from modern critical editions of the Hebrew
and ;reek originals and it recei#ed the authori:ation of ;ustaf B to
become the <wedish &hurch Bible"
<la#ic #ersions
The earliest Old &hurch <la#onic translations are connected with the
arri#al of the brothers &yril and 5ethodius in 5ora#ia in 24? and
resulted from the desire to pro#ide #ernacular renderings of those parts
of the Bible used liturgically" The oldest manuscripts deri#e from the
AAth and A/th centuries" The earliest complete Bible manuscript dated
AEII was used for the first printed edition *Ostrog A12A+" This was
re#ised in 5oscow in A4?? and again in A.A/" The standard <la#onic
edition is the <t" 6etersburg re#ision of A.1A known as the Bible of
Eli:abeth"
The printing of parts of the Bulgarian Bible did not begin until the midD
AIth century" A fresh #ernacular #ersion of the whole Bible was
published at <ofia in AI/1 ha#ing been commissioned by the <ynod of
the Bulgarian Orthodo) &hurch"
The <erbian and &roatian literary languages are identical; they differ
only in the alphabet they use" To further the dissemination of
6rotestantism among the southern <la#s &ount $an Nngnad set up a
press in A148 at Nrach that issued a translation of the !ew Testament
in both ;lagolitic *A14/@4?+ and &yrillic *A14?+ characters" The efforts
of the <erbian leader Buk Carad:ic to establish the <erboD&roatian
#ernacular on a literary basis resulted in a new translation of the !ew
Testament *Bienna A2E.+ that went through many re#isions"
The spread of the 7utheran >eformation to the <lo#eneDspeaking
pro#inces of Austria stimulated the need for #ernacular translations"
The first complete <lo#ene Bible translated from the original languages
but with close reference to 7uther=s ;erman was made by $uri( 9almatin
*'ittenberg A12E+" !ot until two centuries later did a <lo#ene >oman
&atholic #ersion rendered from the 7atin Bulgate appear *7aibach
A.2E@A28/+"
Between the Ith and A.th centuries the literary and ecclesiastical
language of >ussia was Old <la#onic" A #ernacular <criptures was thus
late in de#eloping" An incomplete translation into the Belorussian
dialect was prepared by ,ranciscus <korina *6rague A1A.@AI+ from the
7atin Bulgate and <la#onic and Bohemian #ersions but not until A2/A
did the first !ew Testament appear in >ussian an official #ersion
printed together with the <la#onic" 'ith the more liberal rule of
Ale)ander -- the Holy <ynod sponsored a fresh #ersion of the ;ospels in
A248" The Old Testament was issued at <t" 6etersburg in A2.1" A $ewish
rendering was undertaken by 7eon 5andelstamm who published the
6entateuch in A24/ */nd ed" A2.A+ and the 6salter in A24E" 6rohibited
in >ussia it was first printed in Berlin" A complete Bible was published
in 'ashington in AI1/"
!o manuscript in the &:ech #ernacular translation is known to predate
the AEth century but at least 18 complete or fragmentary Bibles ha#e
sur#i#ed from the A1th" The first complete Bible was published in
6rague in AE22 in a te)t based on earlier unknown translations
connected with the heretical Hussite mo#ement" The most important
production of the century howe#er was that associated principally with
$an Blahosla#" Based on the original languages it appeared at Cralice in
si) #olumes *A1.I@I?+" The Cralice Bible is regarded as the finest
e)tant specimen of classical &:ech and became the standard 6rotestant
#ersion"
&losely allied to the &:ech language but not identical with it <lo#akian
became a literary language only in the A2th century" A >oman &atholic
Bible made from the 7atin Bulgate by $iri 6alko#ic was printed in the
;othic script */ #ol" ;ran A2/I A2?/+ and another associated with
>ichard Os#ald appeared at Trna#a in AI/2" A 6rotestant !ew
Testament #ersion of $osef >ohacek was published at Budapest in AIA?
and his completed Bible at 6rague in AI?4" A new <lo#akian #ersion by
<tefan Flato_ and Anton $an <ur(ansk` was issued at Trna#a in AIE4"
A manuscript of a late AEthDcentury 6salter is the earliest e)tant
e)ample of the 6olish #ernacular <criptures and se#eral books of the
Old Testament ha#e sur#i#ed from the translation made from the &:ech
#ersion for Kueen <ofia *<Rrospatak Bible AE11+" Otherwise postD
>eformation 6oland supplied the stimulus for biblical scholarship" The
!ew Testament first appeared in a twoD#olume rendering from the
;reek by the 7utheran $an <ekluc(an *C\nigsberg A11?+" The GBrest
BibleH of A14? sponsored by 6rince >ad:iwill was a 6rotestant
production made from the original languages" A #ersion of this edition
for the use of <ocinians *Nnitarians+ was prepared by the Hebraist
<:ymon Budny *!ieswic: A1.8@2/+ and another re#ision primarily
e)ecuted by 9aniel 5ikola(ewski and $an Turnowski *the G9an:ig
BibleH+ in A4?/ became the official #ersion of all E#angelical churches
in 6oland" This edition was burnt by the &atholics and had to be
subse0uently printed in ;ermany" The standard >oman &atholic #ersion
*A1I? A1II+ was prepared by $akQb 'u(ek whose work re#ised by the
$esuits recei#ed the appro#al of the <ynod of 6iotrkow in A48." A
re#ised edition was put out in AI?1"
<panish #ersions
The history of the <panish <criptures is unusual in that many of the
translations were based not on the 7atin Bulgate but on the Hebrew a
phenomenon that is to be attributed to the unusual role played by $ews
in the #ernacular mo#ement"
!othing is known from earlier than the A?th century when $ames - of
Aragon in A/?? proscribed the possession of the Bible in GromanceH *the
<panish #ernacular+ and ordered such to be burnt" <e#eral partial Old
Testament translations by $ews as well as a !ew Testament from a
Bisigoth 7atin te)t are known from this century" -n AEA. the whole Bible
was translated into Balencian &atalan but the entire edition was
destroyed by the -n0uisition"
Between AE.I and A18E royal enactments outlawed the #ernacular
Bible in &astile 7eon and Aragon and the e)pulsion of the $ews from
<pain in AEI/ transferred the centre of <panish translation acti#ity to
other lands" -n A11. the first printed /n+e' of 0orbi++en Books of the
<panish -n0uisition prohibited the GBible in &astilian romance or any
other #ulgar tongueH a ban that was repeated in A11I and remained in
force until the A2th century" -n AIA4 the HispanoDAmericana !ew
Testament appeared in 5adrid as an attempt to achie#e a common
translation for the entire <panishDspeaking world" The first >oman
&atholic #ernacular Bible from the original languages was made under
the direction of the 6ontifical Nni#ersity of <alamanca *5adrid AIEE
Ith ed" AI1I+"
<wiss #ersions
,our parts of 7uther=s #ersion were reprinted in the <wy:erdeutsch
dialect in FTrich in A1/E@/1" The 6rophets and Apocrypha appeared in
A1/I" A year later the first <wiss Bible was issued with the 6rophets
and Apocrypha independently translated" The <wiss Bible underwent
fre0uent re#ision between A448 and A22/" A fresh translation from the
original languages was made between AI8. and AI?A"
!onDEuropean #ersions
Translations of parts of the Bible are known to ha#e e)isted in only
se#en Asian and four African languages before the A1th century" -n the
A.th century 9utch merchants began to interest themsel#es in the
missionary enterprise among nonDEuropeans" A pioneer was Albert
&ornelius >uyl who is credited with ha#ing translated 5atthew into
High 5alay in A4/I with 5ark following later" $an #an Hasel translated
the two other ;ospels in A4E4 and added 6salms and Acts in A41/"
Other traders began translations into ,ormosan &hinese *A44A+ and
<inhalese *A.?I+"
A complete printed $apanese !ew Testament reputedly e)isted in
5iyako in A4A? the work of $esuits" The first known printed !ew
Testament in Asia appeared in A.A1 in the Tamil language done by
Bartholomaus Fiegenbalg a 7utheran missionary" A complete Bible
followed in A./." <i) years later the first Bible in High 5alay came out"
The distinction of ha#ing produced the first !ew Testament in any
language of the Americas belongs to $ohn Eliot a 6uritan missionary
who made it accessible to the 5assachusetts -ndians in A44A" Two years
later he brought out the 5assachusetts -ndian Bible the first Bible to be
printed on the American continent"
By A288 the number of nonDEuropean #ersions did not e)ceed A? Asian
four African three American and one Oceanian" 'ith the founding of
missionary societies after A288 howe#er new translations were #iewed
as essential to the e#angelical effort" ,irst came renderings in those
languages that already possessed a written literature" A group at
<erampore *in -ndia+ headed by 'illiam &arey a Baptist missionary
produced /2 #ersions in -ndian languages" >obert 5orrison the first
6rotestant missionary to &hina translated the !ew Testament into
&hinese in A2AE and completed the Bible by A2/?" Adoniram $udson an
American missionary rendered the Bible into Burmese in A2?E"
'ith European e)ploration of the African continent often came the need
to in#ent an alphabet and in many instances the translated <criptures
constituted the first piece of written literature" -n the AIth century the
Bible was translated into Amharic 5alagasy Tswana Losa and ;a"
-n the Americas $ames E#ans in#ented a syllabary for the use of &ree
-ndians in whose language the Bible was a#ailable in A24/ the work of
'" 5ason also a 'esleyan missionary" The !ew Testament appeared in
O(ibwa in A2?? and the whole Bible was translated for the 9akota
-ndians in A2.I" The 7abrador Eskimos had a !ew Testament in A2/4
and a complete Bible in A2.A"
-n Oceania the !ew Testament was rendered into Tahitian and $a#anese
in A2/I and into Hawaiian and 7ow 5alay in A2?1" By A21E the whole
Bible had appeared in all but the last of these languages as well as in
>arotonga *A21A+"
-n the /8th century the trend toward the de#elopment of nonDEuropean
Bible translations was characteri:ed by an attempt to produce GunionH
or GstandardH #ersions in the common language underlying different
dialects" One such is the <wahili translation *AI18+ that makes the
<criptures accessible to most of East Africa" 'ithin the realm of nonD
European translation there has also been a mo#ement for the updating
of #ersions to bring them in line with the spoken language especially
through the use of nati#e &hristian scholars" The first e)ample of this
was the collo0uial $apanese #ersion of AI11"
By AI.8 some part if not the entire Bible had been translated into more
than A88 languages or dialects spoken in -ndia and o#er ?88 in Africa"
!ahum 5" <arna
Old Testament history
History is a central element of the Old Testament" -t is the sub(ect of
narration in the specifically historical books and of celebration
commemoration and remonstration in all of the books" History in the
Old Testament is not history in the modern sense; it is the story of
e#ents seen as re#ealing the di#ine presence and power" !e#ertheless it
is the account of an actual people in an actual geographical area at
certain specified historical times and in contact with other particular
peoples and empires known from other sources" Hence far more than
with other great religious scriptures a knowledge of the historical
background is conduci#e if not essential to an ade0uate understanding
of a ma(or portion of the Old Testament" >ecent archaeological
disco#eries as well as comparati#e historical research and philological
studies collated with an analysis and interpretation of the Old
Testament te)t *still the ma(or source of information+ ha#e made
possible a fuller and more reliable picture of biblical history than in
pre#ious eras" ,or another presentation of Old Testament history see
$udaism"
Early de#elopments
Background and beginnings
The geographical theatre of the Old Testament is the ancient !ear East
particularly the ,ertile &rescent region running from the Tigris and
Euphrates ri#ers up to <yria and down through 6alestine to the !ile
9elta" -n this area great ci#ili:ations and empires de#eloped and
seminomadic ethnic groups such as the Hebrews were in#ol#ed in the
mi)ture of peoples and cultures" The e)act origin of the Hebrews is not
known with certainty but the biblical tradition of their origin in a clan
that migrated from 5esopotamia to &anaan *6alestine+ early in the /nd
millennium B&E has analogues in what is known of the mo#ements of
other groups in that area and period" There are moreo#er ob#ious
5esopotamian motifs in biblical cosmogony and prime#al history in the
early part of the Bible and 5esopotamian placeDnames are the ob#ious
bases of some of the personal names of the clan=s forebears" &anaanite
influences are e#ident in the Hebrew alphabet poetry and certain
mythological themes" 7inguistic and other similarities with
neighbouring <emitic peoples such as the Amorites and 5oabites are
also e#ident"
E)odus and con0uest
According to biblical tradition the clan migrated to Egypt because of a
famine in the land of &anaan were later ensla#ed and oppressed and
finally escaped from Egypt to the desert east of the -sthmus of <ue:
under a remarkable leader 5oses" The account%a proclamation
celebration and commemoration of the e#ent%is replete with
legendary elements but presentDday scholars tend to belie#e that
behind the legends there is a solid core of fact; namely that Hebrew
sla#es who built the fortified cities of 6ithom and >ameses somehow
fled from Egypt probably in the A?th century B&E under a great leader
*see also 5oses+" A stele *inscribed stone pillar+ of the pharaoh
5erneptah of that time in which he claims to ha#e destroyed -srael is
the first known nonbiblical reference to the people by name" 'hether
the destruction was in the inter#ening desert or in &anaan *and whether
a true or a false claim+ is not clear" The tradition ascribes to 5oses the
basic features of -srael=s faith: a single ;od called JH'H who cannot
be represented iconically bound in a co#enant relationship with his
special people -srael to whom he has promised possession of *not as
with their forefathers mere residence in+ the land of &anaan" There is
some dispute among scholars as to when such features as the 5osaic
&o#enant actually emerged and as to which of the traditional A/ tribes
of -srael entered &anaan at the end of the period of wandering in the
desert"
The biblical account of the con0uest of &anaan is again from the point
of #iew of historical scholarship full of legendary elements that e)press
and commemorate the elation and wonder of the -sraelites at these
e#ents" The con0uest of &anaan%according to tradition a united
national undertaking led by 5oses= successor $oshua%was a rather
drawn out and complicated matter" Archaeological e#idence tends to
refute some of the elements of the biblical account confirm others and
lea#e some open" According to the tradition after an initial unified
assault that broke the main &anaanite resistance the tribes engaged in
indi#idual moppingDup operations" <cholars belie#e that Hebrews who
had remained resident in &anaan (oined forces with the in#ading tribes
that the other &anaanite groups continued to e)ist and that many of
them later were assimilated by the -sraelites"
The tribal league
The in#ading tribes who became masters of parts of &anaan although
effecti#ely autonomous and lacking a central authority considered
themsel#es a league of A/ tribes although the number A/ seems to ha#e
been more canonical or symbolical than historical" <ome scholars on
the analogy of ;reek leagues of si) or A/ tribes or cities with a common
sanctuary speak of the -sraelite league as an GamphictyonyH the ;reek
term for such an association; but others hold that there is no e#idence
that the -sraelites maintained a common shrine" &ertain leaders arose
called (udges who might rule o#er se#eral tribes but this arrangement
was usually of a local or regional character" Howe#er the stories about
such G(udgesH *who were fre0uently local champions or heroes such as
;ideon $ephthah and <amson+ though encrusted with legend are now
thought to be substantially historical" The period from about A/88 to
A8/8 is called after them the period of the (udges" -t was during this
period that -sraelite assimilation of &anaanite cultural and religious
ideas and practices began to be an acute problem and that other
in#aders and settlers became a threat to the security of -srael" One of
the chief threats was from the 6hilistines an Aegean people who settled
*c. A/th century B&E+ on the coast of what later came to be called after
them 6alestine" Organi:ed in a league of fi#e cities or principalities
the 6hilistines who possessed a monopoly of iron implements and
weapons pushed eastward into the &anaanite hinterland and
sub(ugated -sraelite tribes such as the $udahites and 9anites that
stood in their way e#en capturing the sacred ark from the famous shrine
of <hiloh when it was brought into battle against them" The 6hilistine
threat was probably the decisi#e factor in the emergence of a permanent
political *but at first primarily military+ union of all -srael under a king%
what historians call the united monarchy *or kingdom+"
The united monarchy
The monarchy was initiated during the career of <amuel a prophet of
great influence and authority who was also recogni:ed as a (udge and is
depicted in #arying biblical accounts as either fa#ouring or not
fa#ouring the reign of a human king o#er -srael" -n any case he anointed
<aul a courageous military leader of the tribe of Ben(amin as king *c.
A8/8 B&E+" <aul won substantial #ictories o#er the Ammonites
6hilistines and Amalekites leading the tribes in a Gholy warH and for a
time the 6hilistine ad#ance was stopped; but <aul and his son $onathan
were killed in a disastrous battle with the 6hilistines in central
6alestine" His successor 9a#id a former aide *and also his sonDinDlaw+
who had fallen out of fa#our with him at first took o#er *c. A8A8+ the
rule of $udah in the south and then of all -srael *c. A888+" Through his
military and administrati#e abilities and his political acumen 9a#id
established a centrali:ed rule in -srael cleared the territory of foreign
in#aders and in the absence of any aggressi#e foreign empire in the
area created his own petty empire o#er neighbouring cityDstates and
peoples" He established his capital in $erusalem which until then had
maintained its independence as a &anaanite cityDstate wedged between
the territories of <aul=s tribe Ben(amin and 9a#id=s tribe $udah and
mo#ed the ark there from the small -sraelite town in which it had been
stored by the 6hilistines establishing it in a tent shrine" This felicitous
combination of holy ark political reign and central city was to be hailed
and proclaimed by future ages" Nnder 9a#id=s successor his son
<olomon *reigned c. I4A@I//+ -srael became a thri#ing commercial
power; numerous impressi#e buildings were erected including the
magnificent Temple *a concrete symbol of the religiopolitical unity of
-srael+; a large harem of foreign princesses was ac0uired sealing
relations with other states; the country was di#ided into A/ districts for
administrati#e supply and ta)ation purposes" ,oreign cults set up to
ser#e the Cing=s foreign wi#es and foreign traders led to charges of
idolatry and apostasy by religious conser#ati#es" -n the latter years of
his reign <olomon=s unpopular policies such as oppressi#e forced
labour led to internal discontent and rebellion while e)ternally the
#assal nations of 9amascus *Aram+ and Edom staged successful re#olts
against his rule" The central and northern tribes called -srael in the
restricted sense were especially galled by the oppressi#e policies and
soon after <olomon=s death -srael split off to become a separate
kingdom" The united monarchy thus became the di#ided monarchy of
-srael *the northern kingdom+ and $udah *the southern kingdom+"
,rom the period of the di#ided monarchy through the restoration
The di#ided monarchy: from $eroboam - to the Assyrian con0uest
$eroboam - the first king of the new state of -srael made his capital first
at <hechem then at Tir:ah" >ecogni:ing the need for religious
independence from $erusalem he set up official sanctuaries at 9an and
Bethel at the two ends of his realm installing in them golden cal#es *or
bulls+ for which he is castigated in the antiDnorthern account in the ,irst
Book of the Cings" -srael engaged in conflicts with $udah and
sometimes (ointly with $udah against foreign powers" At first there was
great dynastic instability in the northern kingdom until the accession of
Omri *reigned c. 22E@c. 2./+ one of its greatest kings who founded a
dynasty that lasted through the reign of his two grandsons *to 2E/+"
Nnder Omri an impressi#e building program was initiated at the capital
5oab was sub(ugated *an e#ent confirmed in an e)trabiblical source
the 5oabite <tone+ and amicable relations were established with $udah"
The 6hoenician kingdom of Tyre was made an ally through the marriage
of his son Ahab to the Tyrian princess $e:ebel" Ahab *reigned c. 2.E@21?
B&E+%unless the episode recounted in - Cings chapter /8 actually
took place four reigns later%fought off an attempt by 9amascus
heading a coalition of kings to take o#er -srael" !ear the end of his
reign Ahab (oined with 9amascus and other neighbouring states to
fight off the incursions of the great Assyrian Empire in their area"
6eaceful relations were cemented with $udah through the marriage of
Ahab=s daughter *or sister+ Athaliah to $ehoram the son of the king of
$udah *not to be confused with Ahab=s son $ehoram of -srael+" But the
establishment of a pagan Baal temple for $e:ebel and her attempt to
spread her cult aroused great opposition on the part of the :ealous
Jahwists among the common people" There was also resentment at the
despotic Oriental manner of rule that Ahab incited by $e:ebel
e)ercised" <he and her cult were challenged by Eli(ah a prophet whose
fierce and righteous character and acts as illumined by legend are
dramatically depicted in the ,irst Book of the Cings" -n the reign of
Ahab=s son $ehoram Eli(ah=s disciple Elisha inspired the slaughter of
$e:ebel and the whole royal family as well as of all the worshippers of
Baal thus putting a stop to the Baalist threat" $ehu $ehoram=s general
who led this massacre became king and established a dynasty that
lasted almost a century *c. 2E/@.E1+ the longest in the history of -srael"
5eanwhile in $udah the Baal cult introduced by Athaliah the 0ueen
mother and effecti#e ruler for a time was suppressed after a re#olt led
by the chief priests in which Athaliah was killed and her grandson $oash
*$ehoash+ was made king" -n the ensuing period down to the final fall of
the northern kingdom $udah and -srael had #arying relations of conflict
and amity and were in#ol#ed in the alternati#e e)pansion and loss of
power in their relations with neighbouring states" 9amascus was the
main immediate enemy which anne)ed much of -srael=s territory
e)ercised su:erainty o#er the rest and e)acted a hea#y tribute from
$udah" Nnder $eroboam -- *.2?@.EA+ in -srael and N::iah *A:ariah; .2?@
.E/+ in $udah both of whom had long reigns at the same time the two
kingdoms cooperated to achie#e a period of prosperity tran0uillity and
imperial sway une0ualled since <olomon=s reign" The threat of the rising
Assyrian Empire under TiglathD6ileser --- soon re#ersed this situation"
'hen a coalition of antiDAssyrian states including -srael marched
against $udah to force its participation the $udahite king Aha: *c. .?1@
./8+ called on Assyria for protection; the result was the defeat of -srael
which suffered hea#ily in capti#es money tribute and lost pro#inces
while $udah became a #assal state of Assyria" -n about ./A after an
aborti#e re#olt under Cing Hoshea the rump state of -srael was
anne)ed outright by Assyria and became an Assyrian pro#ince; its elite
cadre amounting to nearly ?8888 according to Assyrian figures was
deported to 5esopotamia and 5edia and settlers were imported from
other lands" Thus the northern kingdom of -srael ceased to e)ist" -ts
decline and fall were a ma(or theme in the prophecies of Amos Hosea
-saiah and 5icah"
The final period of the kingdom of $udah
5eanwhile the southern kingdom of $udah was to ha#e another century
and a half of e)istence before a similar and e#en grimmer fate befell it"
He:ekiah *reigned c. .A1@c. 424+ who instituted a religious reform to
return worship to a pure Jahwist form also displayed political
independence (oining a coalition of 6alestinian states against Assyria"
But the coalition was soon defeated and $udah%with $erusalem
besieged%bought off the Assyrians led by <ennacherib with tribute" -n
the reign of 5anasseh *c. 424@c. 4E/+ there was a re#i#al of pagan rites
including astral cults in the #ery forecourts of the temple of JH'H
child sacrifice and temple prostitution; hence he is usually portrayed as
the most wicked of the kings of $udah" -f he had any tendencies toward
independence from Assyrian domination they apparently were
suppressed by his being taken in chains to Babylon where he was
molded into proper #assal beha#iour although one edifying and
probably unhistorical biblical account reports his repentance and
attempt at religious reform after his return to $udah" The great religious
reform took place in the reign of his grandson $osiah *4E8@48I+ during a
period when the Assyrian Empire was in decline and was precipitated by
the disco#ery of the Book of the 7aw during the restoration of the
Temple" -t was proclaimed by the king to be the 7aw of the realm and
the people pledged obedience to it" -n accordance with its admonitions
the pagan altars and idols in the Temple were remo#ed rural
sanctuaries *Ghigh placesH+ all the way into <amaria were destroyed
and the $erusalem Temple was made the sole official place of worship"
*,or an identification of the law book with the legal portion of
9euteronomy see below Old Testament literature: 9euteronomy"+
$osiah also made an attempt at political independence and e)pansion
but was defeated and killed in a battle with the Egyptians the new allies
of the fading Assyrian Empire" 9uring the reigns of his sons $ehoiakim
*c. 48I@1I2+ and Fedekiah *1I.@124+ $udah=s independence was
gradually e)tinguished by the might of the new dominant Babylonian
Empire under !ebuchadre::ar" The end came in 124 with the
Babylonian capture of $erusalem and the destruction of the principal
buildings including the Temple and the fortifications" The first
deportation of $udahites to Babylon during the brief reign of $osiah=s
grandson $ehoiachin in 1I. was followed by the great deportation of
124 which was to be a theme of lament and remembrance for millennia
to come" *!umerous $ews also migrated to Egypt during this troubled
time"+ E)hortations and prophecies on the decline and fall of $udah are
to be found in Fephaniah !ahum Habakkuk and $eremiah *who played
a significant role in the e#ents+ while the conditions and meaning of the
e)ile are proclaimed by E:ekiel and 9euteroD-saiah *chapters E8@11 of
-saiah+"
The Babylonian E)ile and the restoration
The Babylonian E)ile *124@1?2+ marks an epochal di#iding point in Old
Testament history standing between what were subse0uently to be
designated the preDe)ilic and postDe)ilic eras" The $udahite community
in Babylonia was on the whole more Jahwist in religion than e#er
following the 5osaic 7aw emphasi:ing and redefining such distincti#e
elements as circumcision and the sabbath and stressing personal and
congregational prayer%the beginnings of synagogal worship" -t is
possible that they also reached an understanding of historical e#ents
*like that taught by the great preDe)ilic and e)ilic prophets+%as the
chastening acts of a uni#ersal ;od acting in history through
!ebuchadre::ar and other con0uerors" To this period is also ascribed
the beginning of the compilation of significant portions of the Old
Testament and of the organi:ing #iew behind it" -n any e#ent it was
from this community that the leadership and the cadres for the
resurrection of the $udahite nation and faith were to come when &yrus
the ;reat *labelled Gthe 7ord=s anointedH in 9euteroD-saiah+ con0uered
Babylon and made it possible for them to return *1?2+" A contingent of
about 18888 persons including about E888 priests and .888 sla#es
returned under <heshba::ar a prince of $udah"
The first great aim was the rebuilding of the Temple as the centre of
worship and thus also of national e)istence; this was completed in 1A1
under the administration of Ferubbabel and became the place of
uninterrupted sacrificial worship for the ne)t ?18 years" The ne)t task
was to rebuild the walls of $erusalem which was undertaken by
!ehemiah a Babylonian $ew and court butler who was appointed
go#ernor of $udah and arri#ed in EEE" !ehemiah also began religious
reforms emphasi:ing tithing obser#ance of the sabbath and the
prohibition against intermarriage with GforeignH women" This reform
was carried through systematically and :ealously by E:ra a priest and
scribe who came from Babylon about E88 B&E called the people
together and read them the Gbook of the law of 5osesH to bring them
back to the strict and proper obser#ance maintained in Babylon:
circumcision sabbath obser#ance keeping the feasts and to seal it all
a#oiding intermarriage" *-n this presentation modern critical
scholarship is being followed placing !ehemiah before E:ra instead of
the traditional se0uence which re#erses the positions"+ Haggai
Fechariah and 5alachi are the prophets of this restoration period" E:ra
and !ehemiah are its narrators"
-t was in this period that enmity between the $ews or $udaeans as they
came to be called and the <amaritans a term applied to the inhabitants
of the former northern kingdom *-srael+ was e)acerbated" -t has been
surmised that this goes back to the old political ri#alry between -srael
and $udah or e#en further back to the conflict between the tribes of
$oseph and $udah" <cholars ascribe the e)acerbation of enmity in the
restoration period #ariously to the <amaritans= being e)cluded from
participating in the rebuilding of the Temple; to !ehemiah=s rebuilding
of the walls of $erusalem *regarded as a threatening act by the
<amaritan authorities+; or to the proscriptions of intermarriage by E:ra"
The animus of the $ews against the <amaritans is fre0uently e)pressed
in the biblical books dealing with the restoration *e)pressions perhaps
engendered by later e#ents+ but the attitude of the <amaritans and a
good deal else about them is not e#ident" At some time they became a
distinct religious community with a temple of their own on 5t" ;eri:im
and a <cripture that was limited solely to the 6entateuch e)cluding the
6rophets and 'ritings"
Old Testament history proper ends with the e#ents described in the
books of E:ra and !ehemiah" The books of &hronicles gi#e all the
preceding history from Adam to the Babylonian sack of $erusalem and
the e)ile" The last two #erses of the <econd Book of the &hronicles are
repeated in the first two #erses of E:ra: ;od inspires &yrus to send the
$ews back to $erusalem to rebuild the Temple" The 6ersian period of
$ewish history ended with the con0uest of Ale)ander the ;reat in ?/?
B&E to begin the Hellenistic era in which some of the biblical *including
apocryphal or deuterocanonical+ writings were created *for Hellenistic
$udaism see $udaism+"
Old Testament literature
The Torah *7aw 6entateuch or ,i#e Books of 5oses+
&omposition and authorship
The Torah or 6entateuch *,i#e <crolls+ traditionally the most re#ered
portion of the Hebrew canon comprises a series of narrati#es
interspersed with law codes pro#iding an account of e#ents from the
beginning of the world to the death of 5oses" 5odern critical
scholarship tends to hold that there were originally four books *;enesis
E)odus 7e#iticus and !umbers+ resulting from the di#ision into
manageable scrolls%a soDcalled Tetrateuch%to which later was added
a fifth scroll or book 9euteronomy" A theory once widely held that the
Book of $oshua was originally integral with the first fi#e books to form a
He)ateuch *<i) <crolls+ is now generally regarded as dubious"
The traditional $ewish and &hristian #iew has been that 5oses was the
author of the fi#e books that Gof 5osesH means Gby 5osesH citing in
support passages in the 6entateuch itself that claim 5osaic authorship"
<ince these claims howe#er are written in the third person the
0uestion still arises as to the authorship of the passages; e.g., in
9euteronomy chapter ?A #erse I: GAnd 5oses wrote this law and ga#e
it to the priests " " " and to all the elders of -srael"H The last eight #erses
of 9euteronomy *and of the 6entateuch+ describing 5oses= death were
a problem e#en to the rabbis of the /nd century &E who held that Gthis
lawH in the #erse 0uoted refers to the whole Torah preceding it" There
are also other passages that seem to be written from the #iewpoint of a
much later period than the e#ents they narrate"
The documentary hypothesis
Beyond these ob#ious discrepancies modern literary analysis and
criticism of the te)ts has pointed up significant differences in style
#ocabulary and content apparently indicating a #ariety of original
sources for the first four books as well as an independent origin for
9euteronomy" According to this #iew the Tetrateuch is a redaction
primarily of three documents: the Jahwist or $ *after the ;erman
spelling of Jahweh+; the Elohist or E; and the 6riestly code or 6" They
refer respecti#ely to passages in which the Hebrew personal name for
;od JH'H *commonly transcribed GJahwehH+ is predominantly used
those in which the Hebrew generic term for ;od Elohim is
predominantly used and those *also Elohist+ in which the priestly style
or interest is predominant" According to this hypothesis these
documents%along with 9euteronomy *labelled 9+%constituted the
original sources of the 6entateuch" On the basis of internal e#idence it
has been inferred that $ and E are the oldest sources *perhaps going as
far back as the A8th century B&E+ probably in that order and 9 and 6
the more recent ones *to about the 1th century B&E+" ;enesis E)odus
and !umbers are considered compilations of $ E and 6 with 7e#iticus
assigned to 6 and 9euteronomy to 9"
The Jahwist or $ is the master of narrati#e in biblical literature who
sketches people by means of stories" He takes his materials where#er he
finds them and if some are crude he does not care as long as they make
a good story" The book of ;enesis for e)ample contains the story of
Abraham=s passing off his wife as his sister so if the king took her as a
concubine he would honour her supposed brother instead of ha#ing her
husband killed a story told by $ without any moralistic homily" !ot
gi#en to subtle theological speculations $ nearly always refers to the
9eity as JH'H by his specifically -sraelite personal name *usually
rendered Gthe 7ordH in English translations+ though he is not
hidebound and also employs the term Elohim *G;odH+ especially when
nonDHebrews are speaking or being addressed" He presents ;od as one
who acts and speaks like human persons a being with whom they ha#e
direct intercourse" The Jahwist howe#er has one #ery definite
theological *or theoDpolitical+ preoccupation: to establish -srael=s
di#inely bestowed right to the land of &anaan"
5ore reflecti#e and theological in the apologetic sense is the Elohist or
E" !o fragment of E on the prime#al history *presented in the first AA
chapters of ;enesis+ has been preser#ed and it is probable that none
e#er e)isted but that the Elohist began his account with the patriarchs
*presented in the remainder of ;enesis in which the $ and E strands are
combined+" The first passage that can be assigned to E with reasonable
certainty is chapter /8 of ;enesis which parallels the two $ #ariants of
the G<he is my sisterH story noted abo#e" Nnlike these it tries to
mitigate the offensi#eness of the subterfuge: though the patriarch did
endanger the honour of his wife to sa#e his life his statement was not
untrue but merely *deliberately+ misleading" The Elohist is also distinct
from the Jahwist in generally a#oiding the presentation of ;od as being
like a human person and treating him instead as a more remote less
directly accessible being" <ignificantly E a#oids using the term JH'H
throughout ;enesis *with one apparent e)ception+ and it is only after
telling how ;od re#ealed his proper name to 5oses in chapter ? of
E)odus that he refers to ;od as JH'H regularly though not
e)clusi#ely" This account *paralleled in the 6 strand in chapter 4 of
E)odus+ is apparently based on a historical recollection of 5oses=
paramount role in establishing the religion of JH'H among the
-sraelites *the former Hebrew sla#es+" Also noteworthy is E=s choice of
the term prophet for Abraham and his characteri:ation of a prophet as
one who is an effecti#e intercessor with ;od on behalf of others" This is
in line with his speculations on the uni0ue character of 5oses as the
great intercessor as compared with other prophets *and also with
$oshua as 5oses= attendant+"
-t is inferred from certain internal e#idence that E was produced in the
northern kingdom *-srael+ in the 2th century B&E and was later
combined with $" Because it is not always possible or important to
separate $ from E the two together are commonly referred to as $E"
The third ma(or document of the Tetrateuch the 6riestly code or 6 is
#ery different from the other two" -ts narrati#e is fre0uently interrupted
by detailed ritual instructions by bodies of standing laws of a ritual
character and by dry and e)hausti#e genealogical lists of the
generations" According to one theory the main author of 6 seems to
ha#e worked in the .th century and to ha#e been the editor who
combined the $ and E narrati#es; for his own part he is content to add
some brief drab records%with fre0uent dates%of births marriages
and migrations" The 6 material is to be found not merely in 7e#iticus but
throughout the Tetrateuch including the early chapters of ;enesis and
one of the creation accounts and ranging from the prime#al history
*Adam to !oah+ to the 5osaic era" 7ike the Elohist 6 uses the term
Elohim for ;od until the selfDnaming of ;od to 5oses *E)odus chapter
? in the 6 strand+ and shows a nonDanthropomorphic transcendent
stress"
The 9euteronomist or 9 has a distincti#e hortatory style and
#ocabulary calling for -srael=s conformity with JH'H=s co#enant laws
and stressing his election of -srael as his special people *for a detailed
consideration of 9 see below 9euteronomy: -ntroductory discourse+" To
the 9euteronomist or the 9euteronomic school is also attributed the
authorship of the ,ormer 6rophets *$oshua $udges <amuel and Cings+
which scholars call the G9euteronomic history"H
Other 6entateuchal theories
This documentary theory of the composition of the 6entateuch has been
challenged by eminent /8thDcentury scholars who ha#e offered
alternati#e or additional methods of analysis and interpretation" ,orm
criticism for e)ample has stressed particular literary forms and the
historical setting out of which they arose: the sagas laws legends and
other forms and the particular tribal or cultic conte)t that gi#es them
meaning" Tradition criticism centres on the preDliterary sources; i.e., on
the oral traditions and the circles out of which they originated as
accounting for the #ariety of the materials in the 6entateuch"
Archaeological criticism has tended to substantiate the reliability of the
typical historical details of e#en the oldest periods and to discount the
theory that the 6entateuchal accounts are merely the reflection of a
much later period" The new methods of criticism ha#e ser#ed to direct
attention to the life e)perience and religion out of which the
6entateuchal writings arose and to take a less static and literal #iew of
the constituent documentary sources; yet most scholars still accept the
documentary theory in its basic lines as the most ade0uate and
comprehensi#e ordering of the #ariegated 6entateuchal materials" The
following presentation rests mainly on an analysis and interpretation of
the literary sources" *<ee below The critical study of biblical literature:
e)egesis and hermeneutics"+
-n any case the fi#e books that ha#e come down in #arious te)ts and
#ersions ha#e been seen as a unit in the religious communities that
preser#ed them" Their basic content may be di#ided thus: *A+ beginnings
of the world and man%the prime#al history; */+ patriarchal narrati#es%
from Abraham to $oseph; *?+ Egyptian sla#ery and the E)odus; *E+ the
re#elation and &o#enant at <inai; *1+ wanderings and guidance in the
wilderness *di#isible into two separate subDblocks before and after
<inai+; *4+ #arious legal materials%the 9ecalogue &o#enant &ode and
passages of cultic and 9euteronomic laws%interspersed in the
narrati#e which take up the greater portion of the 6entateuch"
;enesis
This book is called Bereshit in the Hebrew original after its first word
*and the first word of the Bible+ meaning G-n the beginning"H -t tells of
the beginnings of the world and man and of those acclaimed as
ancestors of the Hebrew people%all under the shaping action and
purpose of ;od" The book falls into two main parts: chapters A@AA
dealing with the prime#al history and chapters A/@18 dealing with the
patriarchal narrati#es; the latter section is again di#isible into the story
of Abraham -saac and $acob *chapters A/@?4+ and the story of $oseph
*chapters ?.@18+ which may be treated as a unit of its own"
The prime#al history
The Bible begins with the creation of the uni#erse" -t tells the story with
images borrowed from Babylonian mythology transformed to e)press
its own distincti#e #iew of ;od and man" Out of primary chaos
darkness #oid depths and waters ;od creates the hea#en and the earth
and all that dwell therein%a coherent order of things%by his will and
word alone" He says G7et there be " " "H and there is" Actually there are
two creation accounts: the first *A@/:E+ ascribed to 6 simply gi#es a
terse dayDbyDday account including the culminating creation of man in
the di#ine Gimage and likenessH followed by the primordial sabbath on
the se#enth day" The other */:E@/1+ ascribed to $ starts with an arid
wasteland and the creation of man *Adam+ described specifically as
being formed by ;od out of dust and made into a li#ing thing by ;od
blowing the breath of life into him" He and the woman *E#e+ created for
him out of his rib are put into a paradisal garden *Eden+ especially
created for them to till and to tend and to sustain life" The two are
forbidden only to eat of the tree of the knowledge of good and e#il on
pain of death *there is also a tree of life in the middle of the garden+" The
cosmic setting and concern of the 6 account is thus followed by the
human setting and concern of the $ account" &reation is followed by
temptation disobedience and fall and all that follows from that for the
history of mankind" At the instigation of the serpent the shrewdest of
the beasts who holds out the possibility of attaining godlike knowledge
the woman eats of the fruit of the tree of knowledge and gi#es some to
her husband to eat also" Their distinction from beasts and children
manifests itself immediately by a sense of modesty about e)posing their
bodies and loincloths become the first products of the higher
knowledge" The primal human couple are punished by ;od for their
disobedience by being dri#en out of the idyllic garden into the world of
pain toil and death"
The reason gi#en by JH'H to the di#ine beings is: GBehold the man
has become like one of us knowing good and e#il; and now lest he put
forth his hand and take also of the tree of life and eat and li#e for e#er"H
These words apparently point back to the polytheistic mythology *the
e)istence of di#ine magical powers; the gods= (ealousy of mankind; the
tree of eternal life; etc"+ from which the Jahwist drew his images and
symbols e)plaining man=s suffering frustration and limitation" -n the
biblical framework and rendering *and subse0uent interpretation+ the
archaic stories and images ac0uire a different meaning suitable to the
idea of a transcendent deity and an imperfect mankind"
'ith the e)ile from the garden human history and culture begins" -n the
story of Adam=s sons &ain and Abel man has already become a
herdsman and farmer and also a murderer: again probably a reflection
of older mythical material and again one that puts an emphasis on
human sin and estrangement from ;od" -n the story of the ,lood that
follows there are e#ident borrowings from the 5esopotamian stories of
a flood sent by the gods to destroy mankind but in the biblical account
it is emphasi:ed that man=s e)treme wickedness is the cause and that
!oah is sa#ed along with his family by ;od=s deliberate choice because
he is a righteous man" *-n the flood story in the Babylonian ;ilgamesh
epic by contrast there is no apparent moral reason why the gods
resol#ed to destroy mankind and the only reason why the hero of the
,lood and his kin are sa#ed is that he is fa#oured by one of the gods
who tricks the others including the chief god"+ After the ,lood ;od
blesses !oah and bestows on man the earth and the things on it for
sustenance and makes a co#enant with !oah and all creatures that he
will ne#er again unleash a worldDdestroying flood" The permanent order
of the world is assured and ;od=s blessing and co#enant make their
first e)plicit appearance in the Bible"
-n the story of the Tower of Babel the final story in the prime#al history
a primal unity of mankind in which there is only one language is
shattered when in their pride men decide to build a city and a tower
that will reach up to the hea#ens" JH'H again takes steps to check
dangerous collaboration: He says *to the celestial council+ G&ome let
us go down and there confuse their language that they may not
understand one another=s speechH and scatters them o#er the earth"
Again the Jahwist has apparently used ancient mythological motifs to
e)plain the di#ersity of mankind; the story may be regarded as simply a
direct borrowing from the older traditions without any monotheistic
adaptation; in its te)tual setting howe#er it may also be taken as
another instance of the ruin of primal harmony by human willfulness
and pride"
The patriarchal narrati#es
The uni#ersal primal history of man in the first AA chapters of ;enesis is
followed by an account of the fathers of the Hebrew people; i.e., of the
origins of a particular group" ,rom a literary point of #iew this portion
may be di#ided into the sagas of Abraham -saac and $acob and the
story of $oseph" Although these narrati#es are not historical in the
ordinary sense they ha#e an e#ident historical setting and refer to
#arious particulars that fit in with what is generally known of the time
and area" They apparently rest on the traditions of particular families
clans or tribes and were probably passed down orally before they took
written form" Theologically they are an account of a di#ine promise and
&o#enant and of man=s faith and unfaith in response with Abraham as
the model man of faith"
The Elohist as well as $ and 6 tells the remarkable story of how ;od
singled out Abraham *Abram+ to migrate from 5esopotamia and
so(ourn in &anaan promised him that he would make him the ancestor
of great nations and that his posterity would inherit the land of his
so(ournings and singled out as the heirs to the latter promise first
-saac Abraham=s son by his chief wife <arah and then $acob the
younger of -saac=s two sons; how $acob ac0uired the additional name of
-srael and how the wi#es children and children=s children who in
$acobD-srael=s own lifetime came to constitute a family of .8 souls
became the nucleus of the -sraelite people; and how it came about that
this ethnic group prior to becoming as promised the masters of the
land of their so(ournings first #acated it to so(ourn for a time in Egypt"
Apart from the lowDkeyed 6 strand it is mostly splendid narrati#e
including the Elohist=s account of the *aborted+ sacrifice of -saac by his
father in response to ;od=s command a terse story packed with
meaning and the $oseph story about the son of $acob who is sold into
sla#ery by his brothers rises to a high post in the Egyptian court and
ultimately helps his family to settle in Egypt" The A/ sons of $acobD-srael
are eponymous ancestors of -sraelite tribes *ancestors after whom the
tribes are named+; the actions and fortunes of the eponymous ancestors
including certain blessings and other pronouncements of $acobD-srael
account for the future positions and fortunes of the particular tribes"
Though there is less history and more legend much of the atmosphere
of an older age is preser#ed with the patriarchs represented as
seminomadic essentially peaceful and pastoral tent dwellers%alien
residents%among the settled &anaanites and as obser#ing customs
otherwise only attested in 5esopotamia" Anachronistic features
howe#er insinuate themsel#es from time to time"
The ;od of the patriarchs is presented as Jahweh%e)plicitly by the
Jahwist and implicitly by E and 6%i.e., as the same ;od who would
later speak to 5oses" ;od apparently was originally the personal
tutelary deity of each of the patriarchs called by a #ariety of names and
later unified into the one ;od of Abraham -saac and $acob" There are
#arious cult legends in this portion of ;enesis etiological accounts of
the origins of #arious cult sites and practices; though probably of
&anaanite origin these all indicate the places and customs held holy by
the -sraelites and perhaps also by their claimed Hebrew ancestors"
There are direct appearances of ;od to some of the main figures in the
narrati#es intimate personal communication between men and ;od"
;od=s particular blessing upon and &o#enant with Abraham is the
paradigmatic high point to be referred back to continually in later
biblical and postDbiblical traditions"
E)odus
The title *in the ;reek 7atin and English #ersions+ means Ga going outH
referring to the seminal e#ent of the liberation of -srael from Egyptian
bondage through the wondrous acts and power of ;od" The book
celebrates and memoriali:es this great sa#ing e#ent in song and story
and also the awesome re#elation and co#enant at 5t" <inai" The
contents of the book may be summari:ed thus: *A+ -srael in Egypt */+
the E)odus and wanderings *?+ the &o#enant at <inai *E+ the apostasy
of the people and renewal of the &o#enant and *1+ the instructions on
building the Tabernacle and their e)ecution"
>edemption and re#elation
<ignificant in the early chapters is ;od=s special concern for the Hebrew
sla#es his reference to them as Gmy peopleH and his re#elation to
5oses the rebel courtier whom he has picked to be their leader that he
is JH'H the ;od of their fathers an abiding presence that will rescue
them from their misery and bring them into &anaan the land of promise"
This assurance is repeated at the critical moments that follow *e.g., GAnd
- will take you for my people and - will be your ;odH+" -n the series of
frustrations obstacles and redeeming e#ents that are narrated ;od=s
special causal power and presence are represented as being at work"
;od hardens the 6haraoh=s heart sends plagues that afflict the
Egyptians but spare the Hebrews causes the waters to recede in the <ea
of >eeds *or 6apyrus 5arsh+ to permit passage to the fleeing -sraelites
and then to engulf the pursuing Egyptians *Gthe horse and his rider he
has thrown into the seaH+ and gi#es the people guidance in their
wandering in the wilderness" The cryptic GnameH that ;od gi#es to
himself in his re#elation to 5oses *'eh1e 'G/$h/ 'eh1e+ often translated
G- am that - amH or G- will be what - will beH may also be rendered G- will
cause to be that which - will cause to be"H -n either case it is a play on
and an implied interpretation of the name JH'H"
The constancy of ;od=s directi#e power and concern is displayed
notably in the period *E8 years+ of wilderness wandering *on the eastern
and southern borders of &anaan+ when -srael is tested and tempered
not only by hardship but also by rebellious despair that looks back
longingly to Egyptian bondage *see also below 2umbers+" ;od sends the
people bread from hea#en *manna+ and 0uail for their sustenance *$ and
6 strands+ and through 5oses brings forth hidden sources of water *$E
strand+" 'hen the Amalekites *a nomadic desert tribe+ attack 5oses
stationed on a nearby hill controls the tide of battle by holding high the
rod of ;od *a symbol of di#ine power+ and when the enemy is routed he
builds an altar called GThe 7ord is my bannerH *E strand+" Also inserted
here is the account *E+ of the #isit of 5oses= fatherDinDlaw $ethro a
priest of another people *5idianite+ who impressed by JH'H=s
mar#ellous deli#erance of -srael blesses e)tols and sacrifices to him%
under the name Elohim but in the conte)t the same ;od is clearly
meant"
;od=s power and presence manifest themsel#es impressi#ely in the
culminating account of the &o#enant at 5t" <inai *or Horeb+" The
people forewarned by ;od through 5oses agree beforehand to carry
out the terms of the &o#enant that is to be re#ealed because ;od has
liberated them from Egypt and promises to make them his special holy
people; they purify themsel#es for the ensuing &o#enant ceremony
according to ;od=s instructions" Jahweh appears in fire and smoke
attended by the blare of a ram=s horn at the top of the mountain where
he re#eals to 5oses the terms of the &o#enant which 5oses then
passes on to the people below" Here follow in the te)t the Ten
&ommandments and the soDcalled &o#enant &ode *or Book of the
&o#enant+ of lesser specific ordinances moral precepts and cultic
regulations accompanied by a promise to help the people con0uer their
enemies if they will ser#e no other gods" After this comes the &o#enant
ceremony with burnt offerings and the sacrifice of o)en with the blood
of the animals thrown both on the altar and on the people to
sacramentally seal the &o#enant followed by a sacral meal of 5oses
and the elders at the mountaintop during which they see ;od" 5any
modern scholars hold that this is presented as the initial form of a
&o#enant renewal ceremony that was repeated either annually or e#ery
se#en years in ancient -srael"
There are certain problems and apparent discrepancies in this account
that are e)plained by critical scholarship as deri#ing from the
combination of different sources mainly $ and E traditions or
emphases" -n the opening portion *chapter AI+ the people are gathered
at the foot of the mountain so as to hear and meet ;od and 5oses
himself brings down to them ;od=s words" -n a later portion */E:A/@A2
also ?/:A1@/8+ after the sacral meal 5oses goes up on the mountain to
recei#e Gthe tables of stone with the law and commandmentsH
inscribed by ;od himself and returns with two stone tablets written on
both sides by the hand of ;od%which he breaks in anger at the people=s
worship of the molten calf that has de#eloped in his absence" 7ater
*chapter ?E+ at ;od=s command 5oses cuts two new stone tablets
upon which after hearing ;od=s #arious promises and e)hortations he
writes Gthe words of the co#enant the ten commandmentsH; finally he
brings the new tablets down to the people and tells them what JH'H
has commanded" There seem to be two parallel accounts of the same
e#ent wo#en together by the skillful redactor into a continuing story"
There also seem to be two distinct strands in the account of the sealing
of the &o#enant in the first AA #erses of chapter /E" According to one
the elders are to worship from afar and only 5oses is to come near
JH'H; in the other strand as noted the elders eat the sacred meal on
the mountaintop in the direct presence of ;od"
7egislation
The book of E)odus includes not only the narrati#e and celebration of
;od=s redempti#e action in the E)odus and wanderings and his
re#ealing presence at 5t" <inai but also a corpus of legislation both
ci#il and religious that is ascribed to ;od and this re#elation e#ent" The
&o#enant &ode or Book of the &o#enant presented in chapters /8@/?
immediately following the 9ecalogue *Ten &ommandments+ opens with
a short passage on ritual ordinances followed by social and ci#il law
applying to specific situations *case law+ including the treatment of
sla#es capital crimes compensation for personal in(uries and property
damage moneylending and interest precepts on the administration of
(ustice and further ritual ordinances" <cholars generally date this code
in the later agricultural period of the settlement in &anaan but some
hold that it is analogous to more ancient !ear Eastern law codes and
may go back to 5oses or to his time" -n any case it seems to be a
compilation from #arious sources inserted into and breaking the flow of
the narrati#e"
-nstructions on the Tabernacle
Also interspersed in the story *chapters /1@?A+ are ;od=s detailed
instructions to 5oses for building and furnishing the Tabernacle the
clothing and ordination of priests and other liturgical matters"
According to this segment *e#idently 6 in inspiration+ an elaborate
structure is to be set up in the desert in the centre of the camp taken
apart transported and assembled again like the simple GTent of
5eetingH outside the camp where 5oses recei#ed oracular re#elations
from ;od" -ndeed the two concepts seem to ha#e fused and the
Tabernacle is also called the Tent of 5eeting" -ts prime function is to
ser#e as a sanctuary in which sacrifices and incense are offered on altars
and bread presented on a table; it is also e0uipped with #arious other
#essels and furnishings including a wooden ark or cabinet to contain
the two tablets of the &o#enant%the famous ark of the &o#enant" -t is
moreo#er to be the place of ;od=s occasional dwelling and meeting with
the people" <cholars belie#e that the elaborate details and materials
described stem from a later &anaanite period but that the essential
concept of a tent of meeting goes back to an earlier desert time" An
account of the e)ecution of the instructions for the building of the
Tabernacle is presented in chapters ?1@E8 *following the apostasy
tablet breaking and &o#enantDrenewal episodes+ which duplicates to
the letter the instructions in chapters /1@?A" After the Tabernacle is
completed and consecrated it is occupied by the GgloryH or presence of
JH'H symboli:ed by a cloud resting upon it" -t is on this note that the
book of E)odus ends"
7e#iticus
The cultic and priestly laws presented in E)odus are e)panded to take
up #irtually the whole of 7e#iticus the 7atin Bulgate title for the third of
the ,i#e Books of 5oses which may be translated the Book *or 5anual+
of 6riests" 'ith one e)ception *chapters 2@A8+ the narrati#e portions
are brief connecti#e or introductory de#ices to gi#e an ostensibly
narrati#e framework for the detailed lists of precepts that pro#ide the
book=s content" The source of 7e#iticus both for the legal and narrati#e
passages is definitely identified as 6; it is the only book in the soDcalled
Tetrateuch to which a single source is attributed" Apparently the book
consists of materials from #arious periods some of them going back to
the time of 5oses which were put together at a later date possibly
during or after the Babylonian E)ile" >ecent scholarship tends to
emphasi:e the ancient origin of much of the material as opposed to the
pre#ious tendency to ascribe a late e#en postDe)ilic date" 9espite its
content and its dry repetiti#e style many interpreters caution against
taking 7e#iticus as merely a dull spiritless manual of priestly ritual
holding that it is strictly inseparable from the ethical emphasis and
spiritual fer#our of the religion of ancient -srael" -t is in 7e#iticus that
the soDcalled law of lo#e GJou shall lo#e your neighbour as yourselfH
first appears" The rituals set forth drily here probably presuppose an
inward state in offering to ;od as well as humanitarian and
compassionate ethics"
The book may be di#ided thus: chapters A@. offerings and sacrifices;
chapters 2@A8 inauguration of priestly worship; chapters AA@A4
purification laws; chapters A.@/4 holiness code; chapter /.
commutation of #ows and tithes"
Offerings sacrifices and priestly worship
The first #erse attributes these regulations to JH'H who speaks to
5oses from the Tent of 5eeting beginning with the rules for offerings
by the indi#idual layman" These include burnt cereal peace sin and
guilt offerings all described in precise details" The prescription for
priestly offerings is about the same with some slight differences in the
order of actions and is presented much more briefly" -n chapters 2@A8
the narrati#e that was interrupted at the end of E)odus is resumed and
the ordination of Aaron and his sons by 5oses before the people
assembled at the door of the Tent of 5eeting is described as are
#arious animal sacrifices by Aaron and his sons under 5oses= direction
and the subse0uent appearance of ;od=s GgloryH to the people" Aaron=s
two older sons are burned to death by fire issuing forth from ;od
because they ha#e offered Gunholy fire"H This story apparently
emphasi:es the importance of adherence to the precise cultic details as
does also the account *at the end of the chapter+ of 5oses= anger at
Aaron=s two remaining sons for not eating the sin offering" These stories
were apparently used by the priestly authors to buttress the authority of
the Aaronic priesthood"
6urification laws
'ith chapter AA begin the regulations on ritual cleanness and
uncleanness starting with animals and other li#ing things fit and unfit
to eat%the basis of the famous $ewish dietary laws" Then come the
uncleanness and re0uired purification of women after childbirth skin
diseases healed lepers infected houses and genital discharges"
&hapter A4 which belongs in the narrati#e flow immediately after
chapter A8 describes the priestly actions on the 9ay of Atonement the
culmination of ritual cleansing in -srael" -t is a chapter rich in details on
-sraelite ritual and bound up with the salient religious theme of
atonement"
The Holiness &ode
!e)t *chapters A.@/4+ comes what has been designated the GHoliness
&odeH or G7aw of HolinessH which scholars regard as a separate
distincti#e unit within the 6 material *designated H+" -t calls upon the
people to be holy as ;od is holy by carrying out his laws both ritual and
moral and by a#oiding the polluting practices of neighbouring peoples;
and it proceeds to lay down laws interspersed with e)hortations to
attain this special holiness" Although many scholars tend to date its
compilation in the e)ilic period some see e#idence that it was compiled
in preDe)ilic times; in any case the consensus is that the laws
themsel#es come from a much earlier time"
These%a most miscellaneous collection%begin with in(unctions on the
proper *kosher+ slaughtering of animals for meat; go on to a list of
precepts against outlawed se)ual relations *incest homose)uality+ and
an in(unction against defiling the *holy+ land; proceed to a list of ethical
in(unctions including the law of lo#e and kindness to resident aliens all
interspersed with agronomic instructions and warnings against
witchcraft; and then after an in(unction against sacrificing children
return to the listing of illicit se)ual relations and the warning that the
land will spew the people out if they do not obey the di#ine norms and
laws" There follow special re0uirements for preser#ing the special
holiness of priests and assuring that only unblemished animals will be
used in sacrifices; instructions on the obser#ance of the holy days%the
sabbath feasts and festi#als; commands on the proper making of oil for
the holy lamp in the Tent of 5eeting and of the sacred shewbread to
which are appended the penalties for blasphemy and other crimes; and
finally rules for obser#ance of the sabbatical *se#enth+ and (ubilee
*18th+ years in which the land is to lie fallow followed by rules on the
redemption of land and the treatment of poor debtors and Hebrew
sla#es"
This miscellany presented in chapters A.@/1 is followed by a final
e)hortation in chapter /4 promising the people that if they follow these
laws and precepts all will go well with them but warning that if they fail
to do so all kinds of e#il will befall them including e)ile and the
desolation of the 6romised 7and" Jet if they confess their ini0uity and
atone for it ;od will not destroy them utterly but will remember his
&o#enant with their forebears" <uch a passage points to a later time but
not necessarily to the e)ilic period as some commentators ha#e
assumed" The chapter concludes: GThese are the statutes and
ordinances and laws which the 7ord made between him and the people
of -srael on 5t" <inai by 5osesH connecting these precepts with the
primal re#elation in E)odus"
&ommutation of #ows and tithes
-n the final chapter of 7e#iticus */.+ the 6 material is resumed with a
presentation of the rules for the commutation of #oti#e gifts and tithes"
-t pro#ides for the release from #ows *of offerings of persons animals
or lands to ;od+ through specified money payments" <ome
commentators understand the #ow to offer persons to refer originally to
human sacrifice others as pledging their liturgical employment in the
sanctuary" <pecial pro#isions are made for the poor to relie#e them from
the stipulated payments" Only grain and fruit tithes not animal tithes
are redeemable" This chapter and the book of 7e#iticus end like chapter
/4 with the #erse GThese are the commandments which the 7ord
commanded 5oses for the people of -srael on 5ount <inai"H
!umbers
-n the Hebrew Bible this book is entitled Bemidbar *-n the 'ilderness+
after one of its opening words while in English #ersions it is called
!umbers a translation of the ;reek <eptuagint title Arithmoi" Each of
the titles gi#es an indication of the content of the book: *A+ the narrati#e
of GE8 JearsH of wanderings in the wilderness or desert between <inai
and &anaan; and */+ the census of the people and other numerical and
statistical matters preceding and interspersing that account" -t is a
composite of #arious sources *$ E and predominantly 6+ and traditions
which as a whole continue the story of ;od=s special care and testing of
his people in the e#ents of the archaic period that formed them"
!umbers continues the account of what many modern scholars call the
Gsal#ation historyH of -srael which apprehends and narrates e#ents *or
the image and impact of e#ents+ as in#ol#ing di#ine action and
direction"
The conclusion of the <inai so(ourn
The book opens with a command from ;od to 5oses early in the second
year after the E)odus to take a census of the armsDbearing men o#er /8
in each of the clans of -srael" 5oses and Aaron aided by the clan chiefs
take the count clan by clan and reach a total of 48?118 men%
according to critical scholars an unbelie#ably large total for the time
and conditions" The 7e#ites to whom is entrusted the care of the
Tabernacle and its e0uipment are e)empted from this secular census
and are counted in a later census of males one month and o#er along
with a census of firstborn males from other tribes" The 7ord had
re0uired that the latter be consecrated to him when he slew all the
firstborn of the Egyptians but spared those of the -sraelites; now the
bulk of them were released by the 7e#ites being taken in their stead to
minister to the priests while for the e)cess of firstborn o#er 7e#ites
GredemptionH payments were collected" A further census of men ?8@18
years old is taken among the 7e#ite clans so as to assign them their
#arious duties which are here stipulated" Also specified are the
positions of the tribes *separated into four di#isions of three tribes
each+ in the camp and on the march with an assignment of specific
portions of the Tabernacle and its e0uipment to be carried by the 7e#ite
clans" JH'H is to gi#e the signal to break camp by lifting the cloud by
day or the fire by night from abo#e the Tabernacle and then to ad#ance
it in the direction the people are to march" JH'H=s signal is to be
followed by a blast by the priests *Aaron=s sons+ on two specially made
sil#er trumpets"
The abo#e directions are set forth in chapters A@E and I@A8 *through
#erse A8+" There are inter#ening chapters containing #arious materials:
e)pelling leprous or other unclean persons from the camp the ordeal for
a woman suspected of adultery regulations for !a:irites *those who
take special ascetic #ows+ the offerings brought at the dedication of the
Tabernacle and the purification of the 7e#ites preparatory to taking up
their special sacred functions" The priestly emphasis of the materials in
chapters A@A8 is e#ident and it is also clear that there are #arious
strands of priestly interpretation in#ol#ed"
'anderings in the desert of 6aran
This section apparently combines #arious traditions of how the
-sraelites came into 6alestine and $ E *or $E+ and 6 sources ha#e been
discerned in these chapters" The traditional GE8 yearsH in the wilderness
*?2 or ?I according to critical calculations+ were spent mostly in the
wilderness of 6aran with a short stay in the oasis of Cadesh according
to 6; while according to $ they spent most of their time in Cadesh; and
chapter A? #erse /4 puts Cadesh in the wilderness of 6aran thus
encapsulating both traditions" The discrepancy may stem from two
separate traditions of how the tribes entered &anaan: from the south or
from the north through Trans(ordan"
The 6 narrati#e begins *chapter A8 #erse AA+ with the lifting of the
cloud from the Tabernacle and the setting out of the -sraelites for the
6romised 7and with their holy Tabernacle and ark in the order
prescribed in chapter /" According to the 6 account *#erses AA@/2+ the
cloud settles down o#er the wilderness of 6aran the signal to make
camp; whereas in the $E account *#erses /I@?4+ it is the ark of the
&o#enant that goes ahead to seek out a stopping place and where it
stops the -sraelites rest the cloud simply accompanying them o#erhead
*perhaps to shield them from the bla:ing desert sun+" &hapters AA@A/
*$E+ deal with the complaints of the people about their hardships and
the rebellion of 5iriam and Aaron against their brother 5oses" 'hen
the people e)press their longing for the good food they had in Egypt and
their disgust with the un#arying manna ;od sends them a storm of
0uail which remain uneaten because he also sends them a plague" This
is a somewhat different account from that in E)odus but the point is the
same: the mighty infinite power of ;od *chapter AA #erse /?+" *Also
inserted here is the story of ;od #isiting his spirit on .8 selected elders
so that they may share 5oses= burdens"+ 'hen 5iriam and Aaron
0uestion ;od=s speaking only through 5oses ;od proclaims his uni0ue
relation with 5oses who alone recei#es direct re#elations from ;od not
indirectly through dreams and #isions like the prophets"
&hapters A?@AE tell of the despatch of spies from 6aran to reconnoiter
&anaan and of the despair rebellion and unsuccessful foray of the
people in response to the spies= reports" <cholars discern two separate
accounts of the spying incident artfully wo#en together" According to
the $E account the spies go only as far as Hebron in the south and
return with a glowing report of a fertile land which is howe#er they
warn too strongly defended to be taken from that 0uarter: only one spy
&aleb ad#ocates attacking it" -n the 6 account the spies reconnoiter the
whole country and gi#e a pessimistic report of it as a land that Gde#ours
its inhabitantsH who are moreo#er giants compared to the -sraelites"
The people cry out in despair at this report and want to go back to
Egypt while &aleb and $oshua *added by 6+ plead with them to trust in
;od and go forward to take the land" ;od disgusted with the people
condemns them to wander in the wilderness for E8 years and decrees
that only their children along with &aleb and $oshua shall enter into the
land of promise" >uefully the people now decide to attack and go forth
against 5oses= warning to a resounding defeat"
&hapter A1 is a 6 document or addition setting forth #arious ritual
regulations" &hapters A4@A2 deal with the comparati#e rights and
duties of priests and 7e#ites" &hapter A4 is a composite document
dealing with re#olts against 5oses and Aaron by certain 7e#ites who
0uestion their special authority in a community where all are holy as
also by certain >eubenites who resent 5oses= leadership" The dispute is
settled when /18 re#olting 7e#ites attempt to offer incense *a priestly
Aaronic function+ and are consumed by fire sent by ;od while the
leaders of the re#olt are swallowed up in the earth" Jet the stubborn
people continue their complaint against 5oses and Aaron bringing
forth the 7ord=s anger and a plague from which they are sa#ed by
Aaron=s *proper and effecti#e+ offering of incense" This latter incident
occurs in chapter A. in the Hebrew te)t and $ewish translations but
concludes chapter A4 in some &hristian #ersions" &hapter A. in both
arrangements with its story of Aaron=s rod associates 7e#itical with
Aaronic authority; Aaron=s name is inscribed on the staff of 7e#i which
alone among the staffs of the chiefs of the tribes of -srael blossoms and
bears fruit thus authenticating Aaron=s and thereby the 7e#ites=
special claims" The relati#e functions and payments *tithes+ of priests
and 7e#ites are prescribed in chapter A2" &hapter AI inserted here has
to do with purification from uncleanness incurred through touching the
dead accomplished through washing in water mi)ed with the ashes of a
red heifer"
E#ents in Edom and 5oab
&hapter /8 #erse AE resumes the narrati#e of -srael=s onward march
starting with their arri#al in the wilderness of Fin and stay at Cadesh
marked by 5iriam=s death and ;od=s e)clusion of 5oses and Aaron
from entering the 6romised 7and because of their ascribed lack of
confidence in ;od when 5oses drew forth water from a rock in response
to still more -sraelite complaints but did so in anger and impatience
striking the rock twice with his rod instead of telling it to gi#e forth
water as the 7ord had instructed *the incident of the waters of
5eribah+" >efused permission by the Cing of Edom to pass through that
land o#er the muchDused Cing=s Highway they proceed from Cadesh to
5t" Hor where Aaron dies and is succeeded by his son Elea:ar and
from which they proceed *chapter /A+ to bypass Edom in an attempt to
approach &anaan from the east" Arri#ed at the border of what was
geographically part of 5oab but politically the Amorite kingdom of
<ihon they are refused passage and proceed to defeat the Amorites and
take possession of their land" This is from the $E strand of the composite
narrati#e; the 6 strand does not recogni:e the e)istence of settled and
politically organi:ed populations between Cadesh and the plains of
5oab"
At this point in chapters //@/E apparently a #ery mi)ed composite of
#arious $ and E strands is presented the fascinating story *or collection
of stories+ of the nonD-sraelite seer or prophet Balaam from the region
of the 5iddle Euphrates" Alarmed at the -sraelite host encamped at his
border the Cing of 5oab commissions the seer Balaam to put a curse on
them but Balaam refuses at the order of JH'H who is also the ;od of
Balaam" On three occasions at the Cing=s re0uest Balaam seeks an
oracle from ;od against -srael but each time to the Cing=s rage he is
told by the 7ord that -srael is graced with the di#ine blessing and cannot
be cursed" The seer who is ordered back to his own country without
payment by the disgruntled Cing offers a final unsolicited oracle
prophesying the destruction of 5oab and other nations by -srael=s
might: G- will let you know what this people will do to your people in the
latter days"H
&hapter /1 *combining $E and 6 strands+ pro#ides a lurid interlude in
which the -sraelites go whoring after 5oabite women and offer
sacrifices and worship to their god Baal of 6eor" 6hinehas the son of
Elea:ar is so incensed at the sight of an -sraelite consorting with a
5idianite woman that he kills them both thus ending a plague that has
broken out and earning ;od=s special fa#our: a co#enant of perpetual
priesthood with him and his descendants *a forward reference to the
Fadokite priesthood of postDe)ilic times+" This account is connected by
the last two #erses with ;od=s call for -srael to harass and smite the
5idianites *see below+" After the plague ends in the account *6+ in
chapter /4 a second census of armsDbearing men and of the 7e#ites is
taken and again a fantastically large total 48A.?8 is gi#en perhaps
referring to a much later time" -t is noted at the end that all of the
pre#ious 48?.?8 had died in the wilderness as prophesied e)cept for
&aleb and $oshua who ha#e been especially picked out by ;od" This
census coming at the end of the E8Dyear period of wilderness
wanderings is for the purpose of allotting lands to the #arious tribes
and families" Hence the logical positioning of the passage *6+ in the first
AA #erses of chapter /. assuring that a family may inherit through a
daughter when there is no son and through a brother when there are no
children and through the closest relati#e when there are neither"
At this point *chapter /. #erse A/+ comes the impressi#e and poignant
passage *also 6+ in which 5oses ascends the heights at ;od=s bidding
to look o#er the 6romised 7and which he is not to enter and calls on
;od to appoint a leader to succeed him" At ;od=s command 5oses
selects $oshua and before the priest Elea:ar and the whole community
he lays his hands on him and commissions him to lead -srael" -t is
noteworthy that $oshua is in#ested only with some of 5oses= authority
and is to learn ;od=s will through Elea:ar and the sacred lot *Nrim+ not
directly as did 5oses"
Again the narrati#e is interrupted by three chapters *6+ dealing with
#arious religious regulations" &hapters /2@/I stipulate the sacrifices to
be made by the whole community daily on the sabbath at the new
moon and on these holidays: the ,east of Nnlea#ened Bread *6asso#er+
the ,east of 'eeks *<ha#uot+ The ,east of Trumpets i.e., !ew Jear
*>osh Hashana+ the 9ay of Atonement *Jom Cippur+ and the ,east of
Tabernacles *<ukkot+" The last two #erses of chapter /I specify that
these public offerings are in addition to indi#idual offerings such as
those specified in chapter A1" &ritical scholars hold that these elaborate
regulations stem from a much later *postDe)ilic+ period though they
may go back to #ery ancient practices" <ome see them as a liturgical
commentary on chapter /? of 7e#iticus which presents the cycle of
feasts and festi#als *see abo#e e(iticus+" &hapter ?8 gi#es women
special e)emption from keeping #ows *presumably of offerings or
abstinence+ when countermanded by a father or husband; only widows
or di#orcees are bound like men unconditionally to keep their #ows"
&hapter ?A likewise from 6 deals with the annihilation of the
5idianites following ;od=s command at the end of chapter /1" The
-sraelites a thousand from each tribe go forth to battle led by the priest
Elea:ar who carries the sacred #essels and the trumpets" They kill e#ery
man and sei:e all the mo#able property but spare the women and
children" 5oses howe#er orders e#ery male child and all non#irgin
women killed" There follow instructions for purification for the stain
caused by killing a person or touching a dead body and for the
distribution of the booty which includes sheep cattle asses and
?/888 #irgins" The rules are that half of the spoils go to the fighting
men half to the rest of the people; in addition the 7ord=s share is
allotted thus: one fi#eDhundredth of the fighting men=s portion goes to
the priest and oneDfiftieth of the people=s portion goes to the 7e#ites"
<cholars are inclined to treat this chapter as a piece of fiction intended
really to set forth the rules for purification and di#iding the spoils
through an in#ented story" The seerDdi#iner Balaam is here *#erse A4+
blamed for the whoring and apostasy incidents in chapter /1; but te)ts
pro#iding his connection with these e#ents are lacking"
&hapter ?/ dealing with the settlement east of the $ordan concludes
the narrati#e portion of !umbers and thus of the Tetrateuch *a story
that is continued in chapter ?E of 9euteronomy and in the Book of
$oshua+" This #ery composite account *$E6+ tells how the tribes of
>euben and ;ad after an initial angry remonstrance from 5oses are
granted permission to settle in the rich pasturelands east of the $ordan
on the assurance that after they erect sheepfolds and fortified towns for
their flocks and families they will pro#ide the shock troops
spearheading the ad#ance of the -sraelites into &anaan and will not
return to their homes until their brethren hold the land" Thereupon
5oses allots the #arious con0uered kingdoms and towns east of $ordan
to the ;adites and >eubenites" The #arious ;adite >eubenite and
5anassite towns are listed"
The rest of the book of !umbers *6 in its final form+ consists of an
itemi:ed summary of the route from Egypt to the plains of 5oab outside
&anaan *chapter ??+ and #arious additional materials *chapters ?E@?4+"
Berses 18@14 of chapter ?? present the di#ine command to dispossess
the people of &anaan destroy their idols and cultic places and
apportion the land to each clan by lot" -n chapter ?E the 7ord specifies
the boundaries of the whole land of &anaan that is to be -srael=s
inheritance and names the tribal leaders who along with Elea:ar and
$oshua are to o#ersee the di#ision of the land by lot" -n chapter ?1 the
7ord orders E2 towns with e)tensi#e pasturelands to be set aside for the
7e#ites; si) of these are to be cities of refuge for manslayers whose guilt
of intentional murder has not yet been determined and who are
pro#ided sanctuary from the traditional blood #engeance" Although
these settlements do not constitute an independent tribal territory but
are scattered through the territories of the other tribes the
contradiction with chapter A2 #erse /E of 7e#iticus commanding that
the 7e#ites are to ha#e no share of the land but are to subsist solely on
tithes is ob#ious and raises critical 0uestions" ,inally chapter ?4
concludes the book of !umbers with a supplement to the law of
inheritance through daughters laid down in chapter /. en(oining
daughters from marrying outside the tribe so that the tribe will hold its
portion of the land which was gi#en from ;od in perpetuity" As before
the general in(unction is laid down in a story dealing with a particular
case *the daughter of Felophehad+"
9euteronomy: -ntroductory discourse
<pecial nature and problems
The English title of this work meaning Gsecond lawH is deri#ed from a
faulty ;reek translation of chapter A. #erse A2 referring to Ga copy of
this lawH: the implication being that the book is a second law or an
e)panded #ersion of the original law for the new generation of -sraelites
about to enter &anaan" Hebrew te)ts take the opening words of the book
as title Ele haD9e#arim *These Are The 'ords+ or simply 9e#arim
*'ords+" As noted in &omposition and authorship abo#e the book is in
a class by itself in the 6entateuch so much so that modern scholars tend
to consider it apart from the other four books and some see it in style
content and concerns more closely related to the succeeding books of
$oshua $udges <amuel and Cings constituting a G9euteronomic
history"H -n spite of its homogeneous style and tone%it is assigned for
the most part to a single source 9%the content indicates to critical
scholars #ery composite traditions ages and situations behind the
finished form" This book has elicited a library of scholarship going back
to the early AIth century not only because of the complicated critical
and historical problems calling for solution but also because of its
spiritual and theological message which gi#es it a special place among
Old Testament writings"
-n form the book is ostensibly a discourse by 5oses Gto all -sraelH in the
final month in 5oab before they go o#er the $ordan into &anaan"
Actually it comprises three separate discourses a set of laws two
poems and #arious other matters all ascribed to 5oses directly%here
it is 5oses who sets forth the laws not ;od through him" These
materials are centred on the presentation of the rules of life and worship
for the coming stay in the 6romised 7and along with e)hortations and
e)planations pointing to JH'H the mar#ellous liberator from Egypt
and guide in the wilderness as the di#ine source and reason for the
commands" The traditional #iew was that with the possible e)ception of
the account of 5oses= death the whole book was written by 5oses
based on the phrase GAnd 5oses wrote this songH in chapter ?A #erse
//"
<ome early &hurch ,athers identified the book with Gthe book of the
lawH *-- Cings chapter // #erse 2+ found in the A2th year of Cing
$osiah=s reign *c. 4/A B&E+ and made the basis of his great religious
reform the following year" 'ilhelm 5"7" de 'ette a ;erman biblical
scholar in A281 established the predominant modern #iew that
9euteronomy *or its nucleus or main portion+ was found in $osiah=s
time and was a distincti#e book separate from the Tetrateuch" He also
held that it was composed shortly before its disco#ery; other more
recent scholars would put it as much as a century earlier and connect it
with earlier reforms while some associate it with the writings and
teachings of the 2thDcenturyDB&E prophet Hosea and with the E source"
,urthermore the references to localities near <hechem as cultic places
taken with certain passages in $oshua indicate a northern pro#enance
for the book and not the southern source connected with a cultic centre
at $erusalem as had been pre#iously supposed from the associated
material in -- Cings" <ome scholars see the form and occasion of
9euteronomy as a &o#enant renewal ceremony in which the whole law is
read as in $oshua chapter 2 #erses ?8@?1 and thus #iew it as a
liturgical document as well as a lawbook" -n any case the tendency is to
see #arious layers of materials and lines of transmission perhaps going
back to 0uite early preliterary sources before its final formation in the
2th or .th century B&E"
The book may be di#ided as follows: *A+ introductory discourse to the
whole book *chapter A to chapter E #erse E?+; */+ introductory discourse
to the lawbook *chapter E #erse EE through chapter AA+; *?+ the
lawbook *chapters A/@/2+; *E+ concluding e)hortation and traditions
about the last days and death of 5oses *chapters /I@?E+"
,irst introductory discourse of 5oses
The first introductory discourse spoken by 5oses traces the (ourney of
the -sraelites from 5t" Horeb to 5oab with some noticeable differences
in detail from the account in E)odus and !umbers and an emphasis on
5oses being banned from entrance into the 6romised 7and because the
7ord was angry at the -sraelites" To this historical retrospect is
appended an e)hortation to the people to obey ;od=s laws and norms
recalling the imageless ;od of the re#elation and &o#enant at Horeb as
a warning against making images and ser#ing manDmade gods" The
uni0ueness and soleness of the ;od of the E)odus and &o#enant his
power and presence in his mar#ellous acts of redemption and re#elation
and his gracious selection of -srael are proclaimed in rhetorical
0uestions; moreo#er it is emphasi:ed that the ;od of -srael *GJH'H
your ;odH+ Gis ;od in hea#en abo#e and on the earth beneath; there is
no other"H The in(unctions against idolatry appear to come from later
e)perience and religious crisis in &anaan" The fact that other nations
ha#e their own gods and ob(ects of worship is recogni:ed elsewhere in
9euteronomy"
<econd introductory discourse
The second discourse also ascribed to 5oses again refers to the
&o#enant at Horeb and sets forth the Ten &ommandments which the
people are admonished to obey rigorously emphasi:ing the mediating
function of 5oses at Horeb between the awesome di#ine presence and
the awestruck people" -srael is further admonished to obey the law
through wholehearted lo#e of ;od e)pressed in what became the
central liturgical e)pression of -srael=s faith beginning GHear O -srael:
The 7ord is our ;od the 7ord Alone" Jou must lo#e the 7ord your ;od
with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your might"H -f
they obey ;od=s laws a#oid other gods and do what is right and good
they will possess the land promised by ;od%him who rescued them
from Egypt and has brought them thus far" They are to a#oid marriage
and all other intercourse with the peoples of the land utterly destroying
them and their idolatrous altars and cultic places for they are a special
holy people chosen by ;od out of all the peoples because of his lo#e not
because of their greatness or power" This mar#ellous lo#e will continue
to be e)ercised and the people will be blessed with all good things%
prosperity fertility health and success in battle%if they obey ;od=s
ordinances" They are urged to remember the E8Dyear period of
wilderness wandering in which they were tested *disciplined+ by ;od
through hardship and hunger *to find out whether or not they would
keep his commands+ and sa#ed by him: man does not li#e by bread
alone but rather by whate#er ;od pro#ides *e.g., manna from hea#en+"
Another time of testing will come when they li#e in the rich fertile land
of &anaan and eat their fill and perhaps forget the 7ord and his laws
ascribing their wealth to their own power and might and e#en #enturing
into idolatrous worship of the gods of the land" -f they do so they shall
perish (ust as the idolatrous nations of the land shall"
A long list of the apostasies of -srael is presented in chapter I to
demonstrate the point that -srael is going in to possess the land of
&anaan not through any #irtue of their own but because of ;od=s
promise to the patriarchs" This is followed in chapter A8 by a mo#ing
declaration of what ;od re0uires of -srael%fear *re#erence+ walking in
his ways lo#e wholehearted ser#ice and keeping his commandments%
and an e)tolling of the wondrous uni0ue powerful ;od who liberated
them from Egypt" &hapter AA e)tols the richness of the land of &anaan
and describes how it will bloom for them if they are obser#ant of ;od=s
commandments and promises that they will hold the territory from the
wilderness to 7ebanon and from the Euphrates to the western sea
*5editerranean+" -t closes with the choice set before them by 5oses of
Ga blessing and a curseH%the former if they obey the commandments
the latter if they do not" This choice is posed to them immediately before
the presentation of the laws and norms beginning in chapter A/"
9euteronomy: the lawbook and the conclusion
The lawbook
The laws are the central core and purport of the book of 9euteronomy"
They are couched in a hortatory sermonic style that has led to their
being categori:ed as preached law" Emphatic statements of what must
or must not be done are connected with e)hortations to fulfill these
in(unctions pointing to the moti#ations and spirit in which they should
be carried out" There is a wide #ariety of laws here%ritual criminal
social%but they are all set within this preaching conte)t and aimed at
the ser#ice of ;od" This is no dry legal code but rather a book written in
fluent and mo#ing prose" <cholars ha#e seen duplications and parallels
between the laws presented here and those in the &o#enant &ode in
chapters /A@/? of E)odus; but to this a common source may be
ascribed and 9euteronomy may be considered a work in its own right
and not a mere e)pansion of the &o#enant &ode"
The lawbook comprises chapters A/@/4 supplemented by chapters /.@
/2" After an initial order to destroy the pagan cultic places and idols the
lawbook goes to its basic in(unction: to set up a single central sanctuary
in &anaan where all -srael is to make their offerings as distinct from the
present unregulated practice Ge#ery man doing whate#er is right in his
own eyes"H The spot is designated only Gthe place which the 7ord your
;od will chooseH which some interpreters following Cing $osiah ha#e
understood to be $erusalem and which others understand to be
<hechem" *The blessing and curse passage immediately preceding in
chapter AA specifies 5ts" ;eri:im and Ebal on either side of <hechem
as the places of blessing and curse respecti#ely; and an e#en more
elaborate ritual is prescribed for the same locality in chapter /."+
-nstructions are gi#en for the proper killing of animals for food
pre#iously connected with the sacrificial cult and the people are
admonished when they settle in &anaan not to in0uire about how other
nations ser#e their gods possibly to follow their abominable practices"
-nserted at this point is the striking e)hortation GE#erything that -
command you you shall be careful to do; you shall not add to it or take
from it"H
&hapter A? warns the people to beware of the temptations to apostasy
arising from the urging or e)ample of prophetDdi#iners kinfolk or
friends or a whole town; they are to kill the tempters and destroy the
towns" &hapter AE is de#oted mainly to a list of li#ing things that may or
may not be eaten the GcleanH and GuncleanH similar to the list in
7e#iticus chapter AA; and to laws for tithes and first fruits to be brought
annually to the central sanctuary and triennially to the 7e#ites in the
towns who are specified as ha#ing no GportionH of their own *two years
to the centre the third year to the town 7e#ites+" &hapter A1 deals
mainly with the releases to be granted e#ery se#enth year to debtors of
their debts and Hebrew sla#es of their bondage; lenders are e)horted
and commanded not to refuse loans to the poor in the sabbatical year of
release and ;od=s redemption of -srael from Egypt is gi#en as the
reason for freeing one=s Hebrew sla#es in the sabbatical release" The
first section of chapter A4 #erses A@A. gi#es the rules for celebrating
the three main festi#als of the religious year: Nnlea#ened Bread 'eeks
and Booths which are to be obser#ed at the central sanctuary *hence
later called the three pilgrim festi#als+"
Beginning with #erse A2 of chapter A4 there is a discussion of the
appointment and character of (udges and of (udicial procedures and
punishments for apostasy homicide and other crimes; similarly
beginning with #erse AE of chapter A. there are rules on the selection of
a king and for his conduct and the in(unction that he read from Ga copy
of this lawH so that he may be edified and chastened" The first portion
of chapter A2 deals with the office and support of priests referred to
here as Gthe 7e#itical priests " " " all the tribe of 7e#iH not distinguishing
the Aaronic priests from the lesser 7e#ites" This is followed%after a
passage in#eighing against abominable cultic and di#inatory practices
of the nations of the land%by a promise that ;od will raise up prophets
among the people and instructions on how to tell true from false
prophets" Thus the offices of (udge king priest and prophet are
considered in chapters A4@A2"
&hapter AI deals again with crime and punishment" -t distinguishes
between unintentional manslaughter and murder setting up cities of
refuge for the manslayer and ordering the murderer to be killed by the
blood a#engers" -t also lays down the rules for witnesses and the
punishment for per(ury" -t closes with the famous le) talionis: G7ife for
life eye for eye tooth for tooth hand for hand foot for footH which in
conte)t may spell out what is to happen to the false witness and e#en
could be interpreted as a moderating rather than an inhumane precept
*no more than an eye for an eye etc"+" &hapter /8 gi#es the rules for
holy war listing the situations that e)empt men from military ser#ice
*e.g., a newly married man+ and distinguishing the treatment of nonD
&anaanite and &anaanite cities; the latter are to be utterly destroyed yet
it is forbidden to destroy fruitDbearing trees" There are also rules on holy
war in /A:A8@AE; /?:I@AE; /E:1; and /1:A.@AI" &hapters /8@/1 contain
a great #ariety of laws; the (ust treatment of women capti#es se)ual
offenses e)clusions from the religious community public hygiene in
campgrounds and many other things"
The last of the laws are set forth in chapter /4 dealing with the first
fruits offering and tithes" At the annual offering *or soon after entering
&anaan+ in the central sanctuary the worshipper is to recite a piece
beginning GA wandering Aramaean was my fatherH affirming his link
with the patriarchs and e)tolling ;od=s wondrous deeds on behalf of
-srael" And e#ery third year he is to set aside his tithe Gto the 7e#ite the
so(ourner the fatherless and the widowH and make an affirmation
Gbefore the 7ordH that he has complied and a#oided any ritual stain"
The final passage in chapter /4 proclaims that Gthis dayH ;od has
proclaimed his law -srael has affirmed its commitment to ;od and his
law and ;od has affirmed his choice of -srael as his special holy people
to be set up high abo#e all the nations" This is the hortatory conclusion
to chapters A/@/4 and to the Gsecond lawH or &o#enant contained
therein"
The emphasis on the laws gi#en on Gthis dayH is continued in the
supplementary chapters /.@/2 which deal with &o#enant ratification
and renewal ceremonies apparently a reference to an original ceremony
in 5oab one in &anaan on the first day in the land and subse0uent
possibly annual renewal ceremonies" Blessings and curses are to be
pronounced from 5ts" ;eri:im and Ebal for respecti#ely fulfilling or
disobeying the &o#enant: all good things or all bad things will befall the
people as they keep or fail to keep the &o#enant" <ome of the curse
conse0uences in chapter /2 referring to siege sub(ugation and e)ile
are belie#ed by some scholars to reflect late preDe)ilic or e)ilic
situations" The curse conse0uences fill up the bulk of these chapters and
are recounted in powerful mo#ing language ending with a threat to
return the people to Egypt"
&oncluding e)hortation and traditions about the last days of 5oses
&hapters /I@?A comprise the third and last address of 5oses to the
people of -srael" They are preceded by an introductory #erse referring to
Gthese wordsH as a co#enant made in 5oab in addition to the one made
at Horeb *<inai+" After reminding them of all that ;od has done for
them 5oses calls on the whole people to enter into the sworn &o#enant
made this day that they may be his people and he may be their ;od
warning the secret apostate of the calamities that will befall him" Jet the
possibility of a return to ;od and the land is held out to those who will
suffer e)ile and persecution as punishment for their apostasy again
presumably a reflection of the e)ilic situation *chapter ?8 #erses A@A8
seems clearly to be an interpolation inspired by the actual e)perience of
e)ile+" This law it is emphasi:ed is no recondite remote thing up in the
sky but is rather #ery close to men Gin your mouth and in your heartH;
what is re#ealed is made plain it is not the secret things of ;od" 5oses
sets before them the classic 9euteronomic choice: Glife and goodH o#er
Gdeath and e#il"H The people are gi#en that choice and told the
conse0uences of lo#ing the 7ord and keeping the &o#enant or of going
the other way"
The final chapters are concerned with the last words and acts of 5oses:
directing $oshua to lead -srael after his death writing down Gthis lawH
calling for a sabbatical renewal ceremony of it on the ,east of Booths
ordering that it be put beside the ark of the &o#enant and uttering two
poems" The first GThe <ong of 5osesH *chapter ?/+ praises the
faithfulness and power of the 7ord decries the faithlessness and
wickedness of -srael and predicts the conse0uent di#ine punishment; it
adds howe#er that in the end the 7ord will relent and will #indicate his
people" The second poem GThe Blessing of 5osesH *chapter ??+ blesses
each of the tribes of -srael one by one and the blessings are associated
with ;od=s lo#e the law commanded by 5oses and the kingship of ;od
o#er his people" There are indications in both poems of a considerably
later date *after $oshua=s time perhaps in the period of the $udges+;
5oses is spoken of in the third person in GThe BlessingH poem"
The narrati#e of 9euteronomy and thus of the 6entateuch ends with
5oses= ascent to the top of 5t" 6isgah his being shown the 6romised
7and by ;od and his death there in the land of 5oab buried by ;od in
an unknown gra#e" -t is emphasi:ed in the closing words that 5oses
was a uni0ue prophet Gwhom the 7ord knew face to faceH and through
whom the 7ord wrought uni0ue Gsigns and wondersH and Ggreat and
terrible deeds"H Thus end the ,i#e Books of 5oses"
<eymour &ain
The !e#i=im *the 6rophets+
The canon of the 6rophets
The Hebrew canon of the section of the Old Testament known as the
!e#i=im or the 6rophets is di#ided into two sections: the ,ormer
6rophets and the 7atter 6rophets" The ,ormer 6rophets contains four
historical books%$oshua $udges <amuel and Cings; the 7atter
6rophets includes four prophetic works%the books of -saiah $eremiah
E:ekiel and the Twel#e *5inor+ 6rophets" The Twel#e 6rophets
formerly written on a single scroll include the books of Hosea $oel
Amos Obadiah $onah 5icah !ahum Habakkuk Fephaniah Haggai
Fechariah and 5alachi" Thus in the Hebrew canon of the 6rophets
there are in effect eight books"
The &hristian canon of the 6rophets does not include the ,ormer
6rophets section in its di#ision of the 6rophets; instead it calls the
books in this section Historical Books" -n addition to -saiah $eremiah
and E:ekiel the &hristian canon of the 6rophets includes two works
from the di#ision of the Hebrew canon known as the Cetu#im *the
'ritings+: the 7amentations of $eremiah and the Book of 9aniel" The
Twel#e *5inor+ 6rophets are separated into indi#idual books" The
number of works in the &hristian canon howe#er #aries" The 6rotestant
canon contains all the books of the 7atter 6rophets and the two books
from the Cetu#im thus listing A. works among the prophetic writings"
The >oman &atholic canon accepts one other book as a canonical
prophetic work namely Baruch *including the 7etter of $eremiah+; the
number of prophetic writings in the >oman &atholic canon is therefore
A2" The ;reek Orthodo) <ynod of $erusalem in A4./ did not accept
Baruch as canonical"
As far as the ,ormer 6rophets is concerned the 6rotestant canon
following the <eptuagint separates <amuel and Cings into two sections
each: - and -- <amuel and - and -- Cings" The >oman &atholic and
Orthodo) churches in the past di#ided these two works into - -- --- and
-B Cings but most >oman &atholic translations now follow the listing as
it is in the <eptuagint"
Hebrew prophecy
Hebrew prophecy was rooted in the prophetic acti#ities of #arious
indi#iduals and groups from the nations and peoples of the ancient !ear
East" Though prophecy among ancient Egyptians 5esopotamians and
&anaanites%as well as among the peoples of the Aegean ci#ili:ation%
generally was connected with GforetellingH *or predicting+ the future
the Hebrew #iew of prophecy centred on GforthtellingH *or proclaiming+
though it included predicti#e aspects" Thus in Hebrew prophecy the
phrase GThus says the 7ordH is repeated constantly to emphasi:e the
GforthtellingH motif" The Hebrew prophets were #ery conscious of the
absolute holiness *separateness+ of ;od and his purpose for his chosen
people -srael" Because of this consciousness they de#eloped an acute
awareness of sin and its effects on man and society and from such an
awareness a radical ethical outlook that applied to both the indi#idual
and the community"
The Hebrew term for prophet *na(i'+ is probably related etymologically
to the Akkadian #erb nabu, meaning Gto callH or Gto name"H The Hebrew
prophet may thus be #iewed as a GcallerH or spokesman for ;od" Other
designations for prophet in the Old Testament are ro'e, or GseerH and
ho-e, or G#isionaryH the two latter terms indicating that the predicti#e
element was operati#e in Hebrew prophecy" The distincti#e element of
Hebrew prophecy howe#er was the relationship of the prophet to ;od
the 7ord of the &o#enant and to -srael the co#enant people" He spoke
for the so#ereign 7ord to remind ca(ole castigate repro#e comfort and
gi#e hope to the people of the co#enant constantly reminding them that
they were chosen to witness to the nations of the lo#e mercy and
goodness of ;od"
<ome of the Hebrew prophets from the AAth to the 2th century B&E
belonged to bands or guilds of ecstatic prophets" <uch prophets were
spokesmen for ;od whose uncontrollable actions and words caused
them to be feared and sometimes held in contempt" -n -- Cings chapter
I #erse AA a prophet%who came to $ehu the IthDcenturyDB&E army
commander who became king of -srael in order to anoint him%was
called a GmadmanH *meshugga'+" Other Hebrew prophets were more
independent such as !athan and Eli(ah though they continued to
maintain the 0uality of being uncontrollable%at least as far as the
political authorities were concerned" Both of these early nonwriting
prophets spoke out against the oppression of the weak by the strong a
theme that came to be e)pressed constantly in $udaism" The acti#ities of
such early prophets including also 5icaiah and Elisha in the Ith
century B&E are described in the ,ormer 6rophets"
-n the 2th century B&E the writing prophets%i.e., the 7atter 6rophets%
began their acti#ities" Though all the books that bear their names
probably ha#e been edited by schools of a prophet or by indi#iduals or
groups that were influenced by their ideas the editors or disciples of the
prophets preser#ed as well as was possible the words acti#ities and
idiosyncratic themes of the prophetic personalities" <ome of the 7atter
6rophets may ha#e been connected with the priestly class such as
-saiah $eremiah and E:ekiel; most of the 7atter 6rophets howe#er
were independent of priestly connections" All of the 7atter 6rophets
stood out in contrast to the court prophets who in the tradition of court
prophets of most ancient !ear Eastern peoples seldom contradicted
what they belie#ed was e)pected of them by their so#ereigns or the
people"
$oshua
The Book of $oshua takes its name from the man who succeeded 5oses
as the leader of the Hebrew tribes%$oshua the son of !un a member of
the tribe of Ephraim" -n postDbiblical times $oshua himself was credited
with being the author of the book though internal e#idence gi#es no
such indication" According to the #iews of the ;erman biblical scholar
5artin !oth which ha#e been accepted by many contemporary biblical
critics the Book of $oshua was the second of a series of fi#e books
*9euteronomy $oshua $udges <amuel and Cings+ written by a $udaean
oriented historian after the fall of $erusalem in 124 B&E" This writer
*called the 9euteronomist and designated 9+ constructed the history of
-srael from the death of 5oses to the beginning of the Babylonian E)ile
*124@1?2 B&E+" The 9euteronomist according to this #iew used
sources both oral and written from #arious periods to produce the
history of -srael in these fi#e books" The Book of $oshua probably
contains elements from the $ and E documents as well as local and
tribal traditions all of which were modified by additions and editing
until the book assumed its present form" The main theme of the
9euteronomist historian was that under the guidance of and in
obedience to Jahweh -srael would perse#ere and con0uer its many
enemies"
This theme is especially and dramatically presented in $oshua" Nnder
the guidance of Jahweh the people of -srael entered and con0uered
&anaan in fulfillment of the promise of ;od to Abraham and his
descendants in ;enesis chapter A/" $oshua is interpreted as a second
5oses%e.g., he sent out spies led the people in crossing the $ordan
>i#er on dry land as 5oses had crossed the <ea of >eeds and ordered
the males to be circumcised with flint kni#es as Fipporah 5oses= wife
had earlier circumcised the son of 5oses *and probably 5oses himself+"
He was obedient to the will of Jahweh and because of this obedience he
was able to lead the -sraelite tribes in their battles against the
&anaanites" As long as they were faithful to their co#enant promise the
land would be theirs as a trust"
The book may be di#ided into three parts: the story of the con0uest of
&anaan *chapters A@A/+; the di#ision of the land among the tribes of
-srael *chapters A?@//+; and $oshua=s farewell address the renewal of
the &o#enant and $oshua=s death *chapters /?@/E+"
The con0uest of &anaan
As told by the 9euteronomist the con0uest of &anaan by $oshua and the
-sraelite tribes was swift and decisi#e" !o con0uest of central &anaan *in
the region of <hechem+ howe#er is mentioned in the book; and some
scholars interpret this to mean that the central hill country was already
occupied either by ancestors of the later -sraelite tribes prior to the time
of 5oses or by portions of Hebrew tribes that had not gone to Egypt"
Because these people made peace with the tribes under $oshua a
con0uest of the area apparently was not necessary" Archaeological
e#idence supports portions of $oshua in describing some of the cities
*e.g., -achish 9ebir and Ha:or+ as destroyed or con0uered in the late
A?th century B&E the appro)imate time of the circumstances
documented in $oshua" <ome of the cities so reported howe#er
apparently were de#astated at some time prior to or later than the A?th
century" $ericho for e)ample was ra:ed at the end of the 5iddle Bron:e
Age *c. A118 B&E+ and most likely had not been rebuilt as a strongly
fortified town by the time of $oshua though the site may well ha#e been
inhabited during this period" The city of Ai was destroyed about 488
years before; but it may ha#e been a garrison site for the city of Bethel
which was destroyed later by the Ghouse of $oseph"H Though many of
the cities of &anaan were con0uered by the -sraelites under $oshua
historical and archaeological e#idence indicates that the process of
con0uering the land was lengthy and not completed until 9a#id
con0uered the $ebusite stronghold of $erusalem in the early A8th
century B&E" At any rate the A?th century was an ideal time for a
con0uest of the area because of the international turmoil in#ol#ing the
great powers of the time: Egypt and Babylonia" A political #acuum
e)isted in the area permitting small powers to strengthen or to e)pand
their holdings"
The introductory section of $oshua *chapters A and /+ in dealing with
the 9euteronomist=s #iew of the ideal man of faith%one who is full of
courage and faithful to the law that was gi#en to 5oses%relates the
story of spies sent to $ericho where they were sheltered by >ahab a
harlot whose house was spared by the -sraelites when they later
destroyed the city" -n the ;ospel According to 5atthew in the !ew
Testament >ahab is listed as the grandmother of $esse the father of
9a#id *the architect of the -sraelite empire+ which may be the reason
why this story was included in $oshua" Also in the !ew Testament in the
7etter to the Hebrews >ahab is depicted as an e)ample of a person of
faith" After the return of the spies who reported that the people of
&anaan were GfaintheartedH in the face of the -sraelite threat $oshua
launched the in#asion of &anaan; the -sraelite tribes crossed the $ordan
>i#er and encamped at ;ilgal where the males were circumcised after a
pile of stones had been erected to commemorate the crossing of the
ri#er" They then attacked $ericho and after the priests marched around
it for se#en days utterly destroyed it in a herem3 i.e., a holy war in which
e#erything is de#oted to destruction" 6rior to the -sraelites= further
con0uests it was disco#ered that Achan a member of the tribe of $udah
had broken the herem by not de#oting e#erything taken from $ericho to
Jahweh" Because he had thus sinned in keeping some of the booty
Achan his family and all of his household goods were destroyed and a
mound of stones was heaped upon them" The -sraelite tribes ne)t
con0uered Ai made agreements with the people of the region of ;ibeon
and then campaigned against cities to the south capturing se#eral of
them such as 7achish and 9ebir but not $erusalem or the cities of
6hilistia on the seacoast" $oshua mo#ed north first con0uering the city
of Ha:or%a city of political importance%and then defeating a large
number *?A+ of the kings of &anaan though the con0uests of their cities
did not necessarily follow"
9i#ision of the land and renewal of the &o#enant
The di#ision of the land among the tribes is recounted in chapters A?@
//" Two sources were apparently used by the 9euteronomist in dealing
with the di#ision of the land: a boundary list from the preDmonarchical
period *i.e., before the late AAth century B&E+ and a list of cities
occupied by se#eral tribes from the A8th to the .th century B&E" The
tribes who occupied territories were: >euben ;ad 5anasseh &aleb
$udah the $oseph tribes *Ephraim and 5anasseh+ Ben(amin <imeon
Febulun -ssachar Asher !aphtali and 9an" &ertain cities *e.g.,
Hebron <hechem and >amoth+ were designated 7e#itical cities"
Though the 7e#ites probably did not control the cities politically as the
priestly class they were of cultic significance%and therefore feared and
respected%in cities that were the sites of sanctuaries"
As 5oses had before him $oshua ga#e a farewell address *chapter /?+
to his people admonishing them to be loyal to the 7ord of the &o#enant;
and in the closing chapter */E+ the -sraelites reaffirmed their loyalty to
Jahweh at <hechem: first ha#ing heard the story of ;od=s sal#atory
deeds in the past they were asked to swear allegiance to Jahweh and to
repudiate all other gods after which they participated in the &o#enant
renewal ceremony" After the people were dismissed $oshua died and
was buried in the hill country of Ephraim; the embalmed body of $oseph
that had been carried with the Hebrews when they left Egypt more than
a generation earlier was buried on purchased land; and Elea:ar the
priestly successor to Aaron *5oses= brother+ was buried at ;ibeah"
Besides the ob#ious emphases on the con0uest of &anaan and the
di#ision of the land the 9euteronomist ga#e special attention to the
ceremony of &o#enant reaffirmation" By means of a regularly repeated
&o#enant renewal the -sraelites were able to eschew &anaanite religious
beliefs and practices that had been absorbed or added to the religion of
the 7ord of the &o#enant especially the fertility motifs that were 0uite
attracti#e to the Hebrew tribes as they settled down to pursue
agriculture after more than a generation of the nomadic way of life"
$udges: background and purpose
The Book of $udges the third of the series of fi#e books that reflect the
theological #iewpoint of the 9euteronomic historian co#ers the history
of the -sraelite tribes from the death of $oshua to the rise of the
monarchy a period comprising nearly /88 years *c. A/88@c. A8/8 B&E+"
Though the internal chronology of $udges points to a period of about
E88 years the editor may ha#e arbitrarily used the formula of E8 years
for a generation of rule by a (udge; and he may ha#e compiled the list in
the form of a series of successi#e leaders who actually may ha#e led
only a particular tribe or a group of tribes during the same generation as
another (udge" -n other words the reign of two or more (udges may well
ha#e o#erlapped"
The 9euteronomic Gtheology of historyH
The 9euteronomic Gtheology of historyH shows through #ery clearly in
$udges: unless the people of the &o#enant remain faithful and obedient
to Jahweh they will suffer the due conse0uences of disobedience
whether it be an o#ertly willful act or an unthinking negligence in
keeping the &o#enant promise" The 9euteronomist worked out a
formula for his theology of history that was based in a #ery dramatic
way on the historical e#ents of the period: *A+ obedience to Jahweh
brings peace and wellDbeing; */+ a period of wellDbeing often in#ol#es a
slackening of resol#e to keep the commandments of Jahweh or outright
disobedience; *?+ disobedience leads to a weakness of the faith that had
bound the community together and thus lea#es the community open to
repression and attacks from e)ternal enemies; and *E+ e)ternal
repression forces the community to reassess its position and ask the
cause of the calamities thus leading to repentance and e#entual
strength to resist all enemies"
&anaanite culture and religion
The -sraelite tribes during the period of the guidance and leadership of
5oses and $oshua mainly had to contend with nomadic tribes; in their
contacts with such groups they absorbed some of the attitudes and
motifs of the nomadic way of life such as independence a lo#e of
freedom to mo#e about and fear of or disdain for the way of life of
settled agricultural and urban peoples"
The &anaanites with whom the -sraelites came into contact during the
con0uest by $oshua and the period of the $udges were a sophisticated
agricultural and urban people" The name &anaan means G7and of
6urpleH *a purple dye was e)tracted from a mure) shellfish found near
the shores of 6alestine+" The &anaanites a people who absorbed and
assimilated the features of many cultures of the ancient !ear East for at
least 188 years before the -sraelites entered their area of control were
the people who as far as is known in#ented the form of writing that
became the alphabet which through the ;reeks and >omans was
passed on to many cultures influenced by their successors%namely the
nations and peoples of 'estern ci#ili:ation"
The religion of the &anaanites was an agricultural religion with
pronounced fertility motifs" Their main gods were called the Baalim
*7ords+ and their consorts the Baalot *7adies+ or Asherah *singular+
usually known by the personal plural name Ashtoret" The god of the city
of <hechem which city the -sraelites had absorbed peacefully under
$oshua was called BaalDberith *7ord of the &o#enant+ or ElDberith *;od
of the &o#enant+" <hechem became the first cultic centre of the religious
tribal confederacy *called an amphictyony by the ;reeks+ of the
-sraelites during the period of the (udges" 'hen <hechem was
e)ca#ated in the early AI48s the temple of BaalDberith was partially
reconstructed; the sacred pillar *generally a phallic symbol or often a
representation of the ashera, the female fertility symbol+ was placed in
its original position before the entrance of the temple"
The Baalim and the Baalot gods and goddesses of the Earth were
belie#ed to be the re#itali:ers of the forces of nature upon which
agriculture depended" The re#itali:ation process in#ol#ed a sacred
marriage *hieros gamos+ replete with se)ual symbolic and actual
acti#ities between men representing the Baalim and the sacred temple
prostitutes *qe+eshot+ representing the Baalot" &ultic ceremonies
in#ol#ing se)ual acts between male members of the agricultural
communities and sacred prostitutes dedicated to the Baalim were
focussed on the &anaanite concept of sympathetic magic" As the Baalim
*through the actions of selected men+ both symbolically and actually
impregnated the sacred prostitutes in order to reproduce in kind so
also it was belie#ed the Baalim *as gods of the weather and the Earth+
would send the rains *often identified with semen+ to the Earth so that it
might yield abundant har#ests of grains and fruits" &anaanite myths
incorporating such fertility myths are represented in the mythological
te)ts of the ancient city of Ngarit *modern >as <hamra+ in northern
<yria; though the high god El and his consort are important as the first
pair of the pantheon Baal and his se)ually passionate sisterDconsort are
significant in the creation of the world and the renewal of nature"
The religion of the &anaanite agriculturalists pro#ed to be a strong
attraction to the less sophisticated and nomadicDoriented -sraelite
tribes" 5any -sraelites succumbed to the allurements of the fertilityD
laden rituals and practices of the &anaanite religion partly because it
was new and different from the Jahwistic religion and possibly
because of a tendency of a rigorous faith and ethic to weaken under the
influence of se)ual attractions" As the &anaanites and the -sraelites
began to li#e in closer contact with each other the faith of -srael tended
to absorb some of the concepts and practices of the &anaanite religion"
<ome -sraelites began to name their children after the Baalim; e#en one
of the (udges ;ideon was also known by the name $erubbaal *G7et Baal
&ontendH+"
As the syncretistic tendencies became further entrenched in the -sraelite
faith the people began to lose the concept of their e)clusi#eness and
their mission to be a witness to the nations thus becoming weakened in
resol#e internally and liable to the oppression of other peoples"
$udges: importance and role
The role of the (udges
Nnder these conditions the successors to $oshua%the (udges%arose"
The Hebrew term shofet which is translated into English as G(udgeH is
closer in meaning to GrulerH a kind of military leader or deli#erer from
potential or actual defeat" -n a passage from the soDcalled >as <hamra
tablets *disco#ered in AI/I+ the concept of the (udge as a ruler is well
illustrated:
Our king is Triumphant Baal
Our (udge abo#e whom there is no oneb
The magistrates of the 6hoenicianD&anaanite city of &arthage which
competed with >ome for supremacy of the 5editerranean world in the
?rd century B&E were called suffetes, thus pointing toward the political
authority of the (udges"
The office of (udgeship in the tribal confederacy of the -sraelites which
was centred at a co#enant shrine was not hereditary" The (udges arose
as Jahweh saw fit in order to lead an erring and repentant people to a
restoration of a right relationship with him and to #ictory o#er their
enemies" The 0uality that enabled a person selected by Jahweh to be a
(udge was charisma a spiritual power that enabled the (udge to
influence lead and control the people caught between the allurements
of the sophisticated &anaanite culture and the memory of the nomadic
way of life with its rugged freedom and disdain for Gci#ili:ation"H
Though many such leaders are mentioned the Book of $udges focusses
attention upon only a few that are singled out as especially significant:
9eborah and Barak ;ideon Abimelech $ephthah and <amson" -n spite
of the -sraelites= repeated apostasy such leaders under the guidance
and spiritual powers granted to them by Jahweh were able to lead their
tribes in successfully defeating or dri#ing back their opponents"
The Book of $udges may be di#ided into four parts: *A+ the con0uests of
se#eral tribes *chapter A+ */+ a general background for the subse0uent
e#ents according to the interpretation of the 9euteronomic historian
%GAnd the people of -srael did what was e#il in the sight of the 7ord
and ser#ed the BaalsH%*chapter / through chapter ? #erse 4+ *?+ the
e)ploits of the (udges of -srael *chapter ? #erse . through chapter A4+
and *E+ an appendi) *chapters A. through /A+"
$udges chapter A shows that the con0uest of &anaan in
contradistinction to the #iew presented in $oshua was incomplete
inconclusi#e and lengthy" Though con0uests of some of the tribes
*$udah <imeon &aleb and the Ghouse of $osephH+ are noted the main
emphasis is on the cities and areas that the tribes had not con0uered%
e.g., GAnd Ephraim did not dri#e out the &anaanites who dwelt in ;e:er
but the &anaanites dwelt in ;e:er among themH *chapter A #erse /I+"
The second section gi#es the 9euteronomic interpretation of the
conse0uences of such a policy:
they forsook the 7ord the ;od of their fathers who had brought them
out of the land of Egypt; they went after other gods from among the
gods of the peoples who were round about them; and they pro#oked the
7ord to anger" They forsook the 7ord and ser#ed the Baals and the
Ashtaroth" *chapter / #erses A/@A?+
-n chapter ? an e)planation is gi#en as to why the &anaanites had not
been annihilated and were allowed to remain with the -sraelites: they
enabled the -sraelites to be tested in the techni0ues of warfare; the
6hilistines for e)ample had a monopoly on the smelting of iron in the
area%and the iron used in their weapons was far superior to the bron:e
used by the -sraelites for their swords shields and armaments%until
the secret had been wrested from them by the first king of -srael <aul
in the latter part of the AAth century B&E" The &anaanites also ser#ed to
test the faith of the -sraelites in the one true ;od Jahweh"
The role of certain lesser (udges
The third section relates the e)ploits of the #arious (udges" Othniel a
member of the tribe of &aleb deli#ered the erring -sraelites from eight
years of oppression by &ushanDrishathaim king of 5esopotamia" The
king howe#er was most likely an area ruler rather than a king of the
5esopotamian Empire" Another (udge Ehud a leftDhanded Ben(amite
deli#ered -srael from the oppression of the 5oabites" Ehud a fat man
who had hidden a sword under his garments on his right side so that
when a search of his person was made it would be o#erlooked brought
tribute to Eglon the 5oabite king" Npon Ehud=s claiming to ha#e a
secret message for the king Eglon dismissed the other people carrying
tribute" Ehud then said to the Cing G- ha#e a message from ;od to youH
assassinated him locked the doors to the chamber and escaped"
>allying the -sraelites around him Ehud led an attack upon the
5oabites that was decisi#e in fa#our of the -sraelites" <hamgar the
third (udge is merely noted as a deli#erer who killed 488 6hilistines"
The roles of 9eborah ;ideon and $ephthah
The first notably important (udge of the tribal confederacy was 9eborah
who was primarily a seer poet and interpreter of dreams but still a
person endowed with the kind of charisma that identified her as a (udge
sent from Jahweh" The story of the #ictory of the -sraelites under the
charismatic leadership of 9eborah and the military leadership of Barak
her commander is related in prose *chapter E+ and repeated in poetry
*chapter 1 which is known as the G<ong of 9eborahH+" The &anaanites
under the leadership of $abin king of a reestablished Ha:or and his
general <isera had oppressed an apostate -srael" 9eborah sent word to
all the tribes to unite against the &anaanites but only about half the
tribes responded" The &anaanites had asserted control o#er the Balley of
$e:reel which was an important commercial thoroughfare and was
commanded by the city of 5egiddo" -n this #alley dominated by the hill
of 5egiddo *Armageddon+%a site of many later crucial military battles
and which later became the symbolic name for the final battle between
the forces of good and the forces of e#il in apocalyptic literature%the
-sraelites met the &anaanites near the ri#er Cishon in open battle" A
cloudburst occurred causing the ri#er to flood thus limiting the
manoeu#rability of the &anaanite chariots" The &anaanite general
<isera seeing defeat for his forces fled seeking refuge in the tent of a
Cenite woman $ael" A supporter of the cause of -srael $ael ga#e <isera a
drink of milk *fermentedU+ and he fell asleep Gfrom weariness"H $ael
pounded a tent peg through his temple thus ending decisi#ely the
threat of the &anaanites of Ha:or" The #ictory song of 9eborah in
chapter 1 is one of the oldest literary sections of the Old Testament" -t is
a hymn that incorporates the literary forms of a confession of faith a
praise of Jahweh=s theophany *manifestation+ an epic a curse a
blessing and a hymn of #ictory"
Another important (udge perhaps the most important other than
<amuel was ;ideon whose e)ploits are related in chapters 4@2" The
oppressors of -srael during the time of ;ideon were the camelDborne
raiders from 5idian ro#ing bands that pillaged the farms and
unfortified #illages for se#en years" A prophet appeared among the
-sraelites and denounced them for their apostasy after which according
to the account an angel of Jahweh #isited and then commissioned
;ideon a member of the tribe of 5anasseh to lead the -sraelites
against the enemies from the Trans(ordan" After sacrificing to Jahweh
building an altar to the 7ord *which he named Jahweh <halom or
GJahweh is peaceH+ and destroying an altar of Baal and an ashera *most
likely a wooden pole symboli:ing the goddess+ beside it he sent out
messengers to gather together the tribes in order to meet an armed
force of the 5idianites and Amalekites that had crossed the $ordan >i#er
and were encamped in the Balley of $e:reel" He went to a threshing floor
*a common place to seek di#inatory ad#ice+ and sought a sign from
Jahweh%dew on a fleece of wool placed o#ernight on the threshing
floor with the rest of the area remaining dry" After recei#ing the
positi#e di#inatory sign ;ideon assembled a large force reduced it to
?88 men and infiltrated the outposts of the 5idianite camp with his
ser#ant%o#erhearing a 5idianite telling another of his dream about a
barley cake rolling into the camp of the 5idianites and striking a tent so
that it fell down and was flattened *which ;ideon interpreted as a sign
of #ictory for the forces under him+" He encircled the camp of the
5idianites about midnight" On signal the men broke (ars shouted
wa#ed torches blew rams= horns and attacked the encampment" The
5idianites in the confusion were routed and harassed in their flight" -n
their pursuit of the fleeing 5idianites ;ideon and his forces were
refused aid by the cities of <uccoth and 6enuel which was a #iolation of
the tribal confederacy agreements" The 5idianites howe#er were again
the ob(ects of a surprise attack and their two kings *Febah and
Falmunna+ were captured and later e)ecuted by ;ideon because they
had killed his brother" The leaders of <uccoth were punished and the
men of 6enuel were killed in retaliation for their refusal to aid the forces
of ;ideon"
After the #ictory the people recogni:ing their need for centrali:ed
leadership of the confederacy petitioned to ;ideon that he establish a
hereditary monarchy with himself as the first king" ;ideon refused
howe#er on the basis that Gthe 7ord will rule o#er you"H
After ;ideon died the people returned to worshipping the gods of the
&anaanites especially BaalDberith" Abimelech one of the .8 sons of the
wi#es and concubines of ;ideon went to <hechem to solicit support for
his attempt to establish a monarchy" After recei#ing financial support
from those who controlled the treasury of the shrine of BaalDberith he
hired a band of assassins%who killed all of his brothers e)cept $otham
the youngest of ;ideon=s sons" Abimelech was declared king by the
<hechemites" The sur#i#ing $otham told a parable about trees that
sought a king%after all the larger trees refused the kingship the
bramblebush which was highly inflammable accepted the offer" The
point of the parable was that as the bramblebush is highly inflammable
so also would the reign of Abimelech be the source of fires of rebellion
and re#olution" >e#olution did occur and after being wounded at
Thebe: by a millstone dropped by a woman from a tower Abimelech
asked his armour bearer to kill him" The attempt of Abimelech and the
<hechemites to establish a monarchy thus pro#ed to be aborti#e and
premature"
After a brief account of the rule of two (udges Tola of the tribe of
-ssachar and $air from ;ilead the 9euteronomist describes the apostasy
of the -sraelites and the conse0uent oppression of the tribes by the
6hilistines from the seacoast and the Ammonites from the Trans(ordan"
The -sraelites looked for a leader and found $ephthah the son of a
harlot who had been re(ected by the sons of his father and who had
gathered about him a band who made their li#ing by raiding others"
$ephthah made se#eral attempts to negotiate with the Ammonites and
5oabites; when the Ammonites did not cooperate $ephthah mo#ed
against them" <ei:ed by the <pirit of the 7ord%i.e., ecstatically inspired
%he began his campaign with a #ow to sacrifice the first person he saw
upon his return home as a burnt offering to Jahweh" He was #ictorious
o#er the Ammonites but the first person he saw on return home was his
only child a daughter" Npon learning of her destined fate she re0uested
a twoDmonth period to be with her friends to bewail her #irginity and
approaching death" The story is reminiscent of the fertility myths of the
ancient !ear East" After she was sacrificed $ephthah subdued a
contingent of the Ephraimites in the Trans(ordan to bring peace to the
area" A password was used to separate the Ephraimites from the men
under $ephthah: Gshibboleth"H Because the Ephraimites could not
pronounce the word correctly in that their dialect was different from the
others they were thus identified and killed"
-n chapter A/ three (udges are gi#en cursory treatment: -:ban of
Bethlehem Elon the Febulunite and Abdon the Ephraimite"
The role of <amson
The e)ploits of the great -sraelite strongman (udge <amson *a member
of the tribe of 9an+ are related in chapters A?@A4" 9edicated from birth
by his mother to Jahweh <amson became a member of the !a:irites an
antiD&anaanite reform mo#ement" As a !a:irite he was re0uired ne#er
to cut his hair drink wine or eat ritually unclean food" He married a
6hilistine woman whom he then left when she helped her fellow
6hilistines a#oid payment to <amson in a riddle contest by gi#ing them
the answer" >eturning later to find her gi#en to another man he burned
the grainfields of the 6hilistines" They sought re#enge by killing
<amson=s wife and her father" The e)ploits of <amson against the
6hilistines from then on are numerous" After he met the temptress
9elilah who wrested from him the secret of his great strength *i.e., his
long uncut hair because of his #ow+ <amson was captured by the
6hilistines after his hair had been cut short" After imprisonment
blinding and humiliation <amson finally a#enged his loss of selfD
respect by pulling down the main pillars of the temple of the 6hilistine
god 9agon after which the temple was destroyed along with numerous
6hilistines" Though <amson was more a folk hero than a (udge he was
probably included in the list of (udges because his #entures against the
6hilistines slowed their mo#ements inland against the -sraelite towns
and #illages" The 6hilistines were a group of Gsea peoplesH united in a
confederacy of fi#e cityDstates: ;a:a Ashkelon Ashdod ;ath and
Ekron" To the area they ga#e their name which has endured to the /8th
century: 6alestine"
The final section of the Book of $udges is an appendi) di#ided into two
parts: *A+ the story of 5icah the repentant Ephraimite a 7e#ite priest
who deserted him to be priest of the tribe of 9an and the establishment
of a shrine at the con0uered city of 7aish *renamed 9an+ with the cult
ob(ect taken from the house of 5icah and */+ the story of the Ben(amites
who were defeated in a holy war after they had killed a concubine of a
7e#ite" The book ends with a criti0ue of the period: G-n those days there
was no king in -srael; e#ery man did what was right in his own eyesH
*chapter /A #erse /1+"
<amuel: -srael under <amuel and <aul
The book of <amuel co#ers the period from <amuel the last of the
(udges through the reigns of the first two kings of -srael <aul and
9a#id *e)cept for 9a#id=s death+" The di#ision of <amuel and its
succeeding book Cings *5elakhim+ into four separate books first
appeared in the <eptuagint the ;reek translation of the Old Testament
from the ?rd to /nd centuries B&E"
Theological and political biases
&ontaining two primary sources the book of <amuel is the result of the
editorial skill of the 9euteronomic historians of the postDe)ilic period"
The early source which is proDmonarchical and may ha#e been written
by a single author is found in - <amuel chapter I #erse A through
chapter A8 #erse A4 as well as chapter AA and most of -- <amuel" The
chapters (ust noted were probably written by a chronicler during the
reign of <olomon; possible authors of these chapters were Abiathar a
priest of the line of Eli *who was <amuel=s predecessor at the shrine of
<hiloh+ or Ahimaa: a son of Fadok *who originally may ha#e been a
priest of the $ebusite city of $erusalem that 9a#id made his capital+" The
chapters in - <amuel are sometimes called the G<aulH source because it
is in them that <aul=s charismatic leadership is legitimi:ed in the form of
kingship" The chapters of -- <amuel also displaying a proDmonarchical
bias%as far as content is concerned%are the Gbook of 9a#id"H -n the
early source <amuel a seer prophetic figure and priest of the shrine at
<hiloh is #iewed mainly as the religious leader who anointed <aul to be
king" The later source which displays a somewhat antiDmonarchical bias
and shows the marks of disillusionment on the part of the 9euteronomic
historians of the postDe)ilic period is found in - <amuel chapter . #erse
? to chapter 2 #erse // chapter A8 #erses A.@/. and chapter A/"
<ometimes called the <amuel source the later source interprets the role
of <amuel differently; he is #iewed as the last and most important (udge
of the whole nation whose influence e)tended to the shrines at Bethel
;ilgal and 5i:pah" The two sources illustrate the two opposing
tendencies that lasted for centuries after the con0uest of &anaan"
9uring the period of <amuel <aul and 9a#id *the AAth@A8th century
B&E+ the -sraelites were still threatened by #arious local enemies" The
great nations%Egypt Assyria and the Hittite Empire%were either
in#ol#ed in domestic crises or concerned with areas other than 6alestine
in their e)pansionist policies" Of the #arious peoples pressing to break
up the -sraelite confederacy the 6hilistines *the Gsea peoplesH+ of the
5editerranean coast pro#ed to be the most dangerous" E)panding
eastward with their ironDweapon e0uipped armies the 6hilistines
threatened the commercial routes running north and south through
-sraelite territory" -f they captured and controlled such areas as the
Balley of $e:reel they would e#entually strangle the economic life of the
-sraelite confederacy"
To meet this threat the tribal confederacy had four options open to it"
,irst the tribes could continue as before loosely held together by
charismatic leaders who ser#ed only as temporary leaders" <econd they
could create a hereditary hierocracy *rule by priests+ which the priest of
the shrine at <hiloh Eli apparently attempted to inaugurate" A third
possible course of action was to establish a hereditary (udgeship which
was the aspiration of the (udge <amuel" But in either of these two
possibilities the sons of Eli and <amuel were not of the same stature as
their fathers; and the apparent hopes of their fathers could not be
reali:ed" The fourth alternati#e was a hereditary monarchy" The book of
<amuel is an account of the e#entual success of those who supported
the monarchical position along with the 9euteronomic interpretation
that pointed out the weaknesses of the monarchy whene#er it departed
from the concept of -srael as a co#enant people and became merely one
kingdom among other similar kingdoms"
The book of <amuel may be di#ided into four sections: *A+ the stories of
<amuel the fall of the family of Eli and the rise of <aul *- <amuel
chapters A@A1+ */+ the accounts of the fall of the family of <aul and the
rise of 9a#id *- <amuel chapter A4 to -- <amuel chapter 1+ *?+ the
chronicles of 9a#id=s monarchy *-- <amuel chapter 4 to chapter /8
#erse //+ and *E+ an appendi) of miscellaneous materials containing a
copy of 6salm A2 the Glast words of 9a#idH which is a psalm of praise
a list of heroes and their e)ploits an account of 9a#id=s census and
other miscellaneous materials"
The role of <amuel
The first section *chapters A@A1+ begins with the story of <amuel=s birth
after his mother Hannah *one of the two wi#es of the Ephraimite
Elkanah+ had prayed at the shrine at <hiloh the centre of the tribal
confederacy for a son" <he #owed that if she bore a son he would be
dedicated to Jahweh for lifetime ser#ice as a !a:irite as indicated by
the words Gand no ra:or shall touch his head"H
Three years after she had borne a son whom she named <amuel%which
is interpreted GAsked of ;odH a phrase that fits the meaning of <aul=s
name but may actually mean GEl Has HeardH%Hannah took the boy to
the shrine at <hiloh" Hannah=s song of e)ultation *chapter / #erses A@
A8+ probably became the basis of the form and content of the
5agnificat the song that 5ary the mother of $esus sang in 7uke
chapter A #erses E4@11 in the !ew Testament" Eli the priest at <hiloh
*who had heard Hannah=s #ow+ trained the boy to ser#e Jahweh at the
shrine which <amuel=s mother and father #isited annually" The sons of
Eli Hophni and 6hinehas are depicted as corrupt misusing their
positions as ser#ants of the shrine to take offerings the people ga#e to
Jahweh for their own gratification in contrast to <amuel who
Gcontinued to grow in stature and fa#our with the 7ord and with men"H
Because the sons of Eli failed to heed the admonition of their father the
house of Eli was condemned by a Gman of ;odH who told Eli that his
family was to lose its position of trust and power" This condemnation an
interruption of the later source is the 9euteronomic historian=s answer
as to why Abiathar a priest of the family of Eli at the time of 9a#id was
e)cluded from the priesthood at $erusalem which became the central
shrine of the monarchy"
'hile a youth *about A/ years old+ <amuel e)perienced a re#elation
from Jahweh in the shrine at night" ,irst going to Eli three times after
hearing his name called <amuel responded to Jahweh at Eli=s
suggestion" 'hat was re#ealed to him was the fall of the house of Eli a
message that <amuel hesitatingly related to Eli" After this religious
e)perience <amuel=s reputation as a prophet of Jahweh increased"
-n chapter E is an account of the fall of <hiloh and the loss of the ark of
the &o#enant to the 6hilistines" 7ea#ing the ark the symbol of Jahweh=s
presence at <hiloh the -sraelites go out to battle against the 6hilistines
near the 5editerranean coast but are defeated" The -sraelites return to
<hiloh for the ark; but e#en though they carry it back to the
battleground they are again defeated at great cost%the sons of Eli are
killed and the ark is captured by the enemy" 'hen Eli old and blind
hears the news of the disaster he falls o#er backward in the chair on
which he is sitting breaks his neck and dies" The wife of his son
6hinehas gi#es birth to a son at this time; and upon hearing of what had
happened to -srael and her family names the boy -chabod meaning
Gwhere is the gloryUH%because as she says GThe glory has departed
from -srael"H
Though the 6hilistines had captured the ark they e#entually disco#ered
that it did not bring them good fortune" Their god 9agon an agricultural
fertility deity probably meaning GgrainH fell to the ground whene#er the
ark was placed in close pro)imity to it; and e#en more calamitous to
them the 6hilistines suffered from GtumoursH probably the bubonic
plague where#er they carried the ark" After e)periencing such disasters
for se#en months the 6hilistines returned the ark to BethDshemesh in
-sraelite territory along with a guilt offering of fi#e golden tumours and
fi#e golden mice carried in a cart drawn by two cows" Because many
-sraelite men in BethDshemesh also died%Gbecause they looked into the
ark of the 7ordH%the ark was taken to CiriathD(earim *the Gforest of
martyrsH in modern -srael+ where it was placed in the house of
Abinadab whose son Elea:ar was consecrated to care for it" The ark was
not returned to <hiloh probably because that shrine centre had been
destroyed along with other -sraelite towns by the 6hilistines"
-n chapter . #erse ? to chapter A/ #erse /1 the 9euteronomic
historian depicts the way in which <amuel assumed leadership as (udge
and &o#enant mediator of -srael" The 6hilistines continued to oppress
-srael though under <amuel=s leadership the -sraelites were able to
recon0uer territory lost to their western enemies" 'hen <amuel grew
old his sons were trained to take his place; but they%like the sons of Eli
%were corrupt *Gthey took bribes and per#erted (usticeH+ so that the
-sraelites demanded another form of go#ernment%a monarchy" <amuel
attempted to dissuade them pointing out that if they had a highly
centrali:ed form of go#ernment *i.e., a monarchy+ they would ha#e to
gi#e up much of their freedom and would be hea#ily ta)ed in goods and
ser#ices" <amuel obeyed both the elders of the people who demanded a
king and Jahweh who said Gmake them a king"H
The rise and fall of <aul
The man selected to become the first monarchical ruler of -srael was
<aul son of Cish a wealthy Ben(amite landowner" Because Cish had lost
some donkeys <aul was sent in search of them" Nnsuccessful in his
search he went to the seerDprophet <amuel at >amah" -n the early
source from which this narrati#e comes he did not know <amuel=s
name" The day before <aul went to >amah <amuel the seer *ro'e+ who
was depicted by the 9euteronomic historian as a prophet *na(i' +
recei#ed notice from Jahweh that <aul was the man chosen to reign o#er
-srael" At the sacrificial meal <aul a tall young man was gi#en the seat
of honour and the ne)t day <amuel anointed him prince *nagi+ + of
-srael in a secret ceremony" Before returning home <aul (oined a band
of ro#ing ecstatic prophets and prophesied under the influence of the
spirit of Jahweh" -n chapter A8 #erses A.@/. generally accepted as
part of the later source the 9euteronomic historian=s #iews are depicted
%<aul was chosen by lot at 5i:pah" The early source picks up the story
of <aul in chapter AA which illustrates <aul=s military leadership
abilities and describes his acclamation as king at ;ilgal" <amuel=s
farewell address a 9euteronomic reworking of the later source
recapitulates the history of the -sraelite tribes from the time of the
patriarch $acob through the period of the (udges and forcefully presents
the conser#ati#e #iew that the re0uest for a monarchy will bring about
ad#ersity to -srael"
The early reign of <aul and his confrontations with <amuel until the last
(udge=s death is the sub(ect of chapters A?@A1" <aul=s early acts as king
centred about battles with the 6hilistines" Because his son $onathan had
defeated one of their garrisons at ;eba the 6hilistines mustered an
army to counterattack near BethDa#en *probably another name for
Bethel+" <aul issued a re0uest for #olunteers who gathered together for
battle but awaited the performance of the sacrifice before the battle by
<amuel" Because <amuel did not come for se#en days <aul acting on
his own presided at the sacrifice" -mmediately after the burnt offering
had been completed <amuel appeared *perhaps waiting for such an
opportunity to reassert his leading position+ and castigated <aul for
o#erstepping the boundaries of his princely prerogati#es%e#en though
<aul had been more than patient" <amuel warned him that this type of
act *which <aul in the early source and later 9a#id and <olomon also
often performed+ would cost <aul his kingdom" -n spite of <amuel=s
apparent animosity <aul continued to defend the interests of the newly
formed kingdom"
The tragedy of <aul was that he was a transitional figure who had to
bear the burden of being the man who was of an old order and at the
same time of a new way of life among a people composed of disparate
elements and leading figures" Both <amuel the last (udge of -srael and
9a#id the future builder of the small -sraelite empire opposed him"
<aul was more a (udge%a charismatic leader%than a monarch" Nnlike
most kings of his time and area he le#ied no ta)es depended on a
#olunteer army and had no harem" He did not construct a court
bureaucracy but relied rather on the trust of the people in his
charismatic leadership and thus did not alter the political boundaries or
structure of the tribal confederacy"
The issue between <aul and <amuel came to a head in the e#ents
described in chapter A1 *a section from the later source+" <amuel
re0uested <aul to a#enge the attacks by the Amalekites on the -sraelite
tribes during their wanderings in the wilderness after the E)odus from
Egypt about /88 years earlier" <aul defeated the Amalekites in a holy
war but did not de#ote e#erything to destruction as was re0uired by the
ban *herem+" Because <aul had not killed Agag the Amalekite king and
had sa#ed sheep and cattle for a sacrifice <amuel informed <aul that he
had disobeyed Jahweh and was thus re(ected by ;od for Gto obey is
better than to sacrifice"H <amuel then asked that Agag be brought to
him and he hacked the Amalekite king to pieces" After that <aul and
<amuel saw each other no more"
<amuel: the rise and significance of 9a#id
The ne)t section contains the account of <aul=s fall from power and
9a#id=s rise to the position of king o#er all -srael" <amuel still a
charismatic and political power of great conse0uence recei#ed from
Jahweh the message that he was to go to Bethlehem to anoint a new
ruler" Because he feared reprisal from <aul <amuel went to Bethlehem
*whose elders had the same fears+ under the pretense of presiding at a
sacrifice" There he anointed 9a#id son of $esse to be future king" 9a#id
then went to the court of <aul to be the king=s armour bearer and court
singer"
-n a battle with the 6hilistines 9a#id is reported to ha#e killed the A8D
footDtall 6hilistine champion ;oliath of ;ath" -n -- <amuel chapter /A
#erse AI howe#er ;oliath is killed in a later period by one of 9a#id=s
warriors Elhanan" According to some biblical scholars the name of
;oliath may ha#e been inserted for an unnamed philistine warrior killed
by 9a#id apparently while he was armour bearer to <aul and was
unrecogni:ed by <aul thus indicating the reworking of more than one
source by the 9euteronomic historian"
&hapters A2 through /4 depict the rise of 9a#id in the court of <aul his
friendship with $onathan the beginning of <aul=s (ealousy of 9a#id the
young 9a#id=s winning of <aul=s daughter 5ichal in marriage for killing
a large number of 6hilistines <aul=s attempt on 9a#id=s life 9a#id=s
escape and formation of an outlaw band in the $udaean hills his
acceptance by the priests of the house of Eli at !ob *all of whom were
killed by <aul e)cept Abiathar who became 9a#id=s priest+ <amuel=s
death and other incidents"
Because he feared for his life 9a#id along with 488 of his men fled to
the 6hilistine city of ;ath where he became a supposed leader of one of
their military contingents against the -sraelites" The last four chapters
of - <amuel depict the final futile effort of <aul to retain control of his
throne and thwart the 6hilistines: <aul attempted to recei#e ad#ice from
the spirit of the dead <amuel through the necromancer *sometimes
called the witch or medium+ of Endor e#en though he had earlier
banned such practices in his realm" Through her mediumship <amuel
foretold the death of <aul and his sons by the 6hilistines" The armies of
the 6hilistines poured into the Balley of $e:reel" <ome of the 6hilistine
leaders distrusted 9a#id who was sent back to his garrison town of
Fiklag which the Amalekites had o#errun and in which they had taken
many prisoners" Thus 9a#id did not witness the defeat of the -sraelites
under <aul who was mortally wounded by the 6hilistines and whose
sons were killed" -n an act of heroism so that he the king of -srael
would not be captured <aul committed suicide by falling on his own
sword" Thus ended the career of the tragic hero who tried to ser#e
Jahweh and -srael but was caught between the old conser#ati#e ways
*led by <amuel+ and the new liberal #iews *championed by 9a#id+"
Early reign of 9a#id
The <econd Book of <amuel as noted earlier relates the e)ploits of
9a#id and the e#ents of his monarchy" After mourning the death of <aul
and e)ecuting an Amalekite who claimed to ha#e killed the former king
9a#id began to consolidate his position as the successor to <aul" He was
anointed king of $udah at Hebron while -shbosheth *Gman of shameH
originally -shbaal or Gman of BaalH+ <aul=s son reigned in the rest of
-srael under the guidance of Abner <aul=s general" After se#en years
the army of -srael under Abner and the army of $udah under $oab
9a#id=s general and nephew met at ;ibeon%each chose A/ champions
to fight each other and all were killed" After the minor battle a ma(or
engagement ensued with the forces of $udah emerging #ictorious" A
long war of attrition de#eloped between the house of <aul and the house
of 9a#id" Abner attempted to deli#er -srael to 9a#id but was killed by
$oab to a#enge his brother Asahel=s death at Abner=s hand in the first
engagement between the two reigning houses" 'ith Abner dead
-shbosheth=s position became e)ceedingly insecure and he was
beheaded by two of his own captains whom 9a#id in turn e)ecuted for
murdering the last ruler of the house of <aul"
Because of the course of e#ents the -sraelites asked 9a#id to become
king o#er all of -srael and 9a#id made a co#enant with the elders of
northern -srael" He ne)t engaged in a war with the $ebusite *&anaanite+
stronghold of $erusalem which he captured" He selected this city as his
new capital because it was a neutral site and neither the northerners nor
the southerners would be ad#erse to the selection" ,rom the #ery
beginning of his reign 9a#id showed the political astuteness and
acumen that made for him a reputation that has continued for ?888
years" He built at his new capital a palace fortified the defenses and
established a harem" The 6hilistines concerned about the man whom
they had considered a former #assal decided to mo#e against 9a#id
which pro#ed to be their undoing" 9a#id effecti#ely contained them in a
small area of the 5editerranean coast"
The e)pansion of the 9a#idic Empire
The third section of <amuel *-- <amuel chapter 4 through chapter /8
#erse //+ contains the account of the reign of 9a#id from $erusalem
ruling o#er a minor empire that stretched from Egypt in the south to
7ebanon in the north and from the 5editerranean <ea in the west to the
Arabian 9esert in the east" He thus controlled the crossroads of the
great empires of the ancient !ear East" His second act of political
astuteness was to bring theark of the &o#enant to $erusalem; but
because of pressures from conser#ati#e elements who wanted to retain
the tent that housed the ark *which had symbolic #alue from the days of
the E)odus+ 9a#id was not able to build a temple" Because the ark was
now in $erusalem howe#er the city became both the political and the
religious cult centre of his kingdom" -n chapter 2 is a summary account
of 9a#id=s e)tension of his kingdom by military means and of the
military administrati#e and priestly leaders of -srael"
-- <amuel chapters I through /8 #erse //%together with - Cings
chapters A and / the soDcalled <uccession History or the ,amily
History of 9a#id which according to many scholars forms the oldest
section of historiography in <cripture%contains accounts of the
domestic problems of 9a#id=s reign" Though he showed generosity to
5ephibosheth the sole sur#i#ing son of the house of <aul he showed
his weakness for the charms of Bathsheba the wife of Nriah one of his
generals" After ensuring Nriah=s death by sending him into the front
lines in a battle with the Ammonites 9a#id married Bathsheba who had
become pregnant by the Cing" 'hen the prophet !athan came to 9a#id
and told him of a rich man=s un(ust actions toward a poor man 9a#id=s
response was one of anger and a demand for (ustice whereupon !athan
said GJou are the manH and that Jahweh would e)act retribution by
not allowing the child to li#e" 9a#id then repented" He later went to
Bathsheba and she concei#ed and bore another child <olomon who was
to be the future king of -srael"
Though 9a#id was #iewed as a master in the art of go#erning a nation
he was depicted as an unsuccessful father of his family" One son Amnon
*halfDbrother to Absalom and his sister Tamar+ raped Tamar for which
act Absalom later e)acted re#enge by ha#ing Amnon assassinated at a
feast" Absalom then fled to ;eshur stayed there three years was taken
back to $erusalem by $oab and two years later was reconciled to his
father" Absalom=s ambition to succeed his father as king caused him to
initiate a re#olt so that 9a#id had to flee from $erusalem" Absalom was
crowned king at Hebron went to the concubines of 9a#id=s harem in the
palace and decided to raise a massi#e army to defeat 9a#id" -f he had
then heeded the ad#ice of Ahithophel one of 9a#id=s former
counsellors and attacked 9a#id=s forces while they were disorgani:ed
he probably would ha#e been successful in retaining the throne" The
forces of 9a#id under $oab howe#er defeated Absalom=s army Gin the
forest of Ephraim"H 'hile in flight on a mule Absalom caught his head
in an oak tree and when $oab heard of his predicament he killed the
hanging son of 9a#id" 'hen 9a#id heard of the death of his rebellious
son he uttered one of the most poignant laments in literature: GO my
son Absalom my son my son Absalomb 'ould - had died instead of you
O Absalom my son my sonbH 9a#id then returned to $erusalem and
settled some of the 0uarrels that had erupted in his absence" A re#olt
led by the conser#ati#e Ben(aminite <heba under the old rallying cry
Ge#ery man to his tents O -sraelH was thwarted by $oab who had to kill
9a#id=s newly appointed commander Amasa to accomplish this end"
The appendi) *chapter /8 #erse /? through chapter /E+ has been noted
earlier in this section"
Cings: background and <olomon=s reign
The fourth book of the ,ormer 6rophets *- and -- Cings in the
<eptuagint+ continues the history of the nation -srael from the death of
9a#id the reign of <olomon and the di#ided monarchy through the
collapse of both -srael *the northern kingdom+ and $udah *the southern
kingdom+" 'hereas <amuel was composed primarily of the early and the
later sources with some editing on the part of the 9euteronomic
historians the 9euteronomic editors of Cings in addition to these two
sources used other sources%such as the book of the acts of <olomon
the Book of the &hronicles of the Cings of -srael the Book of the
&hronicles of the Cings of $udah temple archi#es and traditions
centring on certain ma(or kings and prophets" The 9euteronomic
historians wrote from the #antage points of the reign of Cing $osiah of
$udah who died in 48I B&E and was the ruler who accepted the
9euteronomic reform that began in 4/A B&E and of the Babylonian
E)ile which traditionally lasted .8 years though it began in 1I. B&E
the temple was destroyed in 12.3124 some e)iles returned in 1?2 and
the temple was restored in 1A4" The 9euteronomic #iew that national
apostasy was the cause of the co#enant people=s predicament per#ades
this work"
*The history of the A8th through the early 4th century B&E is co#ered in
the article $udaism and therefore this article will concentrate only on
the reigns of important monarchs and their relationships to the rising
power of the prophetic mo#ement in -srael"+
The Book of Cings may be di#ided into four sections: *A+ the last years of
9a#id and <olomon=s succession to the throne *- Cings chapter A to
chapter / #erse AA+; */+ the reign of <olomon *- Cings chapter / #erse
A/ to chapter AA #erse E?+; *?+ the beginning of the di#ided monarchy
to the fall of -srael *- Cings chapter A/ to -- Cings chapter A.+; and *E+
the last years of $udah *-- Cings chapters A2@/1+"
The succession of <olomon to the throne
- Cings *chapters A and /+ continues the story of 9a#id and the struggle
for the succession of his throne" The sides were drawn between
Adoni(ah 9a#id=s eldest li#ing son and <olomon the son of 9a#id and
Bathsheba" <upporting Adoni(ah were the Gold guardH%the general
$oab and the priest Abiathar%and supporting <olomon were the priest
Fadok the prophet !athan and the captain of 9a#id=s bodyguard
Benaiah" 'ith 9a#id close to death Adoni(ah prepared to sei:e control
of the kingdom; !athan howe#er re0uested Bathsheba to go to 9a#id
and persuade 9a#id to proclaim <olomon the ne)t monarch" ,ollowing
the ad#ice of !athan 9a#id then appointed <olomon the heir to his
throne; and Fadok the priest and !athan the prophet anointed the son
of Bathsheba king in ;ihon"
After 9a#id died howe#er Adoni(ah attempted to regain some
semblance of prestige by asking <olomon to gi#e him Abishag a young
<hunammite woman who had been gi#en to 9a#id in his old age as his
wife" To this re0uest <olomon answered by ordering Adoni(ah=s
e)ecution which Benaiah carried out" <olomon also ordered the
e)ecution of the old general $oab for ha#ing killed Abner and Amasa
years earlier as a loyal supporter of 9a#id an e)ecution again carried
out by Benaiah who also e)ecuted <himei a man who had cursed 9a#id
a long time earlier" 6rior to these e)ecutions which 9a#id%before he
had died%had re0uested of <olomon the new king banished the priest
Abiathar of the house of Eli to Anathoth an act that confirmed the
position of Fadok as the principal priest of $erusalem"
The reign of <olomon
9a#id had reigned from about A888 to I4/ B&E a period in which he
consolidated a federation of tribes that had been united under the
charismatic leadership of <aul who had reigned for about two decades
before 9a#id began to construct his minor empire" <olomon who
inherited a strong monarchy reigned for E8 years" His reputation as a
monarch centred about his great wisdom *chapter ?+ his reorgani:ation
of the administrati#e bureaucracy *chapter E+ and his building of the
magnificent Temple *chapters ?@2+" Though two sons of the prophet
!athan ser#ed <olomon one as a court official and another as a priest
the prophetic mo#ement apparently was little encouraged by the united
monarchy=s third king" <olomon is perhaps one of the most o#errated
figures in the Old Testament in spite of his achie#ements in wisdom
construction and commerce; he is recorded as ha#ing A888 wi#es and
concubines%some of them merely guarantees of commercial treaties to
be sure%and as building a fleet of ships for a nearly landlocked -srael"
To accommodate his desire for a seaport he built the port of E:ionD
geber at the head of the ;ulf of A0aba of the >ed <ea" A son of the
harem <olomon had had little contact with the people of his realm and
he used many of them in labour battalions in his #ast building programs
to the economic disad#antage of -srael" By fostering social discontent in
such #entures <olomon prepared the way for the disintegration of the
united kingdom and the resurgence of the prophetic mo#ement that
reflected the indigenous co#enant concept peculiar to -srael"
'hereas 9a#id secured -srael=s borders and property by military means
<olomon sought to e)tend -srael=s influence through commercial
treaties" To secure diplomatic and commercial treaties <olomon
contracted marriage with #arious princesses%who brought with them
their nati#e deities" This defection from the &o#enant obligations to
Jahweh is #iewed by the 9euteronomic historian as a continuance of
-srael=s constant flirting with apostasy which had occurred under the
(udges and the beginning of a long process of internal religious and
political disintegration under the monarchical system" <olomon=s
oppressi#e ta)ation and commercial e)pansion also brought about
retaliation and rebellion"
Cings: <olomon=s successors
The di#ided monarchy
After <olomon died *I// B&E+ he was succeeded by >ehoboam who
pro#ed to be unfit for the task of reigning" 6rior to <olomon=s death
$eroboam the Ephraimite a young o#erseer of the forced labour
battalions of the Ghouse of $osephH in the north had encountered
Ahi(ah a prophet from the old shrine of the confederacy at <hiloh and
Ahi(ah had torn a new garment into A/ pieces prophesying that A8
pieces *tribes+ would be gi#en to $eroboam and only two pieces *tribal
political units+ would be retained by the house of 9a#id" The
dismemberment of the united monarchy was to be brought about by
Jahweh because <olomon had Gnot walked in my ways doing what is
right in my sight and keeping my statutes and my ordinances as 9a#id
his father did"H Though <olomon had worshipped the <idonian goddess
Ashtoreth the 5oabite god &hemosh and the Ammonite god 5ilcom
his reign o#er -srael continued" $eroboam=s initial rebellion pro#ed to be
aborti#e and he sought political asylum in Egypt under the protection
of the pharaoh <heshonk - *<hishak+"
>ehoboam ha#ing been crowned king of the united monarchy in
$erusalem went north to <hechem a shrine centre of the A8 northern
tribes of the old confederacy to ha#e his position ratified by the
northern units of the kingdom" Nsing this gathering as an opportune
time to present their grie#ances against <olomon=s oppressi#e domestic
policies the northerners under the leadership of the returned political
fugiti#e $eroboam asked the king from $erusalem to lighten their load"
>e0uesting three days to take their grie#ances under ad#isement
>ehoboam sought counsel from his ad#isers" The older counsellors
ad#ised moderation the younger retaliation" Assenting to the latter
>ehoboam returned to the people with an answer that was to lead to the
disintegration of the united monarchy that had lasted for only about a
century under three kings: G5y father made your yoke hea#y but - will
add to your yoke; my father chastised you with whips but - will chastise
you with scorpions"H The response of the northerners was the ancient
battle cry GTo your tents O -srael"H >ehoboam ruling from the cities
sent Adoram the leader of the forced labour battalions to -srael *the
name to be used henceforth for the northern area+; but he was stoned to
death" The uncrowned king of the north unable to 0uell the rebellion
returned to $erusalem in rapid flight" Heeding the ad#ice of the prophet
<hemaiah >ehoboam allowed the situation to remain that of a
stalemate thus inaugurating the period of the di#ided monarchy that
lasted in -srael in the north from I//@./A B&E and in $udah in the south
until 124 B&E"
Though the 9a#idic monarchy continued in $udah until the fall of
$erusalem in 124 B&E the monarchial situation in -srael was one of
constant turmoil and confusion e)cept for the periods of a few
dynasties" $eroboam - of -srael *reigned I//@I8A B&E+ attempted to
bring about religious and political reforms" Establishing his capital at
<hechem he set aside two pilgrimage sites *9an in the north and Bethel
in the south+ as shrine centres" Though the 9euteronomic historian%
with an antiDnorth pre(udice%interpreted $eroboam=s use of golden
bulls in the high place sanctuaries as a sin against Jahweh $eroboam=s
actions may ha#e merely been an incorporation of religious symbols
similar to the cherubim *winged animals+ that guarded the empty throne
of Jahweh in the temple of <olomon in $erusalem" $eroboam would not
ha#e been so politically and religiously nac#e as to introduce
polytheistic practices among the conser#ati#eDminded tribes of northern
-srael" Thus the golden bulls may ha#e been meant to ser#e as
pedestals for the in#isible Jahweh (ust as the ark *throne+ may ha#e
been the seat of the in#isible Jahweh in the Holy of Holies *inner
sanctuary+ of the Temple in $erusalem" ;ods *such as the storm god
Hadad+ of other <yrian and 6alestinian religions also were represented
as standing on the backs of bulls"
$eroboam remained true to Jahwistic religion howe#er in that the ;od
of the -sraelites was not represented iconographically" The first king of
the northern kingdom also inaugurated other religious reforms or
reinstituted ancient practices that were interpreted as decadent by the
9euteronomic historian of the southern kingdom of $udah" He instituted
a har#est thanksgi#ing festi#al on the A1th day of the eighth month a
change in the religious calendar that would preclude the (ourney of
many northern -sraelites to a similar festi#al in $erusalem; he reformed
the priesthood by installing nonD7e#ites *the traditional shrine
functionaries+ to ser#e Jahweh at the shrines an action that had been
carried out in $erusalem by 9a#id but without the opprobrium inferred
by the 9euteronomic historian on a similar action by $eroboam"
The dynasties of the northern kingdom were shortli#ed" $eroboam was
succeeded by his son !adab who reigned for two years before he was
o#erthrown by Baasha who decimated the house of $eroboam" >eigning
for /E years Baasha *who Gdid what was e#il in the sight of the 7ordH
like all of the northern kings according to the interpretation of the
9euteronomists+ had to concern himself not only with charismatic
leaders who were traditionally powerful in the north but also with the
rising power of antiDmonarchical prophets such as $ehu%who
prophesied the end of the house of Baasha *chapter A4+" Elah Baasha=s
son ruled only two years before he was assassinated while in a drunken
state by Fimri a chariot commander who e)terminated all of the
members of the house of Baasha" >eigning for the brief period of se#en
days Fimri was besieged in the citadel at Tir:ah by Omri commander of
the army" Fimri burned to death in the king=s house" 5uch of this
political turmoil and confusion in the north occurred during the reign of
Asa king of $udah from c. IA? to 2.? B&E who inaugurated religious
reforms such as banning male cult prostitutes and the worship of the
&anaanite goddess Asherah that had been sponsored by his mother
5aachah the 0ueen regent"
The significance of Eli(ah
'ith the dynasty of Omri *c. 2.4@2E/+ the prophetic mo#ement begins
to assume a position of tremendous importance in -srael and $udah"
Omri *reigned c. 2.4@24I+ reestablished -srael=s economic and military
significance among the <yrian and 6alestinian minor kingdoms so much
so that years after his death the Assyrians referred to the northern
kingdom as Gthe land of Omri"H He is mentioned in the 5oabite <tone of
Cing 5esha *Ith century B&E+ as a king who Ghumbled 5oab many
years"H To strengthen an alliance with the 6hoenicians Omri contracted
a marriage between $e:ebel princess of <idon and his son Ahab" The
marriage pro#ed to be fateful for -srael and was a catalyst that brought
the prophetic mo#ement into a course of action and a form that became
-srael=s contribution to !ear Eastern prophecy"
The reign of Omri=s son Ahab coincided with the acti#ities of the
prophet Eli(ah as recorded in - Cings chapter A4 #erse /I to chapter
// #erse E8" Ahab under the influence of his 0ueen $e:ebel allowed her
to foster the worship of the fertility god Baal in <amaria%the capital
that Omri had built%and in all -srael e#en though he himself remained
a worshipper of Jahweh" A temple was built for Baal in <amaria; $ericho
was rebuilt *e#en though the ban against its e)istence still remained+ by
Hiel of Bethel who sacrificed two of his own sons and placed them in
the foundation and the gates of the walls of the city" 9uring these
apostate acti#ities the great prophet Eli(ah the Tishbite appeared" A
man of erratic beha#iour wearing a garment of hair with a leather belt
around his waist using uncouth language and preferring the wilderness
areas to the towns Eli(ah bore many of the outward signs of social
rebels" At odds with the court authorities he began his prophetic career
(ust prior to a retreat in the wilderness during a drought which he had
announced to Ahab thus pointing out that Jahweh rather than Baal is
the 7ord of nature" -n the desert he performed two miracles: he ensured
a widow and her son of continuous food for her act of generosity to him
and cured her son apparently dead who had stopped breathing by
stretching himself on top of the boy three times" Eli(ah then went to the
court of Ahab at <amaria after ha#ing met one of the leading prophets
*Obadiah+ who had escaped $e:ebel=s attempt to destroy the leaders of
the cult of Jahweh and stood before Ahab accusing the king of being
the Gtroubler of -sraelH for ha#ing followed the cult of Baal" Eli(ah hurled
a challenge to the Baalists supported by $e:ebel to meet him in a
contest on 5t" &armel"
The contest between Eli(ah and the E18 prophets of Baal was dramatic"
Eli(ah first taunted the spectators GHow long will you go limping with
two different opinionsU -f the 7ord is ;od follow him; but if Baal then
follow him"H Eli(ah then laid the ground rules: two bulls were to be
sacrificed one each on an altar on which firewood was to be laid but no
one was to light the fire%only the ;od Gwho answers by fire"H The
prophets of Baal had the first opportunity and they prayed to Baal
loudly for a full half day until noon" 9uring this time Eli(ah in coarse
language taunted them" Eliminating the euphemisms in most English
#ersions of the Bible Eli(ah mocked the Baalists by saying that Baal
might not be responding because he was out urinating *Ggone asideH+
on a trip or sleeping" The Baalists then attempted to use sympathetic
magic" By cutting themsel#es they hoped that as their life blood flowed
on the ground Baal would send rain the life blood of the Earth"
'hen the Baalists had failed Eli(ah rebuilt an old altar of Jahweh
poured water on the wood three times *perhaps a remnant of an ancient
rainmaking ceremonyU+ and prayed to Jahweh to answer his ser#ant;
Gthe fire of the 7ord fell and consumed the burnt offering and the
wood and the stones and the dust and licked up the water that was in
the trench"H Though some authorities e)plain the action by suggesting
that Eli(ah poured naphtha on the wood this does not e)plain the
ignition of the wood at that particular time and that particular place
e#en if by a bolt of lightning" The 9euteronomic historian emphasi:ed
the miracle wrought by Jahweh" The people upon witnessing the
miracle cried out GJahweh he is ;odH and proceeded to annihilate the
prophets of Baal"
Eli(ah told Ahab to complete the festi#ities while he went to the top of
5t" &armel to perform another rainmaking ceremony" 'hen the rains
came in a cloudburst Ahab was riding in his chariot in the Balley of
$e:reel" Eli(ah in fear of retaliation from $e:ebel fled to the southern
wilderness" At 5t" Horeb *<inai+ after a storm wind and an earth0uake
Jahweh spoke to Eli(ah through silence and then re#ealed that he
should anoint Ha:ael to be king of <yria $ehu to be king of -srael and
Elisha to be his successor as prophet" - Cings chapter /8 records a war
between BenDhadad king of <yria and Ahab" Though Ahab was
#ictorious he did not kill BenDhadad according to the pro#isions of the
herem *ban+; and a prophet then informed Ahab that he would suffer for
his inaction"
Npon Ahab=s return to <amaria $e:ebel attempted to coerce the king into
confiscating the #ineyards of !aboth of $e:reel which was a &anaanite
centre" !aboth asserted that as an -sraelite the land was not his own but
was a trust from Jahweh and that he could not sell it" Taken to court on
trumpedDup charges of blasphemy !aboth was con#icted and stoned to
death" Ahab following $e:ebel=s ad#ice then went to !aboth=s #ineyard
and took possession of it" Npon hearing of Ahab=s un(ust act as king
Eli(ah proclaimed to him G-n the place where dogs licked up the blood
of !aboth shall dogs lick your own blood"H The prophet also announced
GThe dogs shall eat $e:ebel within the bounds of $e:reel"H
-n - Cings chapter // another prophet 5icaiah prophesied to Ahab
and to Cing $ehoshaphat of $udah who were preparing for battle against
the <yrians that in a #ision he saw Gall -srael scattered upon the
mountains as sheep that ha#e no shepherd"H 5icaiah was put in prison
to test the #alidity of his #ision" -t turned out to be true%Ahab e#en
though he disguised himself was mortally wounded by an arrow shot by
a <yrian archer" -n 218 he was succeeded by his son Aha:iah who
reigned for only two years"
Cings: the second book
The <econd Book of Cings continues the history of the monarchies of
-srael and $udah and of the prophetic mo#ement" Aha:iah fell from an
upper chamber of his palace in <amaria and sought help from
Baal:ebub the god of Ekron" Eli(ah met the messengers to castigate
them for not seeking aid from Jahweh the ;od of -srael and told a third
delegation that had been sent out to return to tell Aha:iah that because
of his apostasy he would die" After the death of Aha:iah Eli(ah
conferred his mantle the symbol of his prophetic authority on Elisha
and GEli(ah went up by a whirlwind into hea#en"H
The significance of Elisha
The stories of Eli(ah and his successor Elisha are of a different literary
genre from the historical accounts of the political de#elopments of the
Ith century" The historical accounts are based on the #iewpoints and
biases of the monarchy nobility and military leaders" The stories of
Eli(ah and Elisha are legendary popular accounts probably ha#ing
arisen among the common people" They demonstrate the predilection of
the common people to accent what appears to them as the miraculous
and the supernatural much as has been the case among many >oman
&atholics and Eastern &hristians in stories of their saints" Eli(ah was
depicted in se#eral instances as a second 5oses%e.g., he fled to the
wilderness to escape the retaliation of a ruler and he encountered a
theophany *manifestation of a deity+ of Jahweh on 5t" Horeb" As 5oses
appointed $oshua as his successor so also Eli(ah passed on his
prophetic mantle to Elisha" Elisha is depicted in typical folk story
embellishments and legendary motifs" The original beginning and
ending of the Eli(ah story apparently was lost but the 9euteronomic
historian incorporated the popular accounts of Eli(ah and Elisha into the
court history that gi#es scholars significant insights into the religious
mo#ements of the Ith century"
9uring the reigns of Cing $ehoshaphat of $udah *c. 2.?@2EI B&E+ and
Cing $ehoram *$oram+ of -srael *c. 2EI@2E/+ Elisha began his prophetic
career" Elisha was unlike his mentor Eli(ah in many ways: he did not use
uncouth language he did not shun towns he wore more fashionable
clothing and he used music to bring about the prophetic spirit%much
as <aul had done earlier" A cycle of miracle stories arose around Elisha;
he was said to ha#e made bitter water sweet re#i#ed the son of a
<hunammite woman from death by breathing into his mouth and lying
on top of him helped a woman to a#oid gi#ing up her two sons to a
creditor who would make them sla#es informed the <yrian captain
!aaman how to be cured from his skin disease and many other similar
actions" -n addition to being a miracle worker Elisha was a political
power" He prophesied the defeat of the 5oabites as a result of a huge
rainfall and ad#ised $oram how to defeat BenDhadad king of <yria" By
performing this last act Elisha instigated a re#olt in <yria; Ha:ael
murdered the sick and dying BenDhadad"
Elisha sent Gone of the sons of the prophetsH to anoint $ehu an army
commander to be the future king of -srael" >ushing in his chariot to
$e:reel $ehu e)terminated $ehoram the last king of the Omri dynasty
his nephew Aha:iah *king of $udah+ who was #isiting him and the
0ueen mother $e:ebel who Ghad painted her eyes and adorned her
headH before she was thrown out of the window and so mangled by the
trampling of horses that Gthey found no more of her than the skull and
the feet and the palms of her hands"H $e:ebel=s end had come about in a
manner similar to the way in which Eli(ah had prophesied"
The re#olution of $ehu was not only politically inspired" A dri#ing force
behind him was the arch conser#ati#e >echabite faction led by
$ehonadab" 9espising the &anaanites and their agricultural way of life
the >echabites%descendants of the ancient Cenites of 5idian where
5oses had e)perienced the theophany of the burning bush%li#ed in
tents refused to drink wine and attempted to retain as many of the
accoutrements of the Ggood old lifeH of ancient nomadism as possible"
'ith e)cessi#e re#olutionary :eal they helped $ehu to annihilate the
worshippers of Baal who were tricked into coming to their temple and
there murdered" To further emphasi:e their re#olutionary intent the
followers of $ehu in addition to the holocaust made the site of the
temple of Baal a latrine"
Because the king of $udah *Aha:iah+ had been killed in the re#olution%
along with the remaining northern members of the house of Omri%the
southern kingdom was ruled o#er by the 0ueen mother Athaliah the
daughter of Ahab and $e:ebel" -n her :eal to propagate the faith of her
mother Athaliah sei:ed the opportunity to destroy the line of 9a#id that
tended to be loyal to Jahweh" 7i0uidating all the male heirs to the
throne of 9a#id%e)cept the infant $oash *$ehoash+ who recei#ed asylum
in Gthe house of the 7ordH%Athaliah ruled for si) years" 'ith support
from the priests led by $ehoiada the army and Gthe people of the landH
re#olted killing Athaliah and her high priest of Baal 5attan and
destroying the temple of Baal"
-n the north $ehu was succeeded by his son $ehoaha: *reigned c. 2A1@c.
28A+ who in turn was followed by his son $oash or $ehoash" 9uring the
latter king=s reign the prophet Elisha died" Though the 9euteronomic
historian says little about -srael=s ne)t king $eroboam -- he was a ma(or
monarch reestablishing the northern kingdom=s ancient boundaries and
fostering a period of economic prosperity" 9uring the reign of $eroboam
-- *c. .24@c" .E4 B&E+ a time of both economic ad#ances and social
in(ustice Amos the great prophet of social (ustice arose" 9uring
$eroboam=s last years another great prophet Hosea whose message
centred on &o#enant lo#e arose to call an apostate people back to their
&o#enant responsibilities"
The fall of -srael
After the death of $eroboam -- howe#er -srael faced a period of
continuous disaster; and no prophetic figure was able to arrest the
steady internal decay" ,rom .E4@./A when <amaria finally fell to the
Assyrians there were si) kings the last being Hoshea a conspirator
who had assassinated the pre#ious king" The Assyrian king <argon --
deported the leading citi:ens of <amaria to 6ersia and imported
colonists from other lands to fill their places"
The fall of $udah
The southern kingdom of $udah under the 9a#idic monarchy was able
to last about A?1 years longer often only as a weak #assal state"
He:ekiah *reigned c. .A1@c. 42.+ with the ad#ice of the prophet -saiah
managed to a#oid conflict with or outlast a siege of the Assyrians"
He:ekiah was succeeded by his son 5anasseh an apostate king who
stilled any prophetic outcries reintroduced &anaanite religious
practices and e#en offered his son as a human sacrificial #ictim"
<oothsaying augury sorcery and necromancy were also reintroduced"
The 9euteronomic historian also notes that many innocent persons were
killed during his reign" 5anasseh was succeeded by his son Amon who
was assassinated in a palace re#olution after a reign of only two years"
His son $osiah who succeeded him reigned from 4E8 to 48I B&E when
he was killed in a battle with the pharaoh !echo -- of Egypt" 9uring his
reign one of the most significant e#ents in the history of the -sraelite
people occurred%the 9euteronomic reform of 4/A B&E" Occasioned by
the disco#ery of a book of the 7aw in the Temple during its rebuilding
and supported not only by Hilkiah a high priest and Huldah a
prophetess but also by the young prophet $eremiah the 9euteronomic
&ode%or &o#enant%as it has been called became the basis for a farD
reaching reform of the social and religious life of $udah" Though the
reform was shortDli#ed because of the pressure of international turmoil
it left an indelible impression on the religious consciousness of the
people of the &o#enant -srael whether they were from the north or the
south"
,rom 48I to 124 $udah felt the coming oppression of Babylon under
Cing !ebuchadre::ar" After the death of $osiah four kings ruled in
$erusalem the last being Fedekiah who failed to heed the ad#ice of the
prophet $eremiah%who had attempted to persuade the king not to trust
the Egyptians in a rebellion against Babylon because there would be
only one loser the House of 9a#id" $ehoiachin the predecessor of the
puppet king Fedekiah had been carried off into e)ile to Babylon in 1I2;
but about 148 he was released from prison thus lea#ing a hope that the
9a#idic line had not become e)tinct" 9espite this small element of hope
the year 124 B&E marked the beginning of a tragic period for the people
of $udah%the Babylonian E)ile" 9uring this period of rethinking
&o#enant faith the prophet E:ekiel preached both in $erusalem and
Babylon offering the people hope for a restoration of the symbols and
cultic acts of their co#enant religion"
-saiah
The Book of -saiah comprising 44 chapters is one of the most profound
theological and literarily e)pressi#e works in the Bible" &ompiled o#er a
period of about two centuries *the latter half of the 2th to the latter half
of the 4th century B&E+ the Book of -saiah is generally di#ided by
scholars into two *sometimes three+ ma(or sections which are called
,irst -saiah *chapters A@?I+ 9euteroD-saiah *chapters E8@11 or E8@44+
and%if the second section is subdi#ided%TritoD-saiah *chapters 14@
44+"
The prophecies of ,irst -saiah
,irst -saiah contains the words and prophecies of -saiah a most
important 2thDcentury B&E prophet of $udah written either by himself
or his contemporary followers in $erusalem *from c. .E8 to .88 B&E+
along with some later additions such as chapters /E@/. and ??@?I" The
first of these two additions was probably written by a later disciple or
disciples of -saiah about 188 B&E; the second addition is di#ided into
two sections%chapters ??@?1 written during or after the e)ile to
Babylon in 124 B&E and chapters ?4@?I which drew from the source
used by the 9euteronomic historian in -- Cings chapters A2@AI" The
second ma(or section of -saiah which may be designated <econd -saiah
e#en though it has been di#ided because of chronology into 9euteroD
-saiah and TritoD-saiah was written by members of the GschoolH of
-saiah in Babylon: chapters E8@11 were written prior to and after the
con0uest of Babylon in 1?I by the 6ersian king &yrus -- the ;reat and
chapters 14@44 were composed after the return from the Babylonian
E)ile in 1?2" The canonical Book of -saiah after editorial redaction
probably assumed its present form during the Eth century B&E" Because
of its messianic *sal#atory figure+ themes -saiah became e)tremely
significant among the early &hristians who wrote the !ew Testament
and the sectarians at Kumran near the 9ead <ea who awaited the
imminent messianic age a time that would inaugurate the period of the
7ast $udgment and the Cingdom of ;od"
-saiah a prophet priest and statesman li#ed during the last years of
the northern kingdom and during the reigns of four kings of $udah:
N::iah *A:ariah+ $otham Aha: and He:ekiah" He was also a
contemporary of the prophets of social (ustice: Amos Hosea and 5icah"
-nfluenced by their prophetic outcries against social in(ustice -saiah
added themes peculiar to his prophetic mission" To kings political and
economic leaders and to the people of the land he issued a message
that harked back nearly fi#e centuries to the period of the (udges: the
holiness of Jahweh the coming 5essiah of Jahweh the (udgment of
Jahweh and the necessity of placing one=s own and the nation=s trust in
Jahweh rather than in the might of ephemeral mo#ements and nations"
,rom about .E/ B&E when he first e)perienced his call to become a
prophet to about 42. -saiah influenced the course of $udah=s history by
his oracles of destruction (udgment and hope as well as his messages
containing both threats and promises"
-ntimately ac0uainted with worship on 5t" Fion because of his priestD
prophet position with the Temple and its rich imagery and ritualistic
practices and possessed of a deep understanding of the meaning of
kingship in $udah theologically and politically -saiah was able to
interpret and ad#ise both leaders and the common people of the
&o#enant promises of Jahweh the 7ord of Hosts" Because they were
imbued with the following beliefs%;od dwelt on 5t" Fion in the
Temple in the city of $erusalem and in the person of the Cing%the
messianic phrase G;od is with usH *-mmanuel+ -saiah used was not a
pallid abstraction of a theological concept but a concrete li#ing reality
that found its e)pression in the Temple theology and message of the
great prophet"
-n chapters A@4 are recorded the oracles of -saiah=s early ministry" His
call a #isionary e)perience in the temple in $erusalem is described in
some of the most influential symbolic language in Old Testament
literature" -n the year of Cing N::iah=s death *.E/ B&E+ -saiah had a
#ision of the 7ord enthroned in a celestial temple surrounded by the
seraphim%hybrid humanDanimalDbird figures who attended the deity in
his sanctuary" 6robably e)periencing this ma(estic imagery that was
enhanced by the actual setting and the ceremonial and ritualistic
ob(ects of the $erusalem Temple -saiah was mystically transported from
the earthly temple to the hea#enly temple from the microcosm to the
macrocosm from sacred space in profane time to sacred space in sacred
time"
Jahweh in the mystical ecstatic e)perience of -saiah is too sublime to
be described in other than the imagery of the winged seraphim which
hide his glory and call to each other:
GHoly holy holy is the 7ord of hosts;
The whole earth is full of his glory"H
'ith smoke rising from the burning incense -saiah was consumed by
his feelings of unworthiness *G'oe is meb for - am lostH+; but one of the
seraphim touched -saiah=s lips with a burning coal from the altar and the
prophet heard the words GJour guilt is taken away and your sin
forgi#en"H -saiah then heard the #oice of Jahweh ask the hea#enly
council G'hom shall - send and who will go for usUH The prophet
caught up as a participant in the mystical dialogue responded GHere
am -b <end me"H The message to be deli#ered to the &o#enant people
from the hea#enly council he is informed is one that will be unheeded"
The oracles of -saiah to the people of $erusalem from about .E8 to .?/
B&E castigate the nation of $udah for its many sins" The religious social
and economic sins of $udah roll from the prophet=s utterances in
staccatoDlike se0uence: *A+ GBring no more #ain offerings; incense is an
abomination to me" !ew moon and sabbath and the calling of
assemblies%- cannot endure ini0uity and solemn assemblyH against
religious superficiality; */+ Gcease to do e#il learn to do good; seek
(ustice correct oppression; defend the fatherless plead for the widowH
against social in(ustice; and *?+ G&ome now let us reason together says
the 7ord: though your sins are like scarlet they shall be as white as
snowH a call for obedience to the &o#enant" The prophet also cried out
for peace: Gand they shall beat their swords into plowshares and their
spears into pruning hooks; nation shall not lift up sword against nation
neither shall they learn war anymore"H The sins of $udah howe#er are
numerous: the rich oppress the poor the nation s0uanders its economic
resources on military spending idolatry runs rampant in the land
e#eryone tries to cheat his fellowman women flaunt their se)ual charms
in the streets and there are many who cannot wait for a strong drink in
the morning to get them through the day" One of -saiah=s castigations
warns: G'oe to those who are heroes at drinking wine and #aliant men
in mi)ing strong drink who ac0uit the guilty for a bribe and depri#e the
innocent of his rightbH
9uring the <yroDEphraimitic war *.?E@.?/ B&E+ -saiah began to
challenge the policies of Cing Aha: of $udah" <yria and -srael had (oined
forces against $udah" -saiah=s ad#ice to the young Cing of $udah was to
place his trust in Jahweh" Apparently -saiah belie#ed that Assyria would
take care of the northern threat" Aha: in timidity did not want to
re0uest a sign from Jahweh" -n e)asperation -saiah told the Cing that
Jahweh would gi#e him a sign anyway: GBehold a young woman shall
concei#e and bear a son and shall call his name -mmanuel"H Thus by
the time this child is able to know how to choose good and refuse e#il
the two minor kings of the north who were threatening $udah will be
made ineffecti#e by the Assyrians" The name -mmanuel G;od is with
usH would be meaningful in this situation because ;od on 5t" Fion and
represented in the person of the king would be faithful to his &o#enant
people" Aha: howe#er placed his trust in an alliance with Assyria under
the great con0ueror TiglathDpileser ---" -n order to gi#e hope to the
people who were beginning to e)perience the Assyrian encroachments
on $udaean lands in .?2 B&E -saiah uttered an oracle to Gthe people
who walked in darknessH: G,or to us a child is born to us a son is gi#en;
and the go#ernment will be upon his shoulder and his name will be
called 'onderful &ounselor 5ighty ;od E#erlasting ,ather 6rince of
6eace"H -saiah trusted that Jahweh would bring about a kingdom of
peace under a 9a#idic ruler"
,rom .?/ to .?A B&E the year the northern kingdom fell -saiah
continued to prophesy in $udah but probably not in any #ociferous
manner until the Assyrians con0uered <amaria" The king of the
Assyrians is described as the rod of ;od=s anger but Assyria also will
e)perience the (udgment of ;od for its atrocities in time of war" 9uring
one of the periods of Assyrian e)pansion towards $udah -saiah uttered
his famous 9a#idic messianic *sal#atory figure+ oracle in which he
prophesies the coming of a Gshoot from the stump of $esseH upon which
the <pirit of the 7ord will rest and who will establish the Gpeaceable
kingdomH in which Gthe wolf shall dwell with the lamb"H A hymn of
praise concludes this first section of ,irst -saiah"
&hapters A?@/? include a list of oracles against #arious nations%
Babylon Assyria 6hilistia 5oab <yria Egypt and other oppressors of
$udah" These probably came from the time when He:ekiah began his
reign *c. .A1+" -n .81 B&E <argon of Assyria died howe#er and
He:ekiah a generally astute and reformDminded king began to be
caught up in the power struggle between Babylon Egypt and Assyria"
-saiah urged He:ekiah to remain neutral during the re#olutionary
turmoil" Though <ennacherib of Assyria mo#ed south to crush the
rebellion of the 6alestinian #assal states -saiah%contrary to his
pre#ious ad#ocacy of neutrality%urged his king to resist the Assyrians
because the 7ord rather than the soDcalled Egyptian allies who Gare
men and not ;odH will protect $erusalem" He then prophesied a coming
age of (ustice and of the <pirit who will bring about a renewed creation"
<econd -saiah *chapters E8@44+ which comes from the school of
-saiah=s disciples can be di#ided into two periods: chapters E8@11
generally called 9euteroD-saiah were written about 1?2 B&E after the
e)perience of the E)ile; and chapters 14@44 sometimes called TritoD
-saiah *or --- -saiah+ were written after the return of the e)iles to
$erusalem after 1?2 B&E"
The prophecies of 9euteroD-saiah
<econd -saiah contains the #ery e)pressi#e soDcalled <er#ant <ongs%
chapter E/ #erses A@E; chapter EI #erses A@4; chapter 18 #erses E@I;
chapter 1/ #erse A?; and chapter 1? #erse A/" 'riting from Babylon
the author begins with a message of comfort and hope and faith in
Jahweh" The people are to lea#e Babylon and return to $erusalem which
has paid Gdouble for all her sins"H As creator and 7ord of history ;od
will redeem -srael his chosen ser#ant" Through the <er#ant of the 7ord
all the nations will be blessed: G- ha#e put my <pirit upon him he will
bring forth (ustice to the nations"H The <uffering <er#ant whether the
nation -srael or an indi#idual agent of Jahweh will help to bring about
the deli#erance of the nation" Though <econd -saiah may ha#e been
referring to a hopedDfor rise of a prophetic figure many scholars now
hold that the <uffering <er#ant is -srael in a collecti#e sense" &hristians
ha#e interpreted the <er#ant <ongs especially the fourth as a prophecy
referring to $esus of !a:areth%GHe was despised and re(ected by men;
a man of sorrows and ac0uainted with grief " " " H but this interpretation
is theologically oriented and thus open to 0uestion according to many
scholars"
The oracles of TritoD-saiah
&hapters 14@44 are a collection of oracles from the restoration period
*after 1?2 B&E+" Emphasis is placed upon cultic acts attacks against
idolatry and a right moti#ation in the worship of Jahweh" >epentance
and social (ustice are themes that ha#e been retained from the earlier
-saiah traditions and the e#erDpresent element of hope in the creati#e
goodness of Jahweh that per#aded -- -saiah remains a dominant theme
in the last chapters of the Book of -saiah"
$eremiah
The prophet $eremiah began to prophesy about 4/4 B&E during the
reign of the $udaean king $osiah" ,rom the town of Anathoth and
probably from the priestly family of Eli this prophet who may ha#e
been instrumental in the 9euteronomic reform dictated his oracles to
his secretary Baruch" Only a youth in his late teens when he e)perienced
the call by Jahweh to be a Gprophet to the nationsH $eremiah was a
hesitant reforming prophet e)periencing deep spiritual struggles
regarding his ade0uacy from the #ery beginning of his call and
throughout his prophetic ministry" After the death of $osiah in 48I B&E
howe#er he became an outspoken prophet against the national policy of
$udah a policy that he knew would lead to the disaster that came to be
called the Babylonian E)ile" Because of his prophecies which were
unpopular with the military and the re#olutionists against the
Babylonians $eremiah was kidnapped by conspirators after 124 and
taken to Egypt where he disappeared"
The Book of $eremiah is a collection of oracles biographical accounts
and narrati#es that are not arranged in any consistent chronological or
thematic order" One /8thDcentury ;erman biblical scholar 'ilhelm
>udolph has attempted to arrange the chapters of the book according
to certain chronological details" He has di#ided the work into fi#e
sections: *A+ prophecies against $udah and $erusalem chapters A@/1
during the reigns of kings $osiah *4E8@48I+ and $ehoiachim *48I@1I2+
and the period after $ehoiachim *1I.@124+; */+ prophecies against
foreign nations chapters /1 and 44@4A; *?+ prophecies of hope for
-srael chapters /4@?1 *probably after the death of $osiah in 48I+; *E+
narrati#es of $eremiah=s sufferings chapters ?4@E1 *from a postD124
period+ and *1+ an appendi) chapter 1/" $eremiah=s own prophetic
oracles are found particularly in chapters A@?4 and E4@1/" Baruch=s
writings about $eremiah are found primarily in chapters ?.@E1 /4@/I
and ??@?4"
9uring the reign of $osiah after his call $eremiah preached to the
people of $erusalem and warned them against the sin of apostasy"
>ecalling the prophecies of the 2thDcentury -sraelite prophet Hosea
$eremiah reproached the $udaeans for playing harlot with other gods
and urged them to repent" He prophesied that enemies from the north
would be the instruments of Jahweh=s (udgment on the apostate land
and $erusalem would suffer the fate of a re(ected prostitute" The idolatry
and immorality of the $udaeans would ine#itably lead to their
destruction" Because of the impending threat from the north $eremiah
warned the people to flee from the wrath that was to come"
At the beginning of $ehoiachim=s reign $eremiah preached in the temple
that because of $udah=s apostasy Gdeath shall be preferred to life by all
the remnant that remains of this e#il family in all the places where -
ha#e dri#en them says the 7ord of hosts"H Because he spoke words that
were unpopular his own townsmen of Anathoth plotted against his life"
To symboli:e the fate of $udah $eremiah adopted some rather bi:arre
techni0ues" He buried a waist cloth and wore it when it was spoiled to
illustrate the fate of $erusalem which had worshipped other gods than
Jahweh"
Throughout his career $eremiah had moments of deep depression times
when he lamented that he had become a prophet" Because of the
uncertainty of the times $eremiah did not marry"
A master of symbolic actions and the use of symbolic de#ices $eremiah
used a potter=s wheel to show that Jahweh was shaping an e#il future
for $udah; and he bought a flask after which he broke it on the ground to
illustrate again the fate of $udah" Because of such words and actions
$eremiah often found himself in trouble" 6ashur a priest had $eremiah
beaten and placed in stocks" 'hen released $eremiah told 6ashur he
would go into capti#ity and die" 9espite the plots against him $eremiah
continued to rely on the grace of Jahweh" He was brought to trial for
prophesying the destruction of $erusalem but his defense attorneys
%Gcertain of the eldersH%pointed out that Cing He:ekiah had not
punished the prophet 5icah of 5oresheth in the 2th century for similar
statements"
&ontinuing to prophesy against the moral and religious corruption of
$erusalem during the reign of Fedekiah *1I.@124+ $eremiah became
e#en more unpopular for his ad#ocacy to surrender to Babylon"
-n spite of his apparent failure to win o#er the people to his cause
$eremiah inaugurated a reform that had lasting effects" He helped to
bring about a change in religion from the #iew that primarily accepted
corporate responsibility to one that held that religion is more
indi#idualistic in terms of responsibility" His words in chapter ?A #erse
?? are a summation of his reform: GBut this is the co#enant which - will
make with the house of -srael after those days says the 7ord: - will put
my law within them and - will write it upon their hearts; and - will be
their ;od and they shall be my people"H
E:ekiel
The Book of E:ekiel written by the prophetpriest E:ekiel who li#ed
both in $erusalem prior to the Babylonian E)ile *124 B&E+ and in
Babylon after the E)ile and also by an editor *or editors+ who belongs
to a GschoolH of the prophet similar to that of the prophet -saiah has
captured the attention of readers for centuries because of its #i#id
imagery and symbolism" The book has also attracted the attention of
biblical scholars who ha#e noticed that although E:ekiel appears to be a
singularly homogeneous composition displaying a unity unusual for
such a large prophetic work it also displays upon careful analysis the
problem of repetitions certain inconsistencies and contradictions and
0uestions raised by terminological differences" Though the book itself
indicates that the prophecies of E:ekiel occurred from about 1I?@1.A
B&E some scholars%who are in a minority%ha#e argued that the book
was written during widely di#ergent periods such as in the .th century
and e#en as late as the /nd century B&E" 5ost scholars howe#er
accept that the main body of the book came from the 4th century B&E
with the inclusion of some later glosses by redactors who remained
loyal to the theological traditions of their masterDteacher"
&ontaining se#eral literary genres such as oracles mythological
themes allegory pro#erbs historical narrati#es folk tales threats and
promises and lamentations the Book of E:ekiel may be di#ided into
three main sections: *A+ prophecies against $udah and $erusalem
*chapters A@/E+; */+ prophecies against foreign countries *chapters /1@
?/+; and *?+ prophecies about -srael=s future"
E:ekiel%the man and his message
The man who wrote this book%at least the main body of the work%was
undoubtedly one of the leaders of $erusalem because he was among the
first group of e)iles to go into capti#ity%those who were forced to lea#e
their homeland about 1I. B&E in a deportation to Babylon on the orders
of the con0uering king !ebuchadre::ar" Belonging to the priestly class
perhaps of the line of Fadok E:ekiel was a spiritual leader of his fellow
e)iles at TelDabib which was located near the ri#er &hebar a canal that
was part of the Euphrates >i#er irrigation system" According to his own
account E:ekiel the priest without a temple recei#ed the call to
become a prophet during a #ision G-n the thirtieth year in the fourth
month on the fifth dayH%perhaps $uly ?A 1I? B&E if the dating is
based on the lunar calendar though the e)act meaning of Gthirtieth
yearH remains obscure" A married man who was often consulted by
elders among the e)iles E:ekiel carried out his priestly and prophetic
career during two distinct periods: *A+ from 1I?@124 B&E a date that
was doubly depressing for the prophet because it was the period when
his wife died and his nati#e city was destroyed; and */+ from 124@1.A
B&E the date of his last oracle *chapter /I #erse A.+"
The personality of the prophet shows through his oracles #isions and
narrations" ,rustrated because the people would not heed his messages
from Jahweh E:ekiel often e)hibited erratic beha#iour" This need not
mean that he was psychologically abnormal" 7ike many great spiritual
leaders he displayed 0ualities and actions that did not fall within the
range of moderation and to perform an e) post facto psychological
postmortem e)amination on any great historical figure in the face of a
paucity of necessary details may be an interesting game but is hardly
scientifically respectable or accurate" To be sure E:ekiel did engage in
erratic beha#iour: he ate a scroll on one occasion lost his power of
speech for a period of time and lay down on the ground Gplaying warH
to emphasi:e a point an action that would certainly draw attention to
him which was his purpose" -n spite of these peculiarities E:ekiel was a
master preacher who drew large crowds and a good administrator of his
religious community of e)iles" He held out hope for a temple in a new
age in order to inspire a people in capti#ity" He also initiated a form of
imagery and literature that was to ha#e profound effects on both
$udaism and &hristianity all the way to the /8th century: apocalypticism
*the #iew that ;od would inter#ene in history to sa#e the belie#ing
remnant and that this inter#ention would be accompanied by dramatic
cataclysmic e#ents+"
6rophetic themes and actions
The first section of the book *chapters A@/E+ contains prophecies
against $udah and $erusalem" E:ekiel=s call is recorded in chapter A to
chapter ? #erse A1" -t came in a #ision of four hea#enly cherubim who
appeared in a wind from the north a cloud and flashing fire *lightningU+
%traditional symbolic elements of a theophany *manifestation of a god+
in ancient !ear Eastern religions" These winged hybrid throne bearers%
with the faces of a man a lion an o) and an eagle *which became
iconographic symbols of the four ;ospel writers of the !ew Testament+
%bore the throne chariot of Jahweh" The cherubim symboli:ing
intelligence strength and%especially%mobility had beside them four
gleaming wheels or Ga wheel within a wheelH *i.e., set at right angles to
each other+ which further emphasi:ed the omnimobility of the throne
chariot" This #ision harks back to -saiah=s mystical e)perience *-saiah
chapter 4+ in which that prophet en#isioned the throne of the ark which
symboli:ed the omnipresence of the in#isible Jahweh" High abo#e the
cherubim was a firmament or crystal platform abo#e which was the
throne of Jahweh who%in a Glikeness as if it were of a human formH%
spoke to E:ekiel" The <pirit of Jahweh entered him and he was
commissioned to preach to the people of -srael a message of doom to an
apostate people" The significance of this #ision is that it occurred not to
a priest in the holy Temple at $erusalem but to an e)iled prophetDpriest
in a foreign land" The ;od of -srael was the ;od of the nations" The
impact of his #isionary e)perience so o#erwhelmed E:ekiel that he
simply sat at TelDabib for se#en days"
&ommissioned by Jahweh to be Ga watchman for the house of -sraelH
E:ekiel performed a series of symbolic acts to illustrate the impending
fate of the city from which he had been banished: he placed a brick on
the ground to symboli:e $erusalem=s future siege lay down on the
ground bound himself to indicate capture ate food first cooked on fuel
composed of human feces and then animal e)crement and then cut his
hair and beard" Though these acts were performed in Babylon news of
them was most likely communicated to the people of $erusalem" $ust as
$eremiah had tried to repress the false hopes that the residents of
$erusalem harboured concerning the downfall of Babylon which had
been predicted by the popular nationalistic prophet Hananiah
*$eremiah chapter /2 #erses 1@A.+ E:ekiel attempted to 0uash the illD
founded aspirations of the e)iles for an immediate return to $erusalem"
-n chapters 4 and . E:ekiel prophesies that $erusalem=s Galtars shall
become desolateH its people will be Gscattered through the countriesH
and Gbecause the land is full of bloody crimes and the city full of
#iolenceH Jahweh Gwill put an end to their proud might and their holy
places shall be profane"H -n chapter 2 he attacked the people of
$erusalem for their idolatry as manifest by the women sitting before the
entrance to the north gate of the Temple of Jahweh weeping in cultic
despair for the 5esopotamian fertility deity Tammu:=s Gannual death"H
After prophesying the fall of $erusalem in chapters I@AA because Gthe
guilt of the house of -srael and $udah is e)ceedingly greatH E:ekiel
performed other symbolic acts such as packing baggage for an
emergency e)ile digging a hole in his house to illustrate the fact that
some will try to escape and eating and drinking with trembling actions
to show the future fear that the $erusalemites will e)perience; he also
attacked prophets who ga#e the people false hopes" G'oe to the foolish
prophets who follow their own spirit and ha#e seen nothing" Jour
prophets ha#e been like fo)es among ruins O -srael"H He tried to
underline his message of urgency by relating the problem of apostasy to
similar situations in -srael=s past history"
About the time that !ebuchadre::ar besieged $erusalem E:ekiel=s wife
became ill" Though E:ekiel could mourn her impending death Gbut not
aloudH *i.e., only by himself so that the people would notice his unusual
reaction and thus recei#e the full impact of his prophetic message+ he
was not to mourn her death publicly" 'hen he did not eat the Gbread of
mournersH the people asked him for an e)planation" He told them and it
was a shattering e)posure: $erusalem would be destroyed Gand your
sons and daughters whom you left behind shall fall by the swordH; when
this happens%in spite of their pining and groaning%they will know the
meaning of E:ekiel=s actions"
-n order to show that Jahweh was the 7ord of the whole creation and of
all nations E:ekiel issued prophecies of impending disasters that would
be e)perienced by many neighbouring !ear Eastern countries" !ations
that e)ulted in $udah=s defeat%i.e., Ammon 5oab Edom 6hilistia and
6hoenicia%would all suffer the same fate as well as Egypt the formerly
great empire that had manoeu#red $udah into its disastrous foreign
policy of opposing Babylon"
Oracles of hope
-n the third section chapters ??@E2 E:ekiel proclaimed in oracles that
ha#e become imprinted in theological discourse and folk songs the
hope that lies in the faith that ;od cares for his people and will restore
them to a state of wholeness" As the good shepherd ;od will feed his
flock and will Gseek the lostH Gbring back the strayedH Gbind up the
crippledH and Gstrengthen the weak"H He will also Gset up o#er them
one shepherd my ser#ant 9a#id and he shall feed them"H This 9a#idic
ruler will be a nasi *prince+ the term used for a leader of the tribal
confederacy before the inauguration of the monarchy" -n chapter ?.
E:ekiel had a nowDfamous #ision of the #alley of dry bones which refers
not to resurrection from the dead but rather to the restoration of a
scattered &o#enant people into a single unity" To further emphasi:e the
restoration of the scattered people of Jahweh E:ekiel uttered the oracle
of the two sticks (oined together into one which prophesied the reD
unification of -srael and $udah as one nation" &hapters ?2 and ?I
contain a cryptic apocalyptic oracle about the in#asion of an
unidentified ;og of 5agog" 'ho this ;og is has long been a matter of
speculation; whoe#er he is his chief characteristic is that he is the
demonic person who leads the forces of e#il in the final battle against
the people of ;od" ;og and 5agog ha#e thus earned a position in
apocalyptic literature o#er the centuries" &hapters E8@E2 are a closing
section in which E:ekiel has a #ision of a restored Temple in $erusalem
with its form of worship reestablished and a restored -srael with each of
the ancient tribes recei#ing appropriate allotments" E:ekiel=s prophecies
while in e)ile in Babylon were to ha#e a significant influence on the
religion of $udaism as it emerged from a time of reassessment of its
religious beliefs and cultic acts during the Babylonian E)ile *124@1?2
B&E+"
The first si) minor prophets
Hosea
The Book of Hosea the first of the canonical Twel#e *5inor+ 6rophets
was written by Hosea *whose name means Gsal#ationH or
Gdeli#eranceH+ a prophet who li#ed during the last years of the age of
$eroboam -- in -srael and the period of decline and ruin that followed the
brief period of economic prosperity" The Assyrians were threatening the
land of -srael and the people of the &o#enant acted as though they were
obli#ious to the stipulations of their peculiar relation to Jahweh" The
Book of Hosea is a collection of oracles composed and arranged by
Hosea and his disciples" 7ike his contemporary Amos the great prophet
of social (ustice Hosea was a prophet of doom; but he held out a hope to
the people that the 9ay of Jahweh contained not (ust retribution but
also the possibility of renewal" His message against -srael=s Gspirit of
harlotryH was dramatically and symbolically acted out in his personal
life"
The Book of Hosea may be di#ided into two sections: *A+ Hosea=s
marriage and its symbolic meaning *chapters A@?+; and */+ (udgments
against an apostate -srael and hope of forgi#eness and restoration
*chapters E@AE+"
-n the first section Hosea is commanded by Jahweh to marry a
prostitute by the name of ;omer as a symbol of -srael=s playing the part
of a whore searching for gods other than the one true ;od" He is to ha#e
children by her" Three children are born in this marriage" The first a son
is named $e:reel to symboli:e that the house of $ehu will suffer for the
bloody atrocities committed in the Balley of $e:reel by the founder of
the dynasty when he annihilated the house of Omri" The second a
daughter is named 7o >uhama *!ot pitied+ to indicate that Jahweh
was no longer to be patient with -srael the northern kingdom" The third
child a son is named 7o =Ammi *!ot my people+ signifying that
Jahweh was no longer to be the ;od of a people who had refused to
keep the &o#enant" -n chapter / Hosea #oiced what probably was a
di#orce formula%Gshe is not my wife and - am not her husbandH%to
indicate that he had di#orced his faithless wife ;omer who kept Ggoing
after other lo#ers"H The deeper symbolism is that -srael had abandoned
Jahweh for the cult of Baal celebrating the Gfeast days of Baal"H $ust as
Jahweh will renew his &o#enant with -srael howe#er Hosea buys a
woman for a wife%probably ;omer" The woman may ha#e been a sacred
prostitute in a Baal shrine a concubine or perhaps e#en a sla#e" He
confines her for a period of time so that she will not engage in any
attempt to search for other paramours and thus commit further
adulteries"
The second section chapters E@AE does not refer to the marriage motif;
but the imagery and symbolism of marriage constantly recur" The
-sraelites in Ga spirit of harlotryH ha#e gone astray and ha#e left their
;od" Their infidelity emphasi:ed their lack of trustworthiness and real
knowledge of lo#e a lo#e that could not be camouflaged by superficial
worship ceremonies" Thus Hosea emphasi:ed two #ery significant
theological terms: hese+, or G&o#enant lo#eH and Gknowledge of ;od"H
-n attacking the superficiality of much of -srael=s worship Jahweh
through Hosea proclaimed: G,or - desire steadfast *&o#enant+ lo#e and
not sacrifice the knowledge of ;od rather than burnt offerings"H
Because they ha#e broken Jahweh=s &o#enant and transgressed his law
howe#er the 7ord=s anger Gburns against them"H ,or Gthey sow the wind
and they shall reap the whirlwind"H -srael will be punished for its
rebellion and ini0uities but Hosea=s message holds out the hope that
the holiness of Jahweh=s lo#e%including both (udgment and mercy%
will effect a triumphant return of -srael to her true husband Jahweh"
$oel
The Book of $oel the second of the Twel#e *5inor+ 6rophets is a short
work of only three chapters" The dates of $oel *whose name means
GJahweh is ;odH+ are difficult to ascertain" <ome scholars belie#e that
the work comes from the 6ersian period *1?I@??A B&E+; others hold
that it was written soon after the fall of $erusalem in 124 B&E" His
references to a locust plague may refer to an actual calamity that
occurred; the prophet used the situation to call the people to repentance
and lamentation perhaps in connection with the festi#al of the !ew
Jear the G9ay of Jahweh"H G dJet e#en now= says the 7ord dreturn to
me with all your heart with fasting with weeping and with mourning;
and rend your hearts and not your garments"= H <ome scholars howe#er
belie#e that the plague of locusts refers to the armies of a foreign power
*BabyloniaU+" -n the remaining section of the book *chapter / #erse ?8
to chapter ? #erse /A+ $oel in apocalyptic imagery predicts the
(udgment of the nations%especially 6hilistia and 6hoenicia%and the
restoration of $udah and $erusalem"
Amos
The Book of Amos the third of the Twel#e *5inor+ 6rophets has been
one of the most significant and influential books of the Bible from the
time it was written *2th century B&E+ down to the /8th century"
&omprising only nine chapters of oracles it was composed during the
age of $eroboam -- king of -srael from .24 to .E4 B&E" His reign was
marked by great economic prosperity but the rich were getting richer
and the poor poorer" <ocial in(ustice ran rampant in the land" The
economically weak could find no redress in the courts and no one to
champion their cause%until the coming of Amos a shepherd from
Tekoa in $udah who also said that he was Ga dresser of sycamore trees"H
Amos thus was no professional prophet nor a member of a prophetic
guild"
The book may be di#ided into three sections: *A+ oracles against foreign
nations and -srael *chapters A@/+; */+ oracles of indictment against
-srael for her sins and in(ustices *chapters ?@4+; and *?+ #isions and
words of (udgment *chapters .@I+" Amos was the first of the writing
prophets but his work may be composed of oracles issued both by
himself and by disciples who followed his theological #iews"
His prophetic oracles begin with a resounding phrase: GThe 7ord roars
from Fion"H He then goes on to indict #arious nations%<yria 6hilistia
Tyre Ammon and 5oab%for the crimes and atrocities they ha#e
committed in times of peace: GBecause they sell the righteous for sil#er
and the needy for a pair of shoes%they " " " trample the head of the poor
into the dust of the earth and turn aside the way of the afflictedH
*chapter / #erses 4@.+"
The second section *chapters ?@4+ contains some of the most #ehement
and cogent in#ecti#es against the social in(ustices perpetrated in -srael"
Though the -sraelites ha#e prided themsel#es on being the elect of ;od
they ha#e misinterpreted this election as pri#ilege instead of
responsibility" -n chapter E Amos in language that was sure to raise the
ire of the pri#ileged classes attacked unnecessary indulgence and
lu)ury" To the wealthy women of <amaria he said: GHear this word you
cows of Bashan who are in the mountain of <amaria who oppress the
poor who crush the needy who say to their husbands dBring that we
may drinkb= H *chapter E #erse A+" After a series of warnings of
punishment Amos proclaimed the coming of the day of Jahweh which
is Gdarkness and not light"H His attacks against superficial pretenses to
worship ha#e become pro#erbial: G- hate - despise your feasts and -
take no delight in your solemn assembliesH *chapter 1 #erse /A+"
Another #erse from Amos has become a rallying cry for those searching
for social (ustice: GBut let (ustice roll down like waters and
righteousness like an e#erDflowing streamH *chapter 1 #erse /E+"
The third section *chapters .@I+ contains #isions of locusts as a sign of
punishment a summer drought as a sign of ;od=s wrath and a plumb
line as a sign to test the faithfulness of -srael" The priest of the shrine at
Bethel Ama:iah resented Amos= incursion on his territory and told him
to go back to his home in the south" -n reply to Ama:iah Amos
prophesied the bitter end of Ama:iah=s family" Another #ision in chapter
2 that of a basket of ripe fruit pointed to the fact that -srael=s end was
near" A fifth #ision depicting the collapse of the Temple in <amaria
symboli:ed the collapse of e#en the religious life of the northern
kingdom" He ended his work with a prophecy that the 9a#idic monarchy
would be restored"
Obadiah
The Book of Obadiah the fourth book of the Twel#e *5inor+ 6rophets
contains only /A #erses" !othing is known about the prophet as a
person or about his times" -t may ha#e been written before the E)ile
though many scholars belie#e that it was composed either some time
after 124 B&E or in the midD1th century when the $ews returned to the
area around $erusalem" The prophet concentrates on the (udgment of
;od against Edom and other nations with the final #erses referring to
the restoration of the $ews in their nati#e land"
$onah
The Book of $onah containing the wellDknown story of $onah in the
stomach of a fish for three days is actually a narrati#e about a reluctant
prophet" This fifth book of the Twel#e *5inor+ 6rophets contains no
oracles and is thus uni0ue among prophetic books" -n -- Cings chapter
AE #erses /1@/. there is a reference to a prophet $onah who li#ed
during the early part of the reign of $eroboam -- *2th century B&E+"
The story howe#er probably comes from a time after the fall of
$erusalem in 124 B&E" 6robably li#ing during the E)ile the author used
the memory of the hated Assyrians to proclaim the mission of -srael%to
teach all nations about the mercy and forgi#eness of ;od" -n the short
book of four chapters $onah Amittai=s son is commissioned by Jahweh
to go to !ine#eh the capital of Assyria to preach repentance"
Attempting to a#oid the command of Jahweh $onah boarded a ship
which soon was caught up in a storm" The frightened sailors drew lots to
disco#er who was the cause of their unfortunate and calamitous
condition" $onah drew the unlucky lot and was thrown o#erboard after
which he was swallowed by a fish and stayed in that uncomfortable
place for three days and nights" After he cried to the 7ord to let him out
the fish #omited $onah out onto dry land" $onah though still reluctant
went to !ine#eh to preach repentance" His efforts were successful
which did not please him%because of his hatred for the Assyrians" -n
the end howe#er $onah reali:ed that ;od was a uni#ersal ;od and not
the sole property of -srael"
6robably written sometime between 188 and ?18 B&E *or perhaps /18
B&EB&E the message of $onah protested the e)clusi#eness of a postD
e)ilic $udaism with its policy of a pure blood race of $ews that the
reformers E:ra and !ehemiah had implemented in the 1th century"
5icah
The Book of 5icah the si)th book of the Twel#e *5inor+ 6rophets was
written by the prophet 5icah in the 2th century B&E" &omposed of
se#en chapters the book is similar in many ways to the Book of Amos"
5icah attacked the corruption of those in high places and social
in(ustice and the book is di#ided into two sections: *A+ (udgments
against $udah and $erusalem *chapters A@?+; and */+ promises of
restoration for $udah and (udgments against other nations *chapters E@
.+"
-n the first section 5icah of 5oresheth utters oracles against the
corrupt religious and political leaders of -srael and $udah" He also
attacks the prophets who attempted to gi#e the people false hopes:
GThus says the 7ord concerning the prophets who lead my people
astray who cry d6eace= when they ha#e something to eat but declare
war against him who puts nothing into their mouths " " " the seers shall
be disgraced and the di#iners put to shameH *chapter ? #erses 1@.+" -n
the second section -srael=s future is predicted as being glorious and it
is told that out of Bethlehem will come a ruler of the line of 9a#id who
will bring peace to the earth" Though he issues an indictment against
$udah for its idolatries 5icah proclaims what is necessary to renew the
&o#enant relationship between ;od and -srael; Gand what does the 7ord
re0uire of you but to do (ustice and to lo#e kindness and to walk
humbly with your ;odUH *chapter 4 #erse 2+" -n this #erse 5icah has
gi#en a brief summation of the messages of Amos Hosea and -saiah"
The last si) minor prophets
!ahum
The Book of !ahum se#enth of the Twel#e *5inor+ 6rophets contains
three chapters directed against the mighty nation of Assyria" 6robably
written between 4/4@4A/ B&E *the date of the destruction of !ine#eh
the Assyrian capital+ the book celebrates in oracles hymns and
laments the fact that Jahweh has sa#ed $udah from potential
de#astation by the Assyrians"
He begins with the words GThe 7ord is a (ealous ;od and a#enging " " " is
slow to anger and of great might and the 7ord will by no means clear
the guiltyH *chapter A #erses /@?+" ,rom that beginning he predicts the
o#erthrow of Assyria and the de#astating manner in which !ine#eh will
be destroyed"
Habakkuk
The Book of Habakkuk the eighth book of the Twel#e *5inor+ 6rophets
was written by a prophet difficult to identify" He may ha#e been a
professional prophet of the Temple from the .th century B&E *probably
between 481@1I. B&E+" &ontaining three chapters Habakkuk combines
lamentation and oracle" -n the first chapter he cries out for Jahweh to
help his people: GO 7ord how long shall - cry for help and thou wilt not
hearUH *chapter A #erse /+" Though Jahweh will send mighty nations
*e.g., the neoDBabylonians will be the e)ecutors of his (udgment+
Habakkuk wonders who will then stop these instruments of ;od=s
(ustice who use great force" The answer comes in a brief almost cryptic
#erse Gbut the righteous shall li#e by his faith"H The rest of chapter /
pronounces a series of woes against those who commit social in(ustices
and engage in debauchery" The last chapter is a hymn anticipating the
deli#erance to be wrought by Jahweh"
Fephaniah
The Book of Fephaniah the ninth book of the Twel#e *5inor+ 6rophets
is written in three chapters" &omposed by the prophet Fephaniah in the
latter part of the .th century B&E the book is an attack against
corruption of worship in $udah probably before the great 9euteronomic
reform took place" Fephaniah attacked the religious syncretism that had
become established especially the worship of Baal and astral deities
and predicted the coming catastrophe of the G9ay of the 7ord"H He
denounced both foreign nations and $udah but issued a promise of the
restoration of -srael: G<ing aloud O daughter of Fion; shout O -sraelb
>e(oice and e)ult with all your heart O daughter of $erusalemH *chapter
? #erse AE+" The reason for e)ultation is that Jahweh will deli#er his
people"
Haggai
The Book of Haggai the A8th book of the Twel#e *5inor+ 6rophets is a
brief work of only two chapters" 'ritten about 1/8 B&E by the prophet
Haggai the book contains four oracles" The first oracle calls for
Ferubbabel the go#ernor of $udaea and $oshua the high priest to
rebuild the Temple *chapter A #erses A@AA+" A drought and poor
har#ests according to Haggai had been caused because the returnees
from the E)ile had neglected or failed to rebuild the Temple" The second
oracle addressed to the political and religious leaders and the people
sought to encourage them in their rebuilding efforts *chapter / #erses
A@I+" Apparently they were disappointed that the new Temple was not
as splendid as the former one so Haggai reassured them: G5y <pirit
abides among you fear not"H The third oracle was issued against the
people for not acting in a holy manner *chapter / #erses A8@AI+ and
the fourth proclaimed that Ferubbabel would be established as the
9a#idic ruler *chapter / #erses /8@/?+" His promise howe#er
remained unfulfilled"
Fechariah
The Book of Fechariah the AAth book of the Twel#e *5inor+ 6rophets
dates from the same period as that of Haggai%about 1/8 B&E" Though
the book contains AE chapters only the first eight are oracles of the
prophet; the remaining si) probably came from a school of his disciples
and contain #arious elaborations of Fechariah=s eschatological themes"
Though little is known about Fechariah=s life he probably was one of the
e)iles who returned to $erusalem from Babylon" After an initial call to
repentance *chapter A #erses A@4+ Fechariah had a series of eight
#isions *chapter A #erse . to chapter 4 #erse A1+" The first is of four
horsemen who ha#e patrolled the Earth to make sure that it is at rest"
The second #ision is of four horns *i.e., nations that ha#e con0uered
-srael and $udah+ which will be destroyed" The third #ision is of a man
with a measuring line but $erusalem will be beyond measurement" The
fourth #ision shows $oshua the high priest in the hea#enly court being
prosecuted by <atan *the celestial ad#ersary+ and the high priest=s
e#entual ac0uittal and return to his high position" The fifth #ision is of a
golden lampstand and an oli#e tree to emphasi:e the important
positions of $oshua and Ferubbabel which these two figures symboli:e"
The si)th and se#enth #isions%of a flying scroll and a woman of
wickedness%symboli:e the remo#al of $udah=s pre#ious sins" The
eighth #ision of four chariots probably refers to the anticipated
messianic reign of Ferubbabel a hope that was thwarted" &hapters .
and 2 concern fasting and the restoration of $erusalem"
The remaining chapters%I@AE%are additions that contain messianic
o#ertones" &hapter I #erses I@A8 with its reference to a king riding on
the foal of an ass and to a #ast kingdom of peace was used by !ew
Testament ;ospel writers in reference to $esus= entrance into $erusalem
prior to his crucifi)ion" The book closes on the note of the suffering
;ood <hepherd the final battle between $erusalem and the nations and
e#entual #ictory under ;od and the uni#ersal reign of Jahweh Gking
o#er all the earth"H
5alachi
The Book of 5alachi the last of the Twel#e *5inor+ 6rophets was
written by an anonymous writer called 5alachi or Gmy messenger"H
6erhaps written from about 188@E18 B&E the book is concerned with
spiritual degradation religious per#ersions social in(ustices and
unfaithfulness to the &o#enant" 6riests are condemned for failing to
instruct the people on their &o#enant responsibilities idolatry is
attacked and men are castigated for deliberately forgetting their
marriage #ows when their wi#es become older"
-n chapter ? the message is that Jahweh will send a messenger of the
&o#enant to prepare for and announce the day of (udgment" -f the
people turn from their e#il ways ;od will bless them and those who
Gfeared the 7ordH will be spared" The book ends with a call to remember
the &o#enant and with a promise to send Eli(ah the IthDcentury prophet
who ascended into hea#en in a whirlwind on a chariot Gbefore the great
and terrible day of the 7ord comes"H
7inwood ,redericksen
The Cetu#im
O#er#iew
The Cetu#im *the 'ritings or the Hagiographa+ the third di#ision of the
Hebrew Bible comprises a miscellaneous collection of sacred writings
that were not classified in either the Torah or the 6rophets" The
collection is not a unified whole: it includes liturgical poetry *6salms
and 7amentations of $eremiah+ secular lo#e poetry *<ong of <olomon+
wisdom literature *6ro#erbs Book of $ob and Ecclesiastes+ historical
works *- and -- &hronicles Book of E:ra and Book of !ehemiah+
apocalyptic or #ision literature *Book of 9aniel+ a short story *Book of
>uth+ and a romantic tale *Book of Esther+; it ranges in content from the
most entirely profane book in the Bible *<ong of <olomon+ to perhaps
the most deeply theological *$ob+; it #aries in mood from a pessimistic
#iew of life *$ob and Ecclesiastes+ to an optimistic #iew *6ro#erbs+"
6salms 6ro#erbs and $ob constitute the principal poetic literature of
the Hebrew Bible and in many respects represent the high point of the
Hebrew Bible as literature; in fact $ob must be considered one of the
great literary products of man=s creati#e spirit"
Although portions of some of the books of the Cetu#im *e.g., 6salms and
6ro#erbs+ were composed before the Babylonian E)ile *124@1?2 B&E+
the final form was postDe)ilic and 9aniel was not written until almost
the middle of the /nd century B&E" The books were not included in the
prophetic collection because they did not fit the content or the
historicalDphilosophical framework of that collection because they were
originally seen as purely human and not di#ine writings or simply
because they were written too late for inclusion" Although some of the
books indi#idually were accepted as canonical 0uite early the collection
of the Cetu#im as a whole as well as some indi#idual books within it
was not accepted as completed and canonical until well into the /nd
century &E" As noted abo#e there are se#eral indications that the lapse
of time between the canoni:ation of the 6rophets and of the Cetu#im
was considerable; e.g., the practice of entitling the entire <criptures Gthe
Torah and the 6rophetsH and the absence of a fi)ed name"
The needs of the Hellenistic $ews in Ale)andria and elsewhere in the
;reekDspeaking 9iaspora led to the translation of the Bible into ;reek"
The process began with the Torah about the middle of the ?rd century
B&E and continued for se#eral centuries" -n the ;reek canon as it finally
emerged the Cetu#im was eliminated as a corpus and the books were
redistributed together with those of the prophetic collection according
to categories of literature gi#ing rise to a canon with four di#isions:
Torah historical writings poetic and didactic writings and prophetic
writings" Also the order of the books was changed and books not
included in the Hebrew Bible were added" The early &hristians of both
the East and 'est generally cited and accepted as canonical the
<criptures according to the ;reek #ersion" 'hen 6rotestants produced
translations based upon the Hebrew original te)t and e)cluded or
separated *as Apocrypha+ the books not found in the Hebrew Bible they
retained the order and the di#isions of the ;reek Bible" Thus the
Cetu#im is not to be found as a distinct collection in the &hristian Old
Testament"
An ancient tradition preser#ed in the Babylonian Talmud prescribed
the following order for the Cetu#im: >uth 6salms $ob 6ro#erbs
Ecclesiastes <ong of <olomon 7amentations 9aniel Esther E:ra
*which included !ehemiah+ and - and -- &hronicles" This se0uence was
chronological according to rabbinic notions of the authorship of the
books" >uth relates to the age of the (udges and concludes with a
genealogy of 9a#id; the 6salms were attributed for the most part to
9a#id; $ob was assigned to the time of the Kueen of <heba although the
rabbis differed among themsel#es about the date of the hero; 6ro#erbs
Ecclesiastes and <ong of <olomon were all attributed to <olomon;
7amentations which was ascribed to $eremiah refers to the destruction
of $erusalem and the beginning of the Babylonian E)ile; the heroes of
9aniel were acti#e until early in the reign of &yrus -- the king of 6ersia
who ended the e)ile; Esther pertains to the reign of Ler)es - later than
that of &yrus but earlier than that of Arta)er)es - the patron of E:ra
reputed also to ha#e written - and -- &hronicles"
9espite this tradition howe#er it would appear that the se0uence of the
Cetu#im was not completely fi)ed and there is a great #ariety in
ordering found in manuscripts and early printed editions" The three
larger books%6salms $ob and 6ro#erbs%ha#e always constituted a
group with 6salms first and the other two interchanging" The order of
the fi#e 5egillot or <crolls *<ong of <olomon >uth 7amentations
Ecclesiastes and Esther+ has shown the greatest #ariations" The order
that has crystalli:ed has a liturgical origin; the books are read on certain
festi#al days in $ewish places of worship and are printed in the calendar
order of those occasions" &hronicles always appears at either the
beginning or the end of the corpus" -ts final position is remarkable
because the narrati#e of E:ra and !ehemiah follows that of &hronicles"
The final position may ha#e resulted from an attempt to place the books
of the Hebrew Bible in a framework *;enesis and &hronicles both begin
with the origin and de#elopment of the human race and both conclude
with the theme of the return to the land of -srael+ but it was more
probably the result of the late acceptance of &hronicles into the canon"
6salms
The 6salms *from ;reek psalmas, GsongH+ are poems and hymns dating
from #arious periods in the history of -srael that were assembled for
use at public worship and that ha#e continued to play a central role in
the liturgy and prayer life of both $ews and &hristians" Cnown in Hebrew
as Tehillim *<ongs of 6raise+ the 6salter *the traditional English term
for the 6salms from the ;reek psalterion, a stringed instrument used to
accompany these songs+ consists of A18 poems representing
e)pressions of faith from many generations and di#erse kinds of people"
These unsystematic poems epitomi:e the theology of the entire Hebrew
Bible"
Hebrew poetry has much in common with the poetry of most of the
ancient !ear East particularly the &anaanite poetic literature
disco#ered at >as <hamra" -ts main features are rhythm and parallelism"
The rhythm which is difficult to determine precisely because the proper
pronunciation of ancient Hebrew is unknown is based upon a system of
stressed syllables that follows the thought structure of the poetic line"
The line or stich is the basic #erse unit and each line of #erse is
normally a complete thought unit" The most common Hebrew line
consists of two parts with three stresses to each part *?3?+; thus:
Ha#eDmercyDonDme3OD;od inDyourDgoodness;
inDyourDgreatDtenderness3wipeDawayDmyDfaults"
*6s"1A:A+
7ines with three or four parts and parts with two four or fi#e stresses
also occur"
The lines present #arious kinds of parallelism of members whereby the
idea e)pressed in one part of a line is balanced by the idea in the other
parts" The classical study on Hebrew parallelism was done by >obert
7owth an A2thDcentury Anglican bishop who distinguished three types:
synonymous antithetic and synthetic" <ynonymous parallelism
in#ol#es the repetition in the second part of what has already been
e)pressed in the first while simply #arying the words"
Jahweh do not punish me in your rage
or repro#e me in the heat of anger"
*6s" ?2:A+
-n antithetic parallelism the second part presents the same idea as the
first by way of contrast or negation"
,or Jahweh takes care of the way the #irtuous go
but the way of the wicked is doomed"
*6s" A:4+
<ynthetic parallelism in#ol#es the completion or e)pansion of the idea
of the first part in the second part"
As a doe longs for running streams
so longs my soul for you my ;od"
*6s" E/:A+
<ynthetic parallelism is a broad category that allows for many
#ariations one of which has the pictures0ue name GstaircaseH
parallelism and consists of a series of parts or lines that build up to a
conclusion"
6ay tribute to Jahweh you sons of ;od
tribute to Jahweh of glory and power
tribute to Jahweh of the glory of his name
worship Jahweh in his sacred court"
*6s" /I:A@/+
Although it is e#ident that Hebrew poetry groups lines into larger units
the e)tent of this grouping and the principles on which it is based are
uncertain" The acrostic poems are a notable e)ception to this general
uncertainty"
The numeration of the 6salms found in the Hebrew Bible and those
#ersions deri#ed from it differs from that in the <eptuagint the Bulgate
and the #ersions deri#ed from them" The latter two (oin 6salms I and A8
and AAE and AA1 but di#ide both AA4 and AE. into two" The following
scheme shows the differences:
Hebrew <eptuagint@Bulgate
A@2 A@2
I@A8 I
AA@AA? A8@AA/
AAE@AA1 AA?
AA4 AAE@AA1
Hebrew <eptuagint@Bulgate
AA.@AE4 AA4@AE1
AE. AE4@AE.
AE2@A18 AE2@A18
Although >oman &atholic #ersions in the past ha#e used the
<eptuagint@Bulgate way of numbering recent translations ha#e
followed the Hebrew tradition"
The present form of the 6salter is the result of a lengthy literary history"
-t is di#ided into fi#e books *6salms A@EA; E/@./; .?@2I; I8@A84; and
A8.@A18+ probably in imitation of the fi#e books of the 6entateuch"
6salm A ser#es as an introduction to the whole 6salter while 6salm A18
is a final do)ology *an e)pression of praise to ;od+; the books are
di#ided from each other by short do)ologies that form the conclusions
of the last psalm of each of the first four books" This di#ision howe#er
appears to be artificial" There are indications cutting across the present
di#isions that the book was a compilation of e)isting collections" That
there were se#eral collections e)isting side by side is seen in the way
that certain psalms *e.g., 6salms AE and 1?+ duplicate each other almost
word for word" At some phase of the 6salter=s de#elopment there must
ha#e been an Elohistic collection *6salms E/@2?+ distinguished by the
use of the di#ine name Elohim in place of Jahweh which is far more
common in the rest of the psalms" There appear to be two distinct
collections of psalms ascribed to 9a#id one Jahwistic *6salms ?@EA+
and the other Elohistic *6salms 1A@./+" ,urther e#idence of the book=s
gradual growth may be seen in the editorial gloss following 6salm ./; it
purports to conclude the Gprayers of 9a#idH although there are more
9a#idic psalms"
The superscriptions found on most of the psalms are obscure but point
to the e)istence of earlier collections" 6salms are attributed to 9a#id
Asaph and the sons of Corah among others" -t is generally held that
Asaph and the sons of Corah indicate collections belonging to guilds of
temple singers" Other possible collections include the <ongs of Ascents
probably pilgrim songs in origin the Hallelu(ah 6salms and a group of
11 psalms with a title normally taken to mean Gthe choirmaster"H
-t is e#ident that the process whereby these #arious collections were
formed and then combined was e)tremely comple)" The in#estigation of
the process is made difficult because indi#idual psalms and whole
collections underwent constant de#elopment and adaptation" Thus for
e)ample pri#ate prayers became liturgical songs of local sanctuaries
were adapted to use in the Temple and psalms that became
anachronistic by reason of the fall of the monarchy or the destruction of
the Temple were reworked to fit a contemporary situation" <uch
problems complicate the determination of the date and original
occasion of the psalm"
,or centuries both $ews and &hristians ascribed the whole 6salter to
9a#id (ust as they ascribed the 6entateuch to 5oses and much of the
wisdom literature to <olomon" This was thought to be supported by the
tradition that 9a#id was a musician a poet and an organi:er of the
liturgical cult and also by the attribution of .? psalms to 9a#id in the
superscriptions found in the Hebrew Bible" These superscriptions
howe#er need not refer to authorship" 5oreo#er it is clear that 9a#id
could not ha#e written all the psalms attributed to him because some of
them presuppose the e)istence of the Temple in $erusalem which was
not constructed until later" &ontrary to the longDestablished 9a#idic
authorship tradition at the end of the AIth century most biblical critics
spoke of a 6ersian date *1?I@??? B&E+ and e#en of the 5accabean era
*midD/nd century B&E+ for the ma(ority of the psalms" -n the /8th
century the 6salter has been considered to be a collection of poems that
reflect all periods of -srael=s history from before the monarchy to the
postDe)ilic restoration and it is thought that 9a#id played a central role
in the formation of the religious poetry of the $ewish people" <cholars
howe#er are reluctant to assign precise dates"
The most important contribution to modern scholarship on the 6salter
has been the work of Hermann ;unkel a ;erman biblical scholar who
applied form criticism to the psalms" ,orm criticism is the English name
for the study of the literature of the Bible that seeks to separate its
literary units and classify them into types or categories *Gattungen+
according to form and content to trace their history and to reconstruct
the particular situation in life or setting *%it- im eben+ that ga#e rise to
the #arious types" This approach does not ignore the personal role of
indi#idual composers and their dates but it recogni:es that Hebrew
religion conser#ati#e in faith and practice was more concerned with the
typical than with the indi#idual and that it e)pressed this concern in
formal con#entional categories" The study is aided by #iewing them in
the conte)t of similar literary works in the earlier or contemporary
cultures of the ancient !ear East"
;unkel identified fi#e ma(or types of psalms each cultic in origin" The
first type the Hymn is a song of praise consisting of an in#itation to
praise Jahweh an enumeration of the reasons for praise *e.g., his work
of creation his steadfast lo#e+ and a conclusion which fre0uently
repeats the in#itation" The life setting of the hymns was generally an
occasion of common worship" Two subgroups within this type are the
<ongs of Fion which glorify Jahweh=s presence in the city of $erusalem
and the Enthronement <ongs which%though their number setting and
interpretation ha#e been the sub(ect of much debate%acclaim Jahweh=s
kingship o#er the whole world"
The second type is the &ommunal 7ament" -ts setting was some
situation of national calamity when a period of prayer fasting and
penitence would be obser#ed" -n such psalms Jahweh is in#oked the
crisis is described Jahweh=s help is sought and confidence that the
prayer has been heard is e)pressed"
The >oyal 6salms are grouped on the basis not of literary characteristics
but of content" They all ha#e as their life setting some e#ent in the life of
the preDe)ilic -sraelite kings; e.g., accession to the throne marriage
departure for battle" ;unkel pointed out that in ancient -srael the king
was thought to ha#e a special relationship to Jahweh and thus played
an important role in -sraelite worship" 'ith the fall of the monarchy
these psalms were adapted to different cultic purposes"
-n the -ndi#idual 7ament an indi#idual worshipper cries out to Jahweh
in time of need" The structure of these psalms includes: an in#ocation of
Jahweh the complaint the re0uest for help an e)pression of certainty
that Jahweh will hear and answer the prayer and in many cases a #ow
to offer a thanksgi#ing sacrifice" Three aspects ha#e been the sub(ect of
e)tensi#e study: the identity of the GenemiesH who are often the reason
for the complaint; the meaning of the term poor which is fre0uently
used to describe the worshipper; and the sudden transition in mood to
certainty that the prayer has been heard" 6salms of this type form the
largest group in the 6salter"
The final ma(or type is the -ndi#idual <ong of Thanksgi#ing which
presumably had its setting in the thanksgi#ing sacrifice offered after a
sa#ing e)perience" These psalms begin and conclude with an
e)clamation of praise to Jahweh" The body of the psalm contains two
elements: the story of the one who has been sa#ed and the recognition
that Jahweh was the rescuer"
;unkel also distinguished se#eral minor types of psalms including
'isdom 6oems 7iturgies <ongs of 6ilgrimage and &ommunal <ongs of
Thanksgi#ing"
,or ;unkel although the types of the psalms were originally cultic the
ma(ority of the poems in the e)isting 6salter were composed pri#ately in
imitation of the cultic poems and were intended for a more personal
Gspirituali:edH worship" 5ost biblical scholars since ;unkel ha#e
accepted his classifications with perhaps some modifications but ha#e
focussed increased attention on the setting the %it- im eben, in which
the psalms were sung" <igmund 5owinckel a !orwegian scholar
e)plained the psalms as wholly cultic both in origin and in intention" He
attempted to relate more than E8 psalms to a hypothetical autumnal
!ew Jear festi#al at which the enthronement of Jahweh as the uni#ersal
king was commemorated; the festi#al was associated with a similar
Babylonian celebration" Artur 'eiser a ;erman scholar sought the
cultic milieu of the Hebrew psalms especially in an annual feast of
co#enant renewal which was uni0uely -sraelite"
6salms is a source book for the beliefs contained in the entire Hebrew
Bible" Jet doctrines are not e)pounded for this is a book of the songs of
-srael that describe the way Jahweh was e)perienced and worshipped"
Jahweh is creator and sa#iour; -srael is his elected people to whom he
remains faithful" The enemies of this people are the enemies of Jahweh"
-n these songs are found the entire range of basic human feelings and
attitudes before ;od%praise fear trust thanksgi#ing faith lament
(oy" The book of 6salms has thus endured as the basic prayerbook for
$ews and &hristians alike"
6ro#erbs
6ro#erbs is probably the oldest e)tant document of the Hebrew wisdom
mo#ement of which Cing <olomon was the founder and patron" 'isdom
literature flourished throughout the ancient !ear East with Egyptian
e)amples dating back to before the middle of the ?rd millennium B&E" -t
re#ol#ed around the professional sages or wise men and scribes in the
ser#ice of the court and consisted primarily in ma)ims about the
practical intelligent way to conduct one=s life and in speculations about
the #ery worth and meaning of human life" The most common form of
these wise sayings which were intended for oral instruction especially
in the schools run by the sages for the young men at the court was the
mashal *Hebrew: GcomparisonH or GparableH although fre0uently
translated Gpro#erbH+" Typically a pithy easily memori:ed aphoristic
saying based on e)perience and uni#ersal in application the mashal in
its simplest and oldest form was a couplet in which a definition was
gi#en in two parallel lines related to each other either antithetically or
synthetically" Berse 1 of the A1th chapter of 6ro#erbs is an e)ample of a
simple antithetic saying:
He who spurns his father=s discipline is a fool
he who accepts correction is discreet"
Other forms of the mashal, such as parables riddles allegories and
ultimately fullDscale compositions de#eloped later" The word mashal
was deri#ed from a root that meant Gto ruleH and thus a pro#erb was
concei#ed as an authoritati#e word"
The two principal types of wisdom%one practical and utilitarian the
other speculati#e and fre0uently pessimistic%arose both within and
outside -srael" 6ractical wisdom consisted chiefly of wise sayings that
appealed to e)perience and offered prudential guidelines for a
successful and happy life" <uch wisdom is found in a collection of
sayings bearing the name of 6tahhotep a #i:ier to the Egyptian pharaoh
about /E18 B&E in which the sage counsels his son that the path to
material success is by way of proper eti0uette strict discipline and hard
work" Although such instructions were largely materialistic and
political they were moral in character and contributed to a wellDordered
society"
<peculati#e wisdom went beyond ma)ims of conduct and reflected upon
the deeper problems of the #alue of life and of good and e#il" E)amples
are found in ancient Egyptian and 5esopotamian te)ts%particularly
u+lul bel nemeqi, often called the GBabylonian $obH%in which sensiti#e
poets pessimistically addressed such 0uestions as the success of the
wicked the suffering of the innocent and in short the (ustice of human
life"
Hebrew wisdom which owed much to that of its neighbours appeared
with the establishment of the monarchy and a royal court and found a
patron in <olomon" Through the following centuries the wise men were
at times the ob(ect of rebuke by the prophets who disliked their
pragmatic realism" The e)ile howe#er brought a change in Hebrew
wisdom; it became deeply religious" The wise men were con#inced that
religion alone possessed the key to life=s highest #alues" -t was this
mood that dominated the final shaping of the Hebrew wisdom
literature" Though dependent on older materials and incorporating
documents from before the e)ile the wisdom books in their present
form were produced after the e)ile" -n the Hebrew Bible the book of
6ro#erbs offers the best e)ample of practical wisdom while $ob and
Ecclesiastes gi#e e)pression to speculati#e wisdom" <ome of the psalms
and a few other brief passages are also representati#e of this type of
literature" Among the Apocrypha the 'isdom of <olomon and
Ecclesiasticus are wisdom books"
The book of 6ro#erbs is a collection of units originally independent
some of which can be traced back to the era of <olomon" The present
form of the book was the result of a long process of growth that was not
completed until postDe)ilic times" -t consists of two principal collections
of early origin called Gthe pro#erbs of <olomonH and Gpro#erbs of
<olomon which the men of He:ekiah king of $udah copied"H Appendi)es
were added to each of the collections" The whole book was preceded by
a long introduction and concludes with a poem praising the ideal wife"
-n addition to sectional titles changes in literary form and in sub(ect
matter help to mark off the limits of the #arious units which can be
ordered into nine sections"
The introduction *chapters A@I+ constitutes the youngest unit in the
book" -t consists of a series of poems or discourses in which a father
e)horts his son to ac0uire wisdom and in which wisdom personified
inter#enes" These chapters ha#e a more speculati#e 0uality than the
remainder of the book" They do not treat wisdom simply as a human
0uality and achie#ement or as a cultural legacy imparted by teachers
and parents; they present it as a uni#ersal and abiding reality
transcending the human scene" 'isdom is the first of ;od=s works and
participated with him in the creation of the world" A constantly debated
aspect of this section concerns the identity of Gthe loose estrangef
womanH who is set o#er against 'isdom"
The Gpro#erbs of <olomonH *A8:A@//:A4+ consist entirely of parallelistic
couplets%the mashal in its primiti#e form" There are ?.1 aphorisms
each complete in itself and arranged in no apparent order" The
moti#ation of this section in contrast to the preceding is strongly
practical: wisdom is a human achie#ement by means of which man=s life
can be fulfilled" The wise are contrasted with fools and the (ust with the
wicked" -t is difficult howe#er to establish the nature of the difference
if any between the wicked and the fool or between the (ust and the wise"
The Gsayings of the wiseH *//:A.@/E://+ consist of longer units or
sayings introduced by a preface" The most distincti#e feature of this
section is its close relationship to a piece of Egyptian writing GThe
-nstruction of AmenemopeH which has been dated within the broad
limits of A888@488 B&E" The Hebrew author apparently used this work
as a model%the Egyptian work comprises ?8 chapters and the Hebrew
te)t refers to its Gthirty sayingsH%and as one of the sources in
compiling his own anthology" An additional collection of four wise
sayings */E:/?@?E+ forms a supplement to the Gsayings of the wise"H
The second collection of Gpro#erbs of <olomonH *chapters /1@/I+
consists of A/2 sayings that closely resemble the earlier collection
although 0uatrains as well as couplets are included" The scribes of
He:ekiah=s court *c. .88 B&E+ are credited with assembling this
collection"
The book concludes with four independent units or collections" The
Gwords of AgurH *?8:A@AE+ differs sharply in spirit and substance from
the rest of 6ro#erbs; it has much closer affinities with the book of $ob
stressing the inaccessibility of wisdom for man" There is no internal
e#idence such as a continuous theme to show that these AE #erses are
a single unit; but in the <eptuagint they stand together between the
Gsayings of the wiseH and its supplement" The Gnumerical sayingsH
*?8:A1@??+ contain elements of riddle and show a special interest in the
wonders of nature and the habits of animals" The Ginstruction of
7emuelH *?A:A@I+ is an e)ample of the importance of maternal ad#ice to
a ruler in the ancient !ear East" 7emuel seems to ha#e been a tribal
chieftain of northwest Arabia in the region of Edom" The final section
*?A:A8@?A+ is an alphabetical poem in praise of the Gperfect wifeH who
is celebrated for her domestic #irtues"
The wisdom mo#ement constituted a special aspect of the religious and
cultural de#elopment of ancient -srael" As the primary document of the
mo#ement 6ro#erbs bears a clear impress of this distincti#e character
so that in many respects it presents a sharp contrast to the outlook and
emphases of -srael=s faith as attested in the Hebrew <criptures
generally" This contrast also marks $ob and Ecclesiastes howe#er
greatly they may differ from 6ro#erbs in other respects"
6ro#erbs ne#er refers to -srael=s history" -n the Hebrew Bible as a whole
this history is constantly recalled not so much for social or political
reasons as to declare the faith of -srael that ;od has acted in its history
to redeem his people and make known to them the character of his rule"
The great themes of the promise to the patriarchs the deli#erance from
sla#ery the making of the &o#enant at 5t" <inai the wilderness
wandering and the inheritance of &anaan were celebrated in -srael=s
worship to tell the story of ;od=s re#elation of himself and of his choice
of -srael" !one of this is alluded to in 6ro#erbs" The implication seems
to be that for 6ro#erbs ;od=s re#elation of himself is gi#en in the
uni#ersal laws and patterns characteristic of nature especially human
nature rather than in a special series of historical e#ents; that is the
re#elation of ;od is in the order of creation rather than in the order of
redemption" 5oreo#er the meaning of this re#elation is not
immediately selfDe#ident but must be disco#ered by men" This disco#ery
is an educational discipline that trusts human reason and employs
research classifying and interpreting the results and be0ueathing them
as a legacy to future generations" The wise are those who systematically
dedicate themsel#es to this disco#ery of the GwayH of ;od"
Nnlike $ob and Ecclesiastes 6ro#erbs *with the e)ception of the Gwords
of AgurH+ is optimistic in that it assumes that wisdom is attainable by
those who seek and follow it; that is man can disco#er enough about
;od and his law to ensure the fulfillment of his personal life" This
character of ;od is concei#ed almost entirely in terms of ethical laws
and the rewards for their obser#ance are defined in terms of human
#alues; e.g., health long life respect possessions security and selfD
control"
Because ;od is apprehended in static terms rather than dynamic as
elsewhere in the Bible the #iewpoint of 6ro#erbs is anthropocentric"
5an=s destiny depends upon his responsible action" There is no appeal
to di#ine mercy inter#ention or forgi#eness; and the di#ine (udgment is
simply the ine)orable operation of the orders of life as ;od has
established them" -mplicit in the book is an aristocratic bias" The wise
constitute an elite nurtured by inheritance training and selfDdiscipline;
fools are those who can ne#er catch up because of either the
determinism of birth or the wasted years of neglect" -n its social and
cultural attitudes the book is probably the most conser#ati#e in the
Bible: wealth and status are most important; obedience to the king and
all authorities is inculcated; industry and diligence are fostered for
hunger po#erty and sla#ery are the fate of the la:y; and age and
accepted con#entions are accorded great respect"
$ob
The Book of $ob is not only the finest e)pression of the Hebrew poetic
genius; it must also be accorded a place among the greatest
masterpieces of world literature" The work is grouped with 6ro#erbs and
Ecclesiastes as a product of the wisdom mo#ement e#en though it
contains what might be called an antiDwisdom strain in that the hero
protests #ehemently against the rationalistic ethics of the sages" Jet it
is the supreme e)ample among ancient te)ts of speculati#e wisdom in
which a man attempts to understand and respond to the human
situation in which he e)ists"
The Book of $ob consists of two separate portions" The bulk of the work
is an e)tended dialogue between the hero and his friends and e#entually
Jahweh himself in poetic form" The poem is set within the framework of
a short narrati#e in prose form" The book falls into fi#e sections: a
prologue *chapters A and /+; the dialogue between $ob and his friends
*?@?A+; the speeches of Elihu *?/@?.+; the speeches of Jahweh and $ob=s
reply *?2@E/:4+; and an epilogue *E/:.@A.+"
The prologue and epilogue are the prose narrati#e" This is probably an
old folktale recounting the story of $ob an Edomite of such outstanding
piety that he is mentioned by the prophet E:ekiel in con(unction with
!oah and 9aniel" The name $ob was common in anti0uity being found
in te)ts ranging from the AIth to the AEth century B&E" 'hether the
folktale is preser#ed in its original oral form or whether it has been
retold by the poet of the dialogue is not known" The fact that an Edomite
sheikh is commended by the Hebrew ;od howe#er suggests a date
before the 4th century B&E for $ewish distrust of Edomites became
intense during the e)ile and the archaic language makes a date in the
2th century probable"
$ob is pictured as an ideal patriarch who has been rewarded for his piety
with material prosperity and happiness" The <atan *Accuser+ a member
of the hea#enly council of Jahweh acts with Jahweh=s permission as an
agent pro(ocateur to test whether or not $ob=s piety is rooted in selfD
interest" ,aced with the appalling loss of his worldly possessions his
children and finally his own health $ob refuses to curse Jahweh" His
capacity for trusting Jahweh=s goodness has made him an unsurpassed
model of patience" Three of $ob=s friends whose names identify them
also as Edomites now arri#e to comfort him" At this point the poetic
dialogue begins" The conclusion of the tale as gi#en in the epilogue
describes the restoration of $ob who recei#es double his original
possessions and li#es to a ripe old age"
The picture of $ob that is presented in the poetic portion is radically
different" -nstead of the patient and loyal ser#ant of Jahweh he is an
anguished and indignant sufferer who #iolently protests the way
Jahweh is treating him and displays a #ariety of moods ranging from
utter despair in which he cries out accusingly against Jahweh to bold
confidence in which he calls for a hearing before Jahweh" 5ost scholars
ha#e dated this section to the Eth century B&E but there is a growing
tendency to regard it as two centuries earlier during the period of the
e)ile" This precise dating is based on the fact that the dialogue shows
clear literary dependence on $eremiah whereas e0ually ob#ious
connections with 9euteroD-saiah suggest the dependence of the latter
on $ob"
The poem opens with a heartrending solilo0uy by $ob in which the
sufferer curses the day of his birth" The shocked friends are roused from
their silence and there follow three cycles of speeches *chapters E@AE
A1@/A and //@/.+ in which the friends speak in turn" To each such
speech $ob makes a reply" The personalities of the friends are skillfully
delineated Elipha: appearing as a mystic in the prophetic tradition
Bildad as a sage who looks to the authority of tradition and Fophar as
an impatient dogmatist who glibly e)pounds what he regards as the
incomprehensible ways of ;od"
Elipha: begins the first cycle by recounting a mystical #ision that
re#ealed to him the transcendence of ;od and the fact that all men are
by nature morally frail" He suggests that suffering may be disciplinary
although this is irrele#ant to $ob=s plight" ,inally he urges contrite
submission to Jahweh" $ob chides his friends for failing him in his hour
of need and charges ;od with being his tormentor"
Bildad suggests that the fault may ha#e lain in $ob=s children and
reiterates Elipha:= call to humble submission" $ob then retorts that the
doctrine of Jahweh=s omnipotence is no answer but a serious problem
because Jahweh appears to be merely omnipotent caprice" He is
con#inced that if he could only meet Jahweh in open debate he would
be #indicated but he recogni:es the need for an impartial third party
who could inter#ene and protect him from Jahweh=s o#erpowering
might"
Fophar reDechoes his predecessors= #iews on Jahweh but goes the full
length of accusing $ob himself of sin and once more urges $ob to a
contrition that for him could only be hypocritical" $ob continues to insist
that Jahweh is capricious and defiantly challenges him but is
bewildered when no reply is forthcoming" His longing for death as a
welcome release leads him to ask whether man might not hope for a
re#i#al after death but this daring hope is immediately re(ected"
The second cycle opens with Elipha: accusing $ob of blasphemy and
almost e)ultantly describing the fate of the wicked" -n his reply $ob
returns to the idea of a third party to the debate" !ow howe#er this
umpire or (udge has become an ad#ocate a counsel for the defense"
After Bildad has again elaborated on the fate of the wicked $ob states
that a Bindicator or >edeemer *;o=el+ will establish his innocence" The
Bindicator of this crucial but sadly corrupted passage *AI:/1@/.+ has
long been identified with ;od himself so that according to some
scholars $ob Gappeals away from the ;od of orthodo) theology to ;od as
He must be"H A few scholars howe#er recogni:e the Bindicator as the
third party *the GumpireH or GwitnessH+ of earlier chapters" -t is also
unclear whether this #indication will take place before or after $ob=s
death" Then Fophar though freely admitting that the wicked may
indeed en(oy some prosperity describes how they fall #ictim to
ine#itable nemesis" $ob maintains that the wicked do not end thus but
li#e on to an old age"
Elipha: begins the third cycle by accusing $ob at last of specific sins and
again counsels $ob to humble himself before Jahweh" But $ob cannot
find this ;od who seems to be completely indifferent to him" The
conclusion of the dialogue is in serious disorder with speeches placed
in $ob=s mouth that could only ha#e been uttered by the friends" The
final speech of Fophar which is omitted seems to be represented by a
fragment preser#ed within the third reply of $ob"
&hapter /2 is regarded as a later addition by most scholars because it is
hardly in place at this (uncture in the dialogue especially in the mouth
of $ob" -t is a magnificent hymn in praise of wisdom" &hapters /I@?A
contain a monologue by $ob; in them occurs an adumbration of the
highest moral ideal to be found in the Hebrew Bible"
Although a few scholars ha#e maintained that the speeches of Elihu
formed part of the original work most re(ect this section as a later
insertion" The speeches merely reiterate the dogmas of the friends and
unduly delay the appearance of Jahweh" Although the section is in
poetic form its style is different from that of the dialogue" <ignificantly
there is no mention of Elihu in the dialogue or anywhere else in the
book yet the Elihu speeches are familiar with the dialogue fre0uently
0uoting #erbatim from it" &hapter ?/ is of interest because it appears to
contain the writer=s notes and comments on the dialogue often citing
passages from it" 'orthy of notice is the writer=s emphasis on the
disciplinary #alue of suffering"
The clima) of the poem is reached in the speeches of Jahweh who
appears in a ma(estic theophany%a whirlwind%and re#eals himself to
$ob in three speeches interspersed with two short speeches by $ob"
Biblical scholars ha#e often 0uestioned whether this section%especially
the descriptions of Behemoth *the hippopotamus+ and 7e#iathan *the
crocodile+ in the second Jahweh speech%is a genuine part of the
original poem but there is no doubt that their presence at this point in
the book is a dramatic triumph" Throughout these speeches Jahweh
does not offer rational answers to $ob=s 0uestions and accusations; he
raises the discussion to a new perspecti#e" 'ith hea#y irony Jahweh
puts to $ob a series of unanswerable 0uestions about the mysteries of
the uni#erse; if the writer is asking $ob is unable to answer the simple
0uestions about the di#ine acti#ity in the mar#els of nature how can
Jahweh e)plain to him the deeper mystery of his dealings with men"
$ob=s personal problem is ignored yet he finds his answer in this direct
encounter with Jahweh:
- had heard of thee by the hearing of the ear
but now my eye sees thee;
therefore - despise myself
and repent in dust and ashes"
$ob stands in a new relationship to Jahweh one no longer based on
hearsay but the result of an act of personal faith e)pressed in
repentance"
A few scholars beginning in the midDA2th century ha#e attempted to
demonstrate the influence of ;reek tragedy upon the form of the book"
This has not met with acceptance by most critics; its long monologues
are not truly dramatic in nature" !either is it a philosophical discussion
in the style of the 6latonic dialogues" -t is a deeply religious poem with
dramatic possibilities" -t skillfully blends many genres: folktale hymn
indi#idual lament prophetic oracle and didactic poem"
The author remains 0uite unknown e)cept for a few hints pro#ided by
the book itself" That he was a $ew is assumed because of his familiarity
with much of the Hebrew literature" !e#ertheless the book does not
ha#e a Hebrew setting it is per#aded with foreign elements and it
shows a special knowledge of Egypt thus leading many to belie#e that
he was well tra#elled or li#ed outside the Holy 7and" He was a keen
obser#er of the natural world and his feeling for the agony of the
sufferer is a compelling argument that he had known anguish"
The book touches on many sub(ects such as disinterested obedience to
;od under testing innocent suffering social oppression religious
e)perience and pious suffering a man=s relation to ;od and the nature
of ;od" <cholars ha#e attempted to disco#er the basic message of the
author" Because of the greater difficulty in understanding the $ob of the
poetic portion the traditional interpretation looked to the narrati#e and
saw the message as the need for patient bearing and faith despite
tribulation" 'hen certain poetic passages were thought to point to a
belief in the resurrection of the body $ob became not only a patient
sufferer but also a prophet of the resurrection" This #iew howe#er does
not account for the $ob of the poetic portion" Thus in the AIth century
with the ad#ancement of biblical criticism scholars began to claim that
the author was dealing with the problem of unmerited suffering" The
book presents a deep #iew of suffering and $ob=s e)perience teaches
that man must rest in faith and resign himself to the incomprehensible
ways of ;od"
-t would seem howe#er that the 0uestion raised by $ob is both deeper
and broader than the 0uestion of how to account for the infliction of
physical ad#ersity on the innocent" $ob=s physical suffering is the
outward symbol of his intense inward agony the agony of a man who
feels himself lost in a meaningless uni#erse and abandoned e#en by
;od" 'hat torments $ob%and the author%is the 0uestion of the (ustice
of ;od and the (ustice and honour of man before ;od" His passionate
pleading of his own righteousness and his calling upon ;od for a
hearing lead him to an encounter with ;od" This encounter does not
answer the 0uestion of why the innocent suffer but it is the only answer
to the plea of a man seeking to find his ;od and to (ustify himself to
him" The complacent belie#er who has been shattered by suffering
doubt and despair is confirmed in faith and repents"
The 5egillot *the <crolls+
The fi#e books known as the 5egillot or <crolls are grouped together as
a unit in modern Hebrew Bibles according to the order of the annual
religious festi#als on which they are read in the synagogues of the
Ashkena:im *central and eastern European $ews and their descendants+"
They did not originally form a unit and were found scattered in the Bible
in their supposed historical position" -n the soDcalled 7eningrad &ode)
of the year A882 &E on which the third and subse0uent editions of
Biblica $ebraica edited by >udolf Cittel are based the fi#e are grouped
together but in a historical order" !e#ertheless their appearance
usually follows the order of the liturgical calendar:
The fi#e books ha#e little in common apart from their roles in the
liturgy" Although the <ong of <olomon and 7amentations are poetic in
form and >uth and Esther are stories of heroines the contrast in the
moods and purposes of both pairs sharply distinguishes the books"
Ecclesiastes is a product of the Hebrew wisdom mo#ement and e)hibits
the most pessimistic tone of any book in the Hebrew Bible"
<ong of <olomon
The <ong of <olomon *also called <ong of <ongs and &anticle of
&anticles+ consists of a series of lo#e poems in which lo#ers describe the
physical beauty and e)cellence of their belo#ed and their se)ual
en(oyment of each other" The Hebrew title of the book mentions
<olomon as its author but this seems improbable primarily because of
the late #ocabulary of the work" Although the poems may date from an
earlier period the present form of the book is late perhaps as late as the
?rd century B&E and its author remains unknown"
The <ong of <olomon has been interpreted in different ways four of
which are noteworthy" The allegorical interpretation takes the book as
an allegory of ;od=s lo#e for -srael or of &hrist=s lo#e for the church"
<uch a #iew seems gratuitous and incompatible with the sensuous
character of the poems" The dramatic interpretation is based on the
dialogue form of much of the book and attempts to find a plot in#ol#ing
either a maiden in <olomon=s court and the Cing or the maiden the
Cing and a shepherd lo#er" The absence of drama in <emitic literatures
and the episodic character of the book make this theory highly
improbable" The culticDmythological interpretation connects the book
with the fertility cults of the ancient !ear Eastern world" The
condemnation in the Hebrew Bible of such rituals makes it difficult to
accept this #iew unless it is assumed that the original meaning of the
poems was forgotten" The literal interpretation considers it to be a
collection of secular lo#e poems without any religious implications that
may ha#e been sung at wedding festi#ities" According to this commonly
accepted #iew the poems were recei#ed into the biblical canon despite
their secular nature and their lack of mention of ;od because they were
attributed to <olomon and because they were understood as wedding
songs and marriage was ordained by ;od"
The reasons for the <ong of <olomon being read at 6asso#er which
celebrates the E)odus from Egypt are not entirely clear" 6ossibly they
include the fact that spring is referred to in the book and that according
to the allegorical interpretation the book could refer to ;od=s lo#e for
-srael which is so well e#idenced by the e#ents of the E)odus and
especially the &o#enant at 5t" <inai"
>uth
The Book of >uth is a beautiful short story about a number of good
people particularly the 5oabite greatDgrandmother of 9a#id" Though
e#ents are set in the time of the (udges linguistic and other features
suggest that the present form dates from postDe)ilic times" But it gi#es
the impression of being based on an ancient tradition perhaps on
written source" -t was certainly grounded on a solid core of fact for no
one would ha#e in#ented a 5oabite ancestress for -srael=s greatest king"
The book describes how during a time of famine Elimelech a
Bethlehemite tra#elled to 5oab with his wife !aomi and his two sons
5ahlon and &hilion" After his death the sons married 5oabite women
and then they too died lea#ing no children" There was thus no one to
keep the family line ali#e and no one to pro#ide for !aomi" >uth the
widow of 5ahlon dedicated herself to the care of !aomi and insisted on
returning with her to her nati#e land and adopting her ;od" They arri#ed
in Bethlehem during the har#est and >uth went out to work for the two
women in the field of Boa: a wealthy landowner" !aomi urged >uth to
seek marriage with Boa: because he was a kinsman of her late husband
and the firstborn son of such a marriage would count as a son of the
deceased" *This resembles the le#irate marriage that obliged a man to
marry the widow of his deceased brother if the brother died without
male issue"+ >uth crept under Boa:= cloak while he slept and he
accepted the implied proposal of marriage" After a nearer kinsman
forfeited his claim to >uth Boa: married her and a son was born" Thus
loyal >uth was pro#ided with an e)cellent husband the dead 5ahlon
with a son to keep his name ali#e and !aomi with a grandson to
support her in her old age"
5any purposes ha#e been assigned to the book: to entertain to
delineate the ancestry of 9a#id to uphold le#irate marriage as a means
of perpetuating a family name to commend loyalty in family
relationships to protest the narrowness of E:ra and !ehemiah the
leaders of the postDe)ilic restoration in relation to marriages with nonD
$ews to inculcate kindness toward con#erts to $udaism to teach that a
person who becomes a worshipper of Jahweh will be blessed by him
and to illustrate the pro#idence of ;od in human affairs" The book may
ha#e ser#ed all these GpurposesH but the author=s ob(ecti#e cannot be
determined with certainty"
7amentations of $eremiah
The 7amentations of $eremiah consists of fi#e poems *chapters+ in the
form of laments for $udah and $erusalem when they were in#aded and
de#astated by the Babylonians in 124 B&E for the sufferings of the
population and for the poet himself during and after the catastrophe"
These griefDstricken laments are intermingled with ab(ect confessions of
sin and prayers for di#ine compassion" The first four poems are
alphabetic acrostics; the fifth is not although like the others it has //
stan:as which is the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet" The
formal structure ser#ed as a mnemonic de#ice and perhaps was meant
to con#ey the note of wholeness of -srael=s total grief penitence and
hope" The mo#ing 0uality of these elegies has suited them for liturgical
use" Besides their place in the $ewish liturgy commemorating the
anni#ersary of the destruction of $erusalem the laments are employed
by the &hristian &hurch to pour out its grief o#er the 6assion and death
of $esus &hrist"
5ost critics place the composition of the book before the return of the
$ews from e)ile in 1?.31?4 B&E" &ertain passages appear to be word
pictures by an eyewitness and would therefore ha#e been written
shortly after the destruction of $erusalem" Nntil the A2th century the
work was uni#ersally ascribed to the prophet $eremiah and this was
supported by a prologue found in the <eptuagint and in some
manuscripts of the Bulgate" <ince that time howe#er many scholars
ha#e re(ected the attribution to $eremiah chiefly because the ideas and
sentiments e)pressed in 7amentations are unlike those in $eremiah"
5oreo#er it is unlikely that the spontaneity and naturalness so
characteristic of $eremiah=s utterances could be accommodated to a
poetic form as complicated and artificial as that in 7amentations" -t is
probable that the laments were the product of more than one poet"
Ecclesiastes
The book of Ecclesiastes is a work of the Hebrew wisdom mo#ement
associated by its title and by tradition with Cing <olomon" -t is e#ident
howe#er that the book is of much later composition; the author may
ha#e identified himself with the famous king and wise man of the past to
gi#e greater authority to his work" The language of the book including
the relati#ely large number of Aramaic forms and its content point to a
date in the early ;reek period *later Eth or early ?rd century B&E+" That
the book was written prior to the /nd century B&E howe#er is shown
by its influence on Ecclesiasticus which was written early in that
century and its appearance among the manuscripts disco#ered at
Chirbat Kumran on the northwestern shore of the 9ead <ea where a
$ewish community e)isted in the midD/nd century"
The name Ecclesiastes is a transliteration of the ;reek word used in the
<eptuagint to translate the Hebrew Kohelet a word connected with the
noun qahal *GassemblyH+" Kohelet seems to mean the one who gathers
or teaches an assembly; the author used the word as a pseudonym" He
appears to be a wisdom teacher writing late in life e)pressing skeptical
personal reflections in a collection of popular ma)ims of the day and
longer compositions of his own" The book has been described as a
sage=s notebook of random obser#ations about life" <ome interpreters
ha#e 0uestioned the unity of authorship but gi#en the notebook
character of the work there seems to be little need for 0uestioning its
basic integrity"
Although the phrase G#anity of #anitiesb all is #anityH stressed at both
the beginning and the end of the book sums up its theme it does not
con#ey the #ariety of tests that the skeptical Kohelet applies to life" He
e)amines e#erything%material things wisdom toil wealth%and finds
them unable to gi#e meaning to life" He repeatedly returns to life=s
uncertainties to the hidden and incomprehensible ways of ;od and to
the stark and final fact of death" The only conclusion to this human
condition is to accept gratefully the small dayDtoDday pleasures that ;od
gi#es to man"
Kohelet stands in sharp contrast to the con#entional wisdom schools"
He recogni:es the relati#e #alue of wisdom as against foolishness but
he re(ects the o#ersimplified and optimistic #iew of wisdom as security
for life" He offers a religious skepticism that re(ects all facile answers to
life=s mysteries and ;od=s ways"
Book of Esther
The Book of Esther is a romantic and patriotic tale perhaps with some
historical basis but with so little religious purpose that ;od in fact is
not mentioned in it" The book may ha#e been included in the Hebrew
canon only for the sake of sanctioning the celebrations of the festi#al
6urim the ,east of 7ots" There is considerable e#idence that the stories
related in Esther actually originated among ;entiles *6ersian and
Babylonian+ rather than among the $ews" There is also reason to belie#e
that the #ersion gi#en in the <eptuagint goes back to older sources than
the #ersion gi#en in the Hebrew Bible"
7aying the scene at <usa a residential city of the 6ersian kings the book
narrates that Haman the #i:ier and fa#ourite of Cing Ahasuerus *Ler)es
-; reigned E24@E41 B&E+ determined by lot that the A?th of Adar was
the day on which the $ews li#ing in the 6ersian Empire were to be slain"
Esther a beautiful $ewish woman whom the Cing had chosen as 0ueen
after repudiating Kueen Bashti and her cousin and foster father
5ordecai were able to frustrate Haman=s plans" Haman then schemed to
ha#e 5ordecai hanged; instead he was sent to the gallows erected for
5ordecai and $ews throughout the empire were gi#en permission to
defend themsel#es on the day set for their e)termination" The go#ernors
of the pro#inces learned in time that 5ordecai who had sa#ed the Cing
from being assassinated by two discontented courtiers had succeeded
to Haman=s position as #i:ier; thus they supported the $ews in the fight
against their enemies"
-n the pro#inces the $ews celebrated their #ictory on the following day
but at <usa where at Esther=s re0uest the Cing permitted them to
continue to fight on the AEth of Adar they rested and celebrated their
success a day later" Therefore Esther and 5ordecai issued a decree
obligating the $ews henceforth to commemorate these e#ents on both
the AEth and A1th of Adar"
Theme and language characteri:e Esther as one of the latest books of
the Hebrew Bible probably dating from the /nd century B&E" !othing
is known of its author" According to the postbiblical sources its
inclusion in the canon as well as the obser#ance of the feast of the AEth
and A1th of Adar still met with strong opposition on the part of the
$ewish authorities in $erusalem as late as the ?rd century &E; yet
despite its lack of specific religious content the story has become in
popular $ewish understanding a magnificent message that the
pro#idence of ;od will preser#e his people from annihilation"
9aniel
The Book of 9aniel presents a collection of popular stories about 9aniel
a loyal $ew and the record of #isions granted to him with the
Babylonian E)ile of the 4th century B&E as their background" The book
howe#er was written in a later time of national crisis%when the $ews
were suffering se#ere persecution under Antiochus -B Epiphanes
*reigned A.1@A4E3A4? B&E+ the second <eleucid ruler of 6alestine"
The e)iled $ews had been permitted to return to their homeland by
&yrus -- the ;reat master of the 5edes and 6ersians who captured
Babylon in 1?I B&E from its last king !abonidus and his son
Belsha::ar" The ancient !ear East was then ruled by the 6ersians until
Ale)ander the ;reat brought it under his control in ??A" After
Ale)ander=s death in ?/? his empire was di#ided among his generals
with 6alestine coming under the dominion of the 6tolemies until AI2
when the <eleucids won control" Nnder the 6ersian and 6tolemaic rulers
the $ews seem to ha#e en(oyed some political autonomy and complete
religious liberty" But under Antiochus -B $ewish fortunes changed
dramatically" -n his effort to Helleni:e the $ews of 6alestine Antiochus
attempted to force them to abandon their religion and practice the
common pagan worship of his realm" -ncreasingly sterner restrictions
were imposed upon the $ews the city of $erusalem was pillaged and
finally in 9ecember A4. the Temple was desecrated" The outcome of
this persecution was the open rebellion among the $ews as described in
the books of 5accabees" This period of Hellenistic $udaism is treated
more fully in $udaism: Hellenistic $udaism *Eth century B&E@/nd
century &E+"
The conflict between the religion of the $ews and the paganism of their
foreign rulers is also the basic theme of the Book of 9aniel" -n 9aniel
howe#er it is regarded as foreseen and permitted by ;od to show the
superiority of Hebrew wisdom o#er pagan wisdom and to demonstrate
that the ;od of -srael will triumph o#er all earthly kings and will rescue
his faithful ones from their persecutors" To de#elop this theme the
author makes use of a literary and theological form known as
apocalypse *from the ;reek apokal1psis, Gre#elationH or Gun#eilingH+
which was widely diffused in $udaism and then in &hristianity from /88
B&E to /88 &E" Apocalyptic literature professes to be a re#elation of
future e#ents particularly the time and manner of the coming of the
final age when the powers of e#il will be routed in bloody combat and
;od=s kingdom will be established" This re#elation usually occurs as a
#ision e)pressed in complicated often bi:arre symbolism" The literature
is generally pseudonymous proposed under the name of some
authoritati#e figure of the distant past such as 9aniel 5oses Enoch or
E:ra" This allows the author to present e#ents that are past history to
him as prophecies of future happenings"
The Book of 9aniel the first of the apocalyptic writings did not
represent an entirely new type of literature" Apocalypse had its
beginnings in passages in the works of the prophets" -n fact it has been
said that the apocalyptic was really an attempt to rationali:e and
systemati:e the predicti#e side of prophecy" There were significant
differences howe#er" The prophet for the most part declared his
message by word of mouth which might subse0uently be recorded in
writing" The apocalyptist on the other hand remained completely
hidden behind his message which he wrote down for the faithful to
read" The prophets normally spoke in their own name a message for
their own day" The apocalyptists normally wrote in the name of some
notable man of the past a message for the time of the age to come"
7ike the prophets before them the apocalyptists saw in the working out
of history which they di#ided into wellDdefined periods a purpose and a
goal" The e#il in the world might lead men to despair but ;od=s
predetermined purpose could not be frustrated" A future age of
righteousness would replace the present age of ungodliness fulfilling
;od=s purpose" This literature then is a mi)ture of pessimism%times
would become worse and worse and ;od would destroy this present
e#il world%and of optimism%out of turmoil and confusion ;od would
bring in his kingdom the goal of history"
,or many centuries the apocalyptic character of the Book of 9aniel was
o#erlooked and it was generally considered to be true history
containing genuine prophecy" -n fact the book was included among the
prophetic books in the ;reek canon" -t is now recogni:ed howe#er that
the writer=s knowledge of the e)ilic times was sketchy and inaccurate"
His date for the fall of $erusalem for e)ample is wrong; Belsha::ar is
represented as the son of !ebuchadre::ar and the last king of Babylon
whereas he was actually the son of !abonidus and though a powerful
figure was ne#er king; 9arius the 5ede a fictitious character perhaps
confused with 9arius - of 6ersia is made the successor of Belsha::ar
instead of &yrus" By contrast the book is a not inconsiderable historical
source for the ;reek period" -t refers to the desecration of the Temple in
A4. and possibly to the beginning of the 5accabean re#olt" Only when
the narrati#e reaches the latter part of the reign of Antiochus do notable
inaccuracies appear%an indication of a transition from history to
prediction" The book is thus dated between A4. and A4E B&E"
Other considerations that point to this /ndDcentury date are the
omission of the book from the prophetic portion of the Hebrew canon
the absence of 9aniel=s name in the list of -srael=s great men in
Ecclesiasticus the book=s linguistic characteristics and its religious
thought especially the belief in the resurrection of the dead with
conse0uent rewards and punishments"
The name 9aniel would appear to refer to a legendary hero who was
used in different ways at different times and who became particularly
popular in the storytelling of the 6ersian and ;reek 9iaspora as a
personification of the practical and theological problems faced by the
$ews in that en#ironment" 'hether there is any connection between the
9aniel of this book and the one mentioned as a wise man without e0ual
in the Book of E:ekiel and as a righteous man in the tale of A0hat a
Ngaritic te)t dated from about the middle of the AEth century is
uncertain"
The book is written in two languages: the beginning *A:A@/:Ea+ and the
final chapters *2@A/+ in Hebrew and the rest in Aramaic" This offers no
proof of multiple authorship howe#er because the linguistic di#isions
do not correspond to the di#ision by literary form: chapters A@4 are
stories of 9aniel and his friends in e)ile and chapters .@A/ are 9aniel=s
apocalyptic #isions" ,urthermore there is a singleness of religious
outlook spirit and purpose throughout" !e#ertheless the problem of
the languages has ne#er been satisfactorily answered"
The stories of the first si) chapters which probably e)isted in oral
tradition before the author set them down begin with the account of
how 9aniel and his three companions *Hananiah 5ishael and A:ariah
who were gi#en the names <hadrach 5eshach and Abednego by the
Babylonians+ came to be li#ing at the Babylonian court and how they
remained faithful to the laws of their religion" This is followed by fi#e
dramatic episodes calculated to demonstrate the wisdom and might of
-srael=s ;od and the uncon0uerable steadfastness of his loyal people"
Thus through ;od=s gift of wisdom 9aniel e)cels the professional
sages of the pagan court by re#ealing and interpreting
!ebuchadre::ar=s dream of a great image made of four metals which
was shattered by a stone cut without human hand and then the Cing=s
further dream of a tree reduced to a stump which presaged the
punishment of his arrogance by madness and finally the writing on the
wall which spelled Belsha::ar=s doom at his sacrilegious feast" By trust
in ;od 9aniel=s companions who refused to worship !ebuchadre::ar=s
golden idol are miraculously deli#ered from a fiery furnace and 9aniel
himself thrown into a den of lions for holding fast to his tradition of
prayer is di#inely protected"
The last si) chapters of the book are apocalyptic" -n chapter . 9aniel is
granted a #ision of four beasts from the abyss which are brought under
di#ine (udgment and of Gone like a son of manH who is brought before
;od to be in#ested with his uni#ersal and e#erlasting so#ereignty" The
mythological beasts are interpreted as four empires *the Babylonian
Empire the kingdom of the 5edes the 6ersian Empire and the empire
of Ale)ander+ and the manlike figure as -srael" The #ision of a battle
between the ram *5edes and 6ersians+ and the goat *the ;reek Empire+
in chapter 2 introduces the ini0uities of Antiochus -B Epiphanes and is
an assurance to the stricken $ews that the end of their tribulation is
near" -n chapter I the author reinterprets the prophecy of $eremiah that
$erusalem=s desolation would end after .8 years" By making these .8
years mean .8 Gweeks of yearsH *i.e., EI8 years+ the author is again able
to focus attention on the period of Antiochus= persecution in the /nd
century and on the imminence of his determined doom" A precise
understanding of the author=s scheme is not possible howe#er because
EI8 years calculated from the beginning of the e)ile e)tends far beyond
the time of Antiochus" The remaining chapters pro#ide the fourth
commentary on the crisis pro#oked by the <eleucid tyrant" The greater
part of this #ision is a sketch of the e#ents that affected the $ews from
the 6ersian period to the time of Antiochus and prepared for his reign of
terror" After chapter AA #erse ?I the account of Antiochus= life ceases
to correspond with historical fact; an inaccurate prediction of his end is
the prelude to the announcement of the end of -srael=s tribulation and
the inauguration of ;od=s kingdom"
The purpose of the whole book stories and #isions alike is to encourage
-srael to endure under the threat of annihilation and to strengthen its
faith that Gthe 5ost High rules the kingdom of menH and will in the end
gi#e #ictory to his people and establish his kingdom"
E:ra !ehemiah and &hronicles
The final books of the Hebrew Bible are the books of &hronicles and
E:ra@!ehemiah which once formed a unitary history of -srael from
Adam to the Eth century B&E written by an anonymous &hronicler" That
these books constituted a single work%referred to as the &hronicler=s
history in distinction to the 9euteronomic history and the elements of
history from the priestly code of the Torah%appears e#ident because
the same language style and fundamental ideas are found throughout
and because the concluding #erses of -- &hronicles are repeated at the
beginning of E:ra" The purpose of this history seems to ha#e been to
trace the origin of the Temple and to show the anti0uity and
authenticity of its cult and of the formal legalistic type of religion that
dominated later $udaism"
The history that these books record has already been treated in the
historical section of this article and is found in greater detail in $udaism"
The concern in this section will be chiefly with the literary and
theological aspects of the books but their contents can be summari:ed"
-n - and -- &hronicles the author repeats much of the material from
earlier historical books concentrating upon the history of the kingdom
of $udah" The ,irst Book of the &hronicles begins with an e)tensi#e
genealogy of -srael from Adam to the restoration but is primarily a
biography of 9a#id that adds further facts to the story as gi#en in
<amuel" The <econd Book of the &hronicles begins with <olomon and
goes through the di#ision of the kingdom to the reign of Fedekiah; once
again the &hronicler had access to materials that supplemented the
account in - and -- Cings" -n the Book of E:ra he describes the return of
the $ews from the Babylonian E)ile and the reconstruction of the
Temple" He includes lists of the families who returned and the te)ts of
the decrees under which they returned" -n the Book of !ehemiah the
reconstruction of the city walls of $erusalem becomes the basis for a
meditation upon the relation between ;od and his people" This book
too contains lists of those who participated in the reconstruction but
much of it concentrates upon the description of !ehemiah and his
persistence in performing his assignment"
The fourfold di#ision of the books deri#es from the ;reek and 7atin
#ersions; the more basic twofold di#ision into &hronicles and E:ra@
!ehemiah is more comple)" This original di#ision apparently resulted
from the inclusion of the material known as E:ra@!ehemiah in the
Hebrew canon before that known as &hronicles because it contained
fresh information not found in any other canonical book" 'hen
&hronicles was later admitted to the canon it was placed in order after
E:ra@!ehemiah; although the book has retained this position in the
Hebrew Bible the ;reek #ersion restored it to its proper se0uence" That
&hronicles was thus Gleft asideH may account for the choice of
)araleipomena *GThings OmittedH+ as the ;reek title of the book but
the usual and perhaps correct e)planation is that &hronicles contains
stories speeches and obser#ations that were omitted from the parallel
accounts in earlier books"
$ewish tradition has identified E:ra as the author of these books and
some modern scholars concur" According to many critics howe#er the
&hronicler was a 7e#ite cantor in $erusalem" This position is supported
by the author=s concern with the 7e#ites and cultic musicians" The date
of the work is more difficult to pinpoint" -n its final form it has to be later
than E:ra who came to $udah about E88 B&E" An indication of the latest
date at which the entire work could ha#e been completed is its silence
about the Helleni:ing of $udaism that took place after Ale)ander the
;reat" This together with language considerations that point to the late
6ersian period has led the ma(ority of commentators to postulate a EthD
century date" <ome scholars howe#er claim that a time before ?88 B&E
would be too short to account for the genealogy at the beginning of -
&hronicles which is carried down to the eighth generation after
Ferubbabel one of the leaders of the band that returned from Babylon"
Thus they push the final date to about /88 B&E or e#en slightly later" -t
is possible that the EthDcentury work of the &hronicler went through a
series of minor additions and adaptations until sometime early in the
/nd century when it reached its final form"
The &hronicler had numerous historical sources%both biblical and
e)trabiblical%at his disposal" He was closely dependent on the books of
<amuel and Cings for all of &hronicles e)cept the first nine chapters"
<ometimes he e#en repeated the actual words of his model though
slight te)tual #ariations suggest to some that the Hebrew copy he had
before him differed a little from that of the canon and corresponded to
that which lay behind the <eptuagint" But he was also able to consult
the final #ersion of the Torah and the whole of the 9euteronomic
history" His use of the personal memoirs of !ehemiah is undisputed; the
nature of his E:ra source is less clear but some ha#e regarded a portion
of narrati#e written in the first person as an autobiographical source" He
included many lists genealogies census reports and other official
documents that may ha#e been preser#ed as Temple records" The te)t
refers by name to certain documents representing royal histories and
prophetic writings about which as they ha#e not sur#i#ed only
speculation is possible"
The &hronicler used all these sources but was not shackled by them"
Although his work has won increasing respect as a historical document
especially as an indispensable source for the restoration period his
purpose was chiefly theological" He was con#inced of the definiti#eness
of the di#ine co#enant with 9a#id" The holy community that was
brought into e)istence by this co#enant maintained by ;od through the
#icissitudes of history and ha#ing its worship centred on the Temple in
$erusalem is the true kingdom of ;od" -t is the true -srael and is the
&hronicler=s only concern" Thus he mentions the northern kingdom and
the kings of -srael only to the e)tent that they figure in the e#ents of
$udah" 7oyalty to the 9a#idic line of succession to $erusalem and to the
Temple worship were the central elements in the life of ;od=s people
according to this writer" All success and failure were the result of such
loyalty or disloyalty" Thus if a king=s reign was long and successful the
&hronicler saw it as the reward of ;od for a life led in obedience to his
will; con#ersely a king suffered misfortune only if he had sinned"
<ignificantly the &hronicler de#otes much attention to 9a#id=s part in
the de#elopment of the liturgy especially the organi:ation and
functions of the 7e#ites and omits important but uncomplimentary
stories about the Cing that are found in the 9euteronomic history"
-n short the &hronicler traced the reformed liturgy of his day back to
9a#id and laid a solid foundation for the acceptance and conser#ation of
the religious community that he en#isioned%a de#out community that
worshipped (oyfully in the Temple with sacrifice and praise and obeyed
the 7aw of 5oses" He knew well that the reali:ation of that community
in his day was not perfect and that the future had something better in
store but he seems to ha#e been content to accept the e)isting 9a#idic
leaders in order not to abandon the dynastic hope because of their
shortcomings" These books thus pro#ided an apologia for orthodo)
$udaism *perhaps in the face of opposition from the <amaritans the
inhabitants of the former northern kingdom+ and they offer to the
modern reader some insight into the postDe)ilic community in
$erusalem withdrawn into itself and trying to (ustify e)plain and
preser#e its e)istence and its spirituality"
>obert 7" ,aherty
-ntertestamental literature
!ature and significance
9efinitions
A #ast amount of $ewish literature written in the intertestamental period
*mainly /nd and Ast centuries B&E+ and from the Ast and /nd centuries
&E was preser#ed for the most part through #arious &hristian
churches" A part of this literature is today commonly called the
Apocrypha *Hidden; hence secret books; singular apocryphon+" At one
time in the early church this was one of the terms for books not
regarded by the church as canonical *scripturally acceptable+ but in
modern usage the Apocrypha is the term for those $ewish books that are
called in the >oman &atholic &hurch deuterocanonical works%i.e., those
that are canonical for &atholics but are not a part of the $ewish Bible"
*These works are also regarded as canonical in the Eastern Orthodo)
churches"+ 'hen the 6rotestant churches returned to the $ewish canon
*Hebrew Old Testament+ during the >eformation period *A4th century+
the &atholic deuterocanonical works became for the 6rotestants
GapocryphalH%i.e., nonDcanonical"
-n AIthDcentury biblical scholarship a new term was coined for those
ancient $ewish works that were not accepted as canonical by either the
&atholic or 6rotestant churches; such books are now commonly called
6seudepigrapha *,alsely -nscribed; singular pseudepigraphon+ i.e.,
books wrongly ascribed to a biblical author" The term 6seudepigrapha
howe#er is not an especially well suited one not only because the
pseudepigraphic character is not restricted to the 6seudepigrapha alone
%and indeed not e#en all 6seudepigrapha are ascribed to any author
since there are among them anonymous treatises%but also because the
group of writings so designated by this name necessarily #aries in the
different modern collections" Theoretically the name 6seudepigrapha
can designate all ancient $ewish writings that are not canonical in the
&atholic &hurch" The writings of the philosopher 6hilo of Ale)andria *Ast
century B&E@Ast century &E+ and the historian $osephus *Ast century
&E+ and fragments of other postbiblical Hellenistic $ewish historians
and poets howe#er usually are e)cluded" >abbinic literature */nd
century B&E@/nd century &E+ also is generally e)cluded; such literature
e)isted for centuries only in oral form" The edition of the
6seudepigrapha edited by the British biblical scholar >"H" &harles in
AIA? howe#er contains a translation of )irqe !(ot *G<ayings of the
,athersH+ an ethical tractate from the 5ishna *a collection of oral laws+
and e#en the nonD$ewish %tor1 of !hikar *a folklore hero+ though other
genuine $ewish writings from anti0uity are omitted" <ome of the $ewish
6seudepigrapha were disco#ered only in the last two centuries and the
9ead <ea <crolls *the first of them disco#ered in the AIE8s+ most of
which belong to this category are not yet all published" Thus in the
broader meaning of the terms the Apocrypha and 6seudepigrapha are a
bloc of $ewish literature written in anti0uity from the later 6ersian
period *c. Eth century B&E+ and not canoni:ed by the $ews"
Te)ts and #ersions
A small portion of this literature is preser#ed in the original languages:
Hebrew Aramaic and ;reek" 5ost of the Hebrew or Aramaic works
howe#er e)ist today only in #arious translations: ;reek 7atin <yriac
Ethiopian &optic Old <la#onic Armenian and >omanian" All the works
of the Apocrypha are preser#ed in ;reek because they ha#e for the
;reek &hurch a canonical #alue" Those books not considered canonical
by the early church ha#e often fallen into obli#ion and their ;reek te)t
was often lost; many of the ancient $ewish 6seudepigrapha are today
preser#ed only in fragments or 0uotations in #arious languages and
sometimes only their titles are known from old lists of books that were
re(ected by the church"
Of this literature only the Apocrypha *contained in 7atin and ;reek
Bibles+ were read in the liturgical ser#ices of the church" The
6seudepigrapha in their #arious #ersions were in most cases nearly
forgotten; and manuscripts of most of them were redisco#ered only in
modern times a process that continues" The disco#ery of the 9ead <ea
<crolls at Kumran in the $udaean desert not only furnished new te)ts
and fragments of unknown and already known 6seudepigrapha but also
contributed solutions to problems concerning the origin of other $ewish
religious writings *including some Old Testament books+ the
connection between them and e#en their composition and redaction
from older sources" The new original te)ts also strengthened interest in
the $ewish literature of the intertestamental period because of its
importance for the study of both ancient $udaism and early &hristianity"
As a result of such disco#eries better critical editions of the Apocrypha
and 6seudepigrapha as well as new studies of their content ha#e been
published"
The Apocrypha whose te)ts originated mostly before the rise of
&hristianity were regarded as canonical in the early church but contain
no &hristian interpolations" 5any of the 6seudepigrapha howe#er were
interpolated by &hristian writers" The nature and the e)tent of these
&hristian interpolations are often difficult to define since a &hristian
interpolator not only changes the te)t according to &hristian #iews or
introduces specific &hristian terminology but also may introduce in a
$ewish te)t ideas motifs or terminology that are common to both
$udaism and &hristianity" ,or these reasons it is sometimes difficult to
decide if a passage in a pseudepigraphon or e#en sometimes the whole
work is $ewish or &hristian"
6ersian and Hellenistic influences
<ome of the Apocrypha *e.g., $udith Tobit+ may ha#e been written
already in the 6ersian period *4th@Eth century B&E+ but with these
possible e)ceptions all the Apocrypha and 6seudepigrapha were
written in the Hellenistic period *c. ?88 B&@c. A9 ?88+" Jet the
influence of 6ersian culture and religion sometimes can be detected
e#en in comparati#ely late $ewish works especially in $ewish
apocalyptic literature *see below !pocal1pticism+" The 6ersian influence
was facilitated by the fact that both the $ewish and 6ersian religions are
iconoclastic *against the #eneration or worship of images+ and opposed
to paganism and display an interest in eschatology *doctrines of last
times+"
Although such an affinity did not e)ist between $udaism and Hellenistic
culture literary acti#ity among Hellenistic $ews was generally ;reek in
character: the ;reekDwriting $ewish authors thought mainly in ;reek
concepts used genuine ;reek terminology and wrote many of their
works in ;reek literary forms"
Though Hellenistic $ewish authors sometimes imitated biblical forms
they learned such forms from their ;reek Bible *the <eptuagint+" 5any
;reek products written by $ews ser#ed as religious propaganda and
probably influenced many pagans to become proselytes or at least to
abandon their heathen faith and become G;odDfearing"H Thus the
$ewish literature written in ;reek could be used by &hristianity for
similar purposes later"
;reek influence on $ewish writings written in Hebrew or Aramaic in
6alestine in the intertestamental period was by no means as significant
as upon $ewish works written in ;reek among the Hellenistic 9iaspora
*$ews li#ing outside 6alestine+" -n 6alestine religion and culture formed
a unity and the Helleni:ation of the upper classes in $erusalem before
the 5accabean wars *A4.@AE/ B&E+ was restricted to some families
who had accepted ;reek ci#ili:ation for practical purposes" $ews in
6alestine de#eloped a flourishing autonomous culture based upon
religious ideals" 7i#ing without interruption in their powerful religious
tradition and with their own nonD;reek education the 6alestinian $ews
were able to produce literary works without significant e#idences of
;reek influence" The language of this literature was both Aramaic and
Hebrew" Nnder the national re#i#al in the 5accabean period Hebrew
became pre#alent as the language of $ewish literature in 6alestine; but
since Aramaic was a spoken language in 6alestine during the whole
period some of the e)tant literary works of 6alestinian $ews in the
5accabean and >oman period probably were originally written also in
Aramaic"
Apocalypticism
-n intertestamental $ewish literature a special trend de#eloped: namely
apocalypticism" !pokal1psis is a ;reek term meaning Gre#elation of
di#ine mysteriesH both about the nature of ;od and about the last days
*eschatology+" Apocalyptic writings were composed in both $udaism and
&hristianity; one of them *the Book of 9aniel+ was accepted in the
$ewish canon and another *the book of >e#elation+ in the !ew
Testament" Other apocalypses form a part of the 6seudepigrapha and
influences of apocalypticism or similar approaches are found in some of
the Apocrypha" The sectarian 9ead <ea <crolls are the works of an
apocalyptic mo#ement though not all are written in the style of
apocalypses" ,he %ib1lline &racles are in their $ewish passages a part
of $ewish Hellenistic literature; inasmuch as they contain eschatological
prophecies of future doom and sal#ation they are apocalyptic but in
their polemics against idolatry and their apology for $ewish faith they
are a product of $ewish Hellenistic propagandistic literature" Because
one of the central themes of apocalypticism is that of future sal#ation
messianic hopes in#ol#ing the ad#ent of a deli#erer are usually the
ob(ect of intertestamental $ewish apocalypticism"
Apocryphal writings
Apocryphal works indicating 6ersian influence
Esdras
The G;reek E:raH sometimes named - *or -- or ---+ Esdras en(oyed
considerable popularity in the early church but lost its prestige in the
5iddle Ages in the 7atin &hurch" At the reforming &ouncil of Trent
*A1E1@4?+ the >oman &atholic &hurch no longer recogni:ed it as
canonical and relegated it in the 7atin Bible to the end as an appendi)
to the !ew Testament" One of the reasons for its nonDcanonicity in the
'est is that the G;reek E:raH contains material parallel to the biblical
books of &hronicles E:ra and !ehemiah but differs in te)tual recension
*points of critical re#ision+ and occasionally in the order of the stories"
The content of the book is a history of the $ews from the celebration of
the 6asso#er in the time of Cing $osiah *.th century B&E+ to the reading
of the 7aw in the time of E:ra *1th century B&E+" Though written in an
idiomatic ;reek G;reek E:raH is probably a ;reek translation from an
unknown Hebrew and Aramaic redaction of the materials contained in
the biblical books of &hronicles E:ra and !ehemiah" An important part
of this book *?:A@1:4+ the story of the three youths at the court of
9arius has no parallel in the canonical books" This story concerns a
debate between three guardsmen before 9arius king of 6ersia about
the 0uestion of what they consider to be the strongest of all things; the
first youth asserts that it is wine the second says that it is the king and
the third who is identified with the biblical Ferubbabel *a prince of
9a#idic lineage who became go#ernor of $udah under 9arius+ e)presses
his opinion that Gwomen are strongest but truth is #ictor o#er all
things"H He is acclaimed as the #ictor and as a reward he re0uests that
9arius rebuild $erusalem and its Temple" The story e#idently was
written in two stages: originally the competition was about wine the
king and women but later truth was added" Truth is one of the central
concepts of 6ersian religion and the competition itself is before a
6ersian king; thus it seems likely that the story is 6ersian in origin and
that it became $ewish by the identification of the third youth with
Ferubbabel"
$udith
The book of $udith is similar to the biblical Book of Esther in that it also
describes how a woman sa#ed her people from impending massacre by
her cunning and daring" The name of the heroine occurs already in ;en"
/4:?E as a ;entile wife of Esau but in the book of $udith it e#idently has
symbolic #alue" $udith is an e)emplary $ewish woman" Her deed is
probably in#ented under the influence of the account of the A/thD
centuryDB&E Cenite woman $ael *$udg" 1:/E@/.+ who killed the
&anaanite general <isera by dri#ing a tent peg through his head"
The story is clearly fiction and the anachronisms in it are intentional:
they show that the story itself is a mere fiction" The book speaks about
the #ictory of !ebuchadne::ar Gwho reigned o#er the Assyrians at
!ine#ehH *the name is of the .th@4thDcenturyDB&E king of Babylon
!ebuchadre::ar+ in the time of an unknown Arpha)ad king of the
5edes" <ince the western nations of !ebuchadne::ar=s empire had
refused to come to his aid the Cing ordered his commander in chief
Holofernes *a 6ersian name+ to force submission upon the rebellious
nations" -n subduing these nations Holofernes destroyed their
sanctuaries and proclaimed that !ebuchadne::ar alone should
henceforth be worshipped as a god" Thus the $ews who had recently
returned from the Babylonian &apti#ity *4th century B&E+ and rebuilt
the Temple were compelled to prepare for war" Holofernes laid siege to
Bethulia *otherwise unknown+ described as an important strategic point
on the way to $erusalem" Because of a long siege the inhabitants
wanted to surrender their city but $udith persuaded the people to delay
the surrender for fi#e days" $udith was a #irtuous pious and beautiful
widow" <he remo#ed her mourning garments left the city entered
Holofernes= camp and was brought before him" On the fourth day
Holofernes decided to seduce $udith and in#ited her to come into his
tent; he then drank more wine than e#er before" After he fell into a
drunken stupor $udith cut off his head with his sword and returned with
the head to Bethulia" The $ews put Holofernes= head outside the city
wall and the following morning upon learning of the death of their
commander in chief the Assyrian soldiers dispersed and were pursued
by the $ews of Bethulia who took abundant spoil" The $ews were not
threatened again during $udith=s lifetime%she li#ed to be A81%or for
long thereafter"
5any suggestions ha#e been made about the book of $udith=s date of
composition" Though current scholarly opinion is that the book was
written in the warlike patriotic atmosphere of the early 5accabean
period *c. A18 B&E+ by a 6alestinian $ew there are no 5accabean
elements in the book" -t shows no direct or indirect ;reek influences the
deification of kings e)isted already in the ancient !ear East and the
political situation described in the book has nothing in common with the
5accabean period" All the apparently intentional historical mistakes
howe#er can be understood if it is suggested that the book of $udith
was written under 6ersian rule" Holofernes is as noted abo#e a typical
6ersian name; and the whole political and social situation described in
the book fits the 6ersian world as do the $ewish life and institutions
reflected in the book" Thus there are no serious indications that the
book of $udith is a 5accabean product and there are many allusions to
the time of the 6ersian rule o#er 6alestine" Only a ;reek translation of
the book is e)tant but from its style it is clear that the book was
originally written in Hebrew" -n his preface to the book of $udith the
7atin biblical scholar $erome *c. ?E.@EAI3E/8 &E+ states that he used
for his translation a G&haldaeanH *i.e., Aramaic+ te)t and that he also
used an older 7atin translation from ;reek" His translation differs in
many points from the original te)t"
Tobit
The other $ewish short story possibly dating from 6ersian times is the
book of Tobit named after the father of its hero" ,rom the fragments of
the book disco#ered at Kumran scholars now know that the original
form of the name was Tobi" Tobit was from the Hebrew tribe of !aphtali
and li#ed as an e)ile in !ine#eh; his son was Tobias" Obeying the tenets
of $ewish piety Tobit buried the corpses of his fellow -sraelites who had
been e)ecuted" One day when he buried a dead man the warm dung of
sparrows fell in his eyes and blinded him" His family subse0uently
suffered from po#erty but then Tobit remembered that he had once left
a deposit of sil#er at >ages *today Teheran+ in 5edia" He sent his son
Tobias along with a companion who was in reality the angel >aphael
under the guise of an -sraelite to retrie#e the deposit" 9uring the
(ourney while Tobias was washing in the Tigris a fish threatened to
de#our his foot" Npon instructions from >aphael Tobias caught the fish
and remo#ed its gall heart and li#er since it was belie#ed that the
smoke from the heart and li#er had the power to e)orcise demons and
that ointment made from the gall would cure blindness" On the way he
stopped at Ecbatana *in 6ersia+ where >aguel a member of Tobias=
family li#ed" His daughter <arah had been married se#en times but the
men had been slain by the demon Asmodeus on the wedding night
before they had lain with her" On the counsel of >aphael Tobias asked
to marry >aguel=s daughter and on the wedding night Tobias put
Asmodeus to flight through the stench of the burning li#er and heart of
the fish" >aphael went to >ages and returned with the deposit" 'hen he
returned with his young wife and >aphael to !ine#eh Tobias restored
his father=s sight by applying the gall of the fish to his eyes" >aphael
then disclosed that he was one of ;od=s se#en angels and ascended into
hea#en"
The story of the book of Tobit is a historici:ed and $udai:ed #ersion of
the wellDknown folktale of GThe ;rateful 9eadH *or GThe ;rateful
;hostH+ in which a young man buries the corpse of a stranger despite
in(unctions against such an act; later the youth wins a bride through the
intercession of the dead man=s spirit" Asmodeus *in 6ersian Aeshma
9ae#a the demon of wrath+ occurs as a powerful demon in rabbinic
literature as well as in folktales" -n the $ewish form of the story GThe
;rateful 9eadH is replaced by the angel >aphael" According to the
4thiopic 4noch */8:?; //:?+ >aphael is appointed o#er the spirits of the
souls of the dead *for 4noch see below+" Because the cause of this
situation is not mentioned in the book of Tobit the story itself in its
$ewish form probably e)isted before it became the sub(ect of the book of
Tobit" The present work is a literary product; the interesting plot ga#e to
the author many occasions to insert religious and moral teachings in the
manner of wisdom literature which is concerned with practical
e#eryday issues" The book contains prayers psalms and aphorisms
most of them put in the mouth of Tobit" -t is the oldest $ewish witness of
the golden rule *E:A1+: GAnd what you hate do not do to anyone"H
Eschatological hopes are also described: at the end of time all $ewish
e)iles will return $erusalem will be rebuilt of precious stones and gold
and all nations will worship the true ;od" -n these eschatological
images howe#er the figure of the 5essiah does not occur"
The religious social and literary atmosphere of the book does not
contain elements from the ;reek period" Thus the book probably was
written already in the 6ersian period or in the early days of ;reek rule
*?rd century B&E+" The book e)ists today in three principal recensions
and it is often difficult to determine in a particular passage what was
the original te)t" The book was written in Hebrew or Aramaic; the ;reek
recensions differ perhaps because they are based on different <emitic
#ersions" These 0uestions may be answered when the Hebrew and
Aramaic fragments of the book which were found among the 9ead <ea
<crolls are published"
The <tory of Ahikar
According to the book of Tobit Ahikar the cupbearer of the Assyrian
king Esarhaddon was Tobit=s nephew; he is a secondary personage in
the plot and his own story is mentioned" Ahikar is the hero of a !ear
Eastern nonD$ewish work ,he %tor1 of !hikar. The book e)ists in
medie#al translations the best of them in <yriac" The story was known
in the 6ersian period in the $ewish military colony in Elephantine -sland
in Egypt a fact demonstrated by the disco#ery of fragmentary Aramaic
papyri of the work dating from E18@EA8 B&E" Thus the author of the
book of Tobit probably knew ,he %tor1 of !hikar, in which as in the
book of Tobit the plot is a prete)t for the introduction of speeches and
wise sayings" <ome of Tobit=s sayings ha#e close parallels in the words
of the wise Ahikar"
Baruch
The apocryphon of Baruch which is e)tant in ;reek and was included in
the <eptuagint is attributed to Baruch secretary to the Old Testament
prophet $eremiah *.th@4th century B&E+" -t was Baruch who read
$eremiah=s letter to the e)iles in Babylon" After hearing his words the
$ews repented and confessed their sins" The first part of the book of
Baruch *A:A@? 2+ containing a confession of sins by the $ews following
the destruction of $erusalem and the e)iles= prayer for forgi#eness and
sal#ation may date from the 6ersian or at least from the preD5accabean
period" This early section was originally written in Hebrew and seems to
be #ery ancient" The other two parts *?:I@E:E and E:1@1:I+ were written
in ;reek or freely translated from Hebrew or Aramaic" The first is a
praise of wisdom: only -srael recei#ed wisdom from ;od which is the
7aw of 5oses" The last part of the book of Baruch contains $erusalem=s
lament o#er her desolation and her consolation"
Apocryphal works lacking strong indications of influence
The 7etter of $eremiah
The 7etter of $eremiah like the book of Baruch was conser#ed%
together with the ;reek translation of the Book of $eremiah%in the
<eptuagint" The oldest witness of the letter is a fragment of a ;reek
papyrus written about A48 B&E and found among the 9ead <ea <crolls
at Kumran" 'hether the letter was originally written in ;reek or is a
translation from Hebrew or Aramaic is difficult to decide" The letter
attacks the folly of idolatry as did $eremiah=s letter Gto those who were
to be taken to Babylon as capti#es"H Though according to some e)perts
the idolatry described in the book fits Babylonian cults the only clear
indication of its date is that of the Kumran fragment"
6rayer of 5anasseh
-n some manuscripts of the <eptuagint and in two later &hristian
writings a pseudepigraphic 6rayer of 5anasseh is contained" This
prayer was composed with reference to -- &hron" ??:AA@A2 according to
which the wicked $udaean king 5anasseh repented and prayed" -n the
present form the prayer is ;reek in origin but it may ha#e e)isted in a
Hebrew #ersion of which the ;reek is a free adaptation" The prayer was
probably composed *or translated+ in the Ast century B&E"
Additions to 9aniel and Esther
Two of the Old Testament Hagiographa *Cetu#im; see abo#e The
Hebrew canon+%9aniel and Esther%contain in their ;reek
translations numerous additions"
The 6rayer of A:ariah and the <ong of the Three Joung 5en
The first addition to 9aniel *in ;reek and 7atin translations 9an" ?:/E@
42+ contains the 6rayer of A:ariah and the <ong of the Three Joung
5en" These are the prayers of Hananiah 5ishael and A:ariah the three
young men who praised ;od after they had been placed in the midst of
the fiery furnace during a persecution of $ews in Babylon as told in the
Book of 9aniel" The first prayer is said by A:ariah alone; the second a
thanksgi#ing prayer is said by all three after ha#ing been sa#ed by ;od"
The two poems are not found in the original 9aniel and were ne#er a
part of it" They were translated from Hebrew originals or adapted from
them" A passage from the second a liturgical hymn of praise is a poetic
e)pansion of the do)ology that was sung in the Temple when the holy
name of ;od was pronounced" 7ike the other additions to 9aniel the
two prayers were probably composed before A88 B&E"
<usanna
The second addition to 9aniel the story of <usanna and the third one
Bel and the 9ragon are preser#ed in two ;reek #ersions" -n both stories
the hero is the wise 9aniel" <usanna was the pious and beautiful wife of
$oakim a wealthy $ew in Babylon" Two aged (udges became inflamed
with lo#e for her" They tried to force her to yield to their lust and when
she refused they accused her of committing adultery with a young man
who escaped" <he was condemned to death but when 9aniel crossD
e)amined the two elders separately the first stated that <usanna had
been surprised under a mastic tree the other under a holm tree"
<usanna was thus sa#ed and the two false witnesses e)ecuted"
The short story perhaps in#ented e#en before the e)tant Book of 9aniel
was composed could #ery well be added to 9aniel *whose name means
;od is my $udge+" The story was written in its present form in ;reek
since it contains two ;reek puns but a written <emitic prototype may
ha#e e)isted"
Bel and the 9ragon
The third ;reek addition to the Book of 9aniel is the story of Bel and the
9ragon" The Babylonians worshipped the idol of the god Bel and daily
pro#ided him with much food but 9aniel pro#ed to the Cing that the
food was in reality eaten by the priests" The priests were punished by
death and Bel=s temple destroyed" The Babylonians also worshipped a
dragon but 9aniel declined to worship him" To destroy the beast
9aniel boiled pitch fat and hair together: the dragon ate it and burst
asunder" After 9aniel=s sacrilege of slaying the dragon the Cing was
forced to cast 9aniel into the lions= den but nothing happened to him"
-ndeed he was gi#en a dinner by the prophet Habakkuk who was
brought there by the hair of his head by an angel" On the se#enth day
the Cing found 9aniel sitting in the den; so he led 9aniel out and cast
his enemies into the den where they were de#oured"
The two stories are an attack against idolatry" As the addition ends with
the story about 9aniel in the lions= den which is also narrated in the
canonical Book of 9aniel with another moti#ation it is probable that
this short treatise originated in a tradition that was parallel to the
canonical Book of 9aniel and that the two stories were translated from a
Hebrew or Aramaic original"
;reek additions to Esther
The Hebrew Book of Esther had a religious and social #alue to the $ews
during the time of ;reek and >oman antiD<emitism though the Hebrew
short story did not directly mention ;od=s inter#ention in history%and
e#en ;od himself is not named" To bring the canonical book upDtoDdate
in connection with contemporary antiD<emitism and to stress the
religious meaning of the story additions were made in its ;reek
translation" These ;reek additions are *A+ the dream of 5ordecai
*Esther=s uncle+ a symbolic #ision written in the spirit of apocalyptic
literature; */+ the edict of Cing Arta)er)es *considered by some to be
Arta)er)es -- but more probably Ler)es+ against the $ews containing
arguments taken from classical antiD<emitism; *?+ the prayers of
5ordecai and of Esther containing apologies for what is said in the
Book of Esther%5ordecai saying that he refused to bow before Haman
*the grand #i:ier+ because he is flesh and blood and Esther saying that
she strongly detests her forced marriage with the heathen king; *E+ a
description of Esther=s audience with the Cing during which the Cing=s
mood was fa#ourably changed when he saw that Esther had fallen down
in a faint; *1+ the decree of Arta)er)es on behalf of the $ews in which
Haman is called a 5acedonian who plotted against the Cing to transfer
the kingdom of 6ersia to the 5acedonians; and *4+ the interpretation of
5ordecai=s dream and a colophon *inscription at the end of a
manuscript with publication facts+ where the date namely Gthe fourth
year of the reign of 6tolemy and &leopatraH *i.e., AAE B&E+ is gi#en"
This indicates that the additions in the ;reek Esther were written in
Egypt under the rule of the 6tolemies"
- and -- 5accabees
- 5accabees
The first two of the four books of 5accabees are deuterocanonical
*accepted by the >oman &atholic &hurch+" The ,irst Book of the
5accabees is preser#ed in the ;reek translation from the Hebrew
original the original Hebrew name of it ha#ing been known to the
&hristian theologian Origen of Ale)andria" At the beginning the author
of the book mentions Ale)ander the ;reat then mo#es on to the
<eleucid king of <yria Antiochus Epiphanes *died A4E3A4? B&E+ and
his persecution of the $ews in 6alestine the desecration of the
$erusalem Temple and the 5accabean re#olt" After the death of the
priest 5attathias who had refused to obey Antiochus his son $udas
5accabeus succeeded him and led #ictorious wars against the <yrian
;reeks" E)actly three years after its profanation by Antiochus $udas
captured the Temple cleansed and rededicated it and in honour of the
rededication initiated an annual festi#al *Hanukka+ lasting eight days"
After $udas later fell in battle against the <yrian ;reeks his brother
$onathan succeeded him and continued the struggle" Only in the time of
<imon $onathan=s brother and successor did the 5accabean state
become independent" A short mention of the rule of <imon=s son $ohn
Hyrcanus - *A?13A?E@A8E B&E+ closes the book" The author a pious and
nationalistic $ew and an ardent adherent of the family of 5accabees
e#idently li#ed in the time of $ohn Hyrcanus" The book imitates the
biblical style of the historical books of the Old Testament and contains
diplomatic and other important%though not necessarily authentic%
official documents"
-- 5accabees
The <econd Book of the 5accabees or its source was probably written
in the same period as - 5accabees" The book is preceded by two letters
to the $ews of Egypt: the first from the year A/E B&E and the second one
written earlier *A4E B&E+ commemorating the rededication of the
Temple" -n the preface of the book the author indicates that he has
condensed into one book the lost fi#eD#olume history compiled by $ason
of &yrene" -- 5accabees describes the persecution under Antiochus
Epiphanes and the 5accabean wars until the #ictory of $udas
5accabeus o#er !icanor the commander of the <yrian elephant corps
in A4A B&E" The book written in ;reek is an important document of
Hellenistic historiography" 9escriptions of the martyrdom of the priest
Elea:ar and of the se#en brothers under Antiochus in which ;reek
dramatic style is linked with $ewish religious spirit became important
for &hristian martyrology" The book also furnished proof te)ts for
#arious $ewish and subse0uently &hristian doctrines *e.g., doctrines of
angels and the resurrection of the flesh+"
'isdom literature
Ecclesiasticus *or <irach+
There are two deuterocanonical works of the genre known as wisdom
literature one Hebrew and one ;reek" The Hebrew work is called
Ecclesiasticus in the 7atin Bible and in ;reek manuscripts <ophia -esou
hyiou <irach *the 'isdom of $esus the <on of <irach+; the original
Hebrew title was probably Hokhmat Jeshua= BenD<ira the 'isdom of
BenD<ira" 'ritten in Hebrew about A28@A.1 B&E it was translated into
;reek by the author=s grandson in Egypt" A <yriac translation also was
made" 6ortions *about threeDfifths+ of the Hebrew te)t were found in
medie#al copies in a synagogue of &airo and a part of the book in a
fragment of a scroll from 5assada in 6alestine *written c. .1 B&E+"
<mall Hebrew fragments also were found among the 9ead <ea <crolls;
one of them the 6salms scroll contains a large part of a poem about
wisdom that is a part of the appendi) *chapter 1A+ and that was not
written by the author" The 6ro#erbs of BenD<ira are often 0uoted in
rabbinic literature"
The book is written in the poetical style of the wisdom books of the Old
Testament *e.g., 6ro#erbs $ob+ and deals with the themes of practical
and theoretical morality" The religious and moral position of the author
is conser#ati#e%he does not belie#e in the afterlife but he reflects the
contemporary religious positions" He identifies wisdom the origin of
which is di#ine with Gthe 7aw which 5oses commandedH an idea that
became important for later $udaism" He also reflects contemporary
debates about freedom of will and determinism and though realistic in
his basic opinions he sometimes e)presses eschatological hopes of
sal#ation for his people" His piety is ethical though lacking in
asceticism; and he in#ites his readers to en(oy life which is short *in this
point some ;reek influence is palpable but it is not #ery deep+" At the
end of the book the author praises in chronological order Gthe fathers
of oldH from the beginning of history to his contemporary the high
priest <imon whose appearance in the Temple is poetically described"
After some #erses comes the colophon with the author=s name%the last
chapter being an appendi) not composed by the author"
The 'isdom of <olomon
The other deuterocanonical wisdom book the 'isdom of <olomon was
written in ;reek though it purports to ha#e been written by Cing
<olomon himself" The hypothesis that the first half of the book was
translated from Hebrew seems to be without foundation and probably
came into e)istence because in this section the author imitated in
;reek the Old Testament poetical style" The 'isdom of <olomon was
probably written in Ale)andria *Egypt+ in the Ast century B&E"
The book has three parts" The first *chapters A@1+ concerns the contrast
between pious and righteous $ews and the wicked sinful and mundane
$ews who persecute the righteous; the lot of the righteous is preferable
to the sorrows and final condemnation of the sinners" -n the second part
*chapters 4@I+ <olomon speaks about the essence of wisdom and how
he attained it" -n the third part *chapters A8@AI+ the author pro#es the
#alue of wisdom by telling%not in an e)act chronological order%how
in the history of -srael from the beginning until the con0uest of
6alestine ;od e)alted -srael and punished the heathens the Egyptians
and the &anaanites" He also describes the folly of heathenism and its
origins in human aberrations"
The author fuses $udaism and Hellenism both in style and in thought"
Though he imitates biblical style he is also influenced by ;reek
rhetoric" He also freely uses ;reek philosophical and other terms and is
influenced by $ewish apocalyptic literature" <ome close parallels to the
9ead <ea sect *at Kumran+ both in eschatology and in anthropology
*doctrines about man+ can be found in the 'isdom of <olomon"
The 6seudepigraphal writings
'orks indicating a ;reek influence
The 7etter of Aristeas
An important document of $ewish Hellenistic literature is ,he etter of
!risteas, a pseudepigraphon ascribed to Aristeas an official of 6tolemy
-- 6hiladelphus a ;reek monarch of Egypt in the ?rd century B&E" The
letter is addressed to his brother and gi#es an account of the translation
of the 6entateuch *first fi#e books of the Old Testament+ into ;reek by
order of 6tolemy" According to the legend reflected in the letter the
translation was made by ./ elders brought from $erusalem in ./ days"
The letter in reality written by an Ale)andrian $ew about A88 B&E
attempts to show the superiority of $udaism both as religion and as
philosophy" -t also contains interesting descriptions of 6alestine of
$erusalem with its Temple and of the royal gifts to the Temple"
-B 5accabees
Another $ewish Hellenistic work combining history and philosophy is
,he 0ourth Book of Maccabees. The theme of the book reflecting the
#iews of the ;reek <toics is Gwhether the -nspired >eason is supreme
ruler o#er the passions"H This thesis is demonstrated by the martyrdom
of the elderly scribe Elea:ar and the unnamed se#en brothers and their
mother taken from -- 5acc" 4:A2@.:EA" The idea of the e)piatory force
of martyrdom is stressed more in /5 Maccabees than in its source" The
author probably li#ed in the Ast century B&E and may ha#e been from
Antioch *in <yria+ where the tombs of the 5accabean martyrs were
#enerated by the $ews"
--- 5accabees
The ;reek book called ,he ,hir+ Book of Maccabees itself has nothing to
do with the 5accabean period" -ts content is a legend a miraculous
story of deli#erance which is also independently told%in another
historical conte)t%by $osephus *!gainst !pion -- 1+" -n --- 5accabees
the story takes place during the reign of 6tolemy -B 6hilopator *reigned
//A@/8? B&E+" The central episode of the book is the oppression of
Egyptian $ews culminating with an antiD$ewish decree by the Cing" The
$ews who were registered for e)ecution were brought into the
hippodrome outside of Ale)andria; the Cing had ordered 188 elephants
to be drugged with incense and wine for the purpose of crushing the
$ews but by ;od=s intercession Gthe beasts turned round against the
armed hosts eof the kingf and began to tread them under foot and
destroy them"H The $ews fi)ed annual celebrations of this deli#erance"
The book was probably written at the end of the Ast century B&E by an
Ale)andrian $ew in a period of high antiD$ewish tension"
The 7i#es of the 6rophets
The little book called the i(es of the )rophets is a collection of $ewish
legends about Old Testament prophets" -t is preser#ed in ;reek and in
#ersions and recensions in #arious languages all based on the ;reek"
The purpose of the work was to furnish to the readers of the Bible
further information about the prophets" The collection e#idently passed
through &hristian hands since it includes an assumed prophecy of
$eremiah about the birth of &hrist" Thus the date of composition of the
supposed original $ewish work and the 0uestion as to whether it was
originally written in Hebrew or ;reek are difficult to resol#e" <cholars
are inclined toward a AstDcenturyD&E date in 6alestine%with the
e)ception of the life of G$eremiahH which is Egyptian in origin"
The Ascension of -saiah
According to the i(es of the )rophets, $eremiah was stoned to death
and -saiah was sawn asunder" These two legends are reflected in two
originally $ewish works" The !scension of /saiah, in which the
martyrdom of -saiah is narrated is as a whole e)tant only in Ethiopic
translated from a ;reek original which itself is also known from
fragments" The book contains important &hristian passages from the Ast
century &E but the story about -saiah=s martyrdom is most likely based
upon a $ewish written source" According to this legend -saiah was killed
by the wicked king 5anasseh who ser#ed BeliarD<ammael the chief of
the e#il spirits instead of ;od" -saiah with his followers had fled to the
wilderness but upon being captured he was sawn asunder with a
wooden saw and his followers fled to the region of Tyre and <idon" The
acti#ity of Beliar is known also from the writings of the sect that
preser#ed the 9ead <ea <crolls and similar writings and the story itself
resembles in some way the history of the 9ead <ea sect; but no
fragment of the $ewish part of the book was found among the 9ead <ea
<crolls" The original Mart1r+om of /saiah was written probably in
Hebrew or Aramaic before the Ast century &E"
6aralipomena of $eremiah
-n the last chapter of the ;reek te)t of the )aralipomena *additional
stories+ of 6eremiah there is a hint of the &hristian part of the !scension
of /saiah7 the people stoned $eremiah to death because he like -saiah
before him prophesied the coming of &hrist" -n a parallel legend
*preser#ed in Arabic+ both the #iolent death of $eremiah and the
&hristian motif are lacking" The book begins shortly before and ends
shortly after the Babylonian E)ile and contains mostly otherwise
unknown legends" The legend about the long sleep of Abimelech *the
biblical EbedDmelech%an Ethiopian eunuch who rescued $eremiah from
a cistern+ who slept and so did not see the destruction of $erusalem by
the Babylonians%is based upon a legendary understanding of 6salm
A/4:A; a similar legend about another person is preser#ed in the Talmud
*the authoritati#e rabbinical compendium of $ewish law lore and
commentary+" The book is basically $ewish and the last chapter was
&hristiani:ed" The $ewish work was probably written at the end of the
Ast century &E or at the beginning of the /nd originally in either
Hebrew Aramaic or ;reek"
The Testament of $ob
Though there are scholars who think that the ,estament of 6ob was once
written in Hebrew or Aramaic it is more probable that the e)isting
;reek te)t of the book is the original or e#en a rewritten later #ersion of
a ;reek work; a fragment of an older form is probably preser#ed in the
;reek translation of $ob */:I+" $ob is identified according to some
$ewish traditions with the biblical $obab *king of Edom+ and his
*second+ wife is 9inah $acob=s daughter" $ob knew by re#elation that
for destroying an idol he would undergo suffering but that a happy end
would be the final outcome" Thus in contrast to the biblical Book of $ob
this work does not deal with the 0uestion of ;od=s righteousness but
places great emphasis on resurrection and eternal life" These special
motifs in the book indicate that the book probably was written by a
member of an unknown $ewish group that upheld a high mystical
spirituality" The e)treme GpietisticH tendency of the book is noted in the
e)aggeration of $ob=s lo#e for suffering and of his charity to the poor" At
the end of the book $ob=s soul was taken to hea#en in a hea#enly chariot"
The book was probably written before .8 &E"
7ife of Adam and E#e
The many &hristian legends in many languages about the li#es of Adam
and E#e probably ha#e their origin in a $ewish writing *or writings+
about the biblical first man and woman" The most important of these
works are the 7atin 5ita !+ae et 4(ae *ife of !+am an+ 4(e+ and a
;reek work closely parallel to it named erroneously by its first editor
the !pocal1pse of Moses. The narrati#e runs from the ,all to the deaths
of Adam and E#e" The religious message in the story in#ol#es the
repentance of Adam and E#e after their e)pulsion from paradise%and
the description of their deaths does not show any traces of the idea of
original sin which was important in later &hristian theology"
!onetheless there are definitely &hristian passages in the #arious
#ersions and the treatment of Adam in the literature of the Ebionites
*an early $ewish &hristian sect+ shows an affinity for the story" Thus the
$ewish source probably was composed in the Ast century &E in $ewish
circles that influenced the Ebionites" The original language of this
supposed source is unknown"
Apocalyptic and eschatological works
--- Baruch
Apocalyptic literature was much concerned about sources of
information about the hea#enly world and about the places of the
damned and sa#ed souls" -n later $ewish and early &hristian
apocalypses in which the hero undertakes a hea#enly trip and sees the
secrets that are hidden from others these sources of information are
highly significant" /// Baruch, a book written in ;reek%in which Baruch
the disciple of the prophet $eremiah #isits the uni#erse and sees its
secrets and the places of the souls and of the angels%is such an
apocalypse" -n the ;reek te)t the number of hea#ens #isited by Baruch
is fi#e but it is possible that originally he was said to ha#e seen se#en
hea#ens" There are &hristian passages in the book but it seems to ha#e
been a $ewish work from the Ast century &E later rewritten by a
&hristian"
-- Enoch
<imilar in content is // 4noch, or ,he Book of the %ecrets of 4noch, which
is preser#ed only in an Old <la#onic translation" The oldest te)t does
not contain any &hristian additions nor any passage from which it could
be concluded that the book was written in ;reek" Thus the book could
ha#e been written originally in Hebrew or Aramaic probably in the Ast
century &E" The hero who #isits the hea#ens is the biblical Enoch *son of
$ared+" The author of the book knew at least some of the treatises
contained in / 4noch. The book also contains the story of the miraculous
birth of the biblical priestDking 5elchi:edek"
The 6salms of <olomon
Other $ewish apocalypses or books containing eschatological elements
did not deal with the mysteries of celestial worlds but rather with the
political aspect of apocalyptic thought and with the last days and the
messianic age" This latter theme is one of the important motifs of the
)salms of %olomon, a book written originally in Hebrew; only the ;reek
translation of the )salms is preser#ed" The title is e#idently a later
addition%the author himself apparently had no intention to gi#e the
impression that his A2 psalms were composed by the biblical king
<olomon" The )salms of %olomon were written in $erusalem about the
middle of the Ast century B&E and though persons are not named they
reflect the dramatic e#ents of the $ewish history of that period
especially the >oman general 6ompey=s con0uest of $erusalem in 4?
B&E and his #iolent death in Egypt" -n 6salm A. the author denounces
the Hasmonean dynasty as illegal and describes the coming of the
9a#idic 5essiah *a kingly sa#iour from the line of 9a#id+" His religious
opinion resembles the teachings of the 6harisees *a sect that espoused a
reinterpretation of $ewish laws and customs+ especially in his faith in
the resurrection of the body and in the 0uestion of free will though he
most likely was not a 6harisee but rather a member of the community of
Hasidim a $ewish pietistic group that had (oined the 5accabean re#olt
from its beginning"
The Assumption of 5oses
The !ssumption of Moses originally contained apocalyptic material%no
longer e)tant%in the form of a legend" According to Origen the dispute
between the archangel 5ichael and the de#il for the body of 5oses was
narrated in the !ssumption of Moses" This legend which has parallels in
the rabbinic literature probably formed the end of the !ssumption of
Moses, the first part of which was disco#ered in a 7atin manuscript" The
7atin #ersion was translated from ;reek but the original language was
<emitic probably Hebrew"
The main content of the preser#ed part is 5oses= prophecy about the
future from his time until the Cingdom of Hea#en will be re#ealed"
According to the custom of apocalyptic literature names of persons and
groups are not mentioned but from the last e#ents hinted at in the book
it can be assumed that it was written at the beginning of the Ast century
&E while $esus was ali#e" -n its older #ersion the book apparently was
written at the beginning of the 5accabean re#olt some years before the
Book of 9aniel; after a description of the preD5accabean Hellenistic
priests *chapter 1+ and before the description of the persecutions by
Antiochus Epiphanes *chapter 2+ chapters 4@. contain $ewish history
from the time of the later Hasmonean rulers to the time of the sons of
Herod%as well as polemics against leading religious circles which are
accused of religious hypocrisy as are the 6harisees in the &hristian
;ospels" The author of these chapters *4@.+ a contemporary of $esus
e#idently erroneously identified the wicked preD5accabean priests with
the wicked late 5accabean priestly rulers and also interpreted
Antiochus Epiphanes as a kind of eschatological Antichrist" !o
messianic figure is mentioned in the eschatological description of the
Cingdom of ;od: ;od himself and his angel will bring the sal#ation"
The <ibylline Oracles
The <ibylline Oracles is a collection of oracles in ;reek #erse containing
pagan $ewish and &hristian material from #arious periods" -t comprised
A1 books *books -L L and LB are lost+ of which E/E8 #erses are
e)tant" <ibyl is the name *or title+ of a legendary ancient pagan
prophetess" -n the Hellenistic period eastern nations fabricated
<ibylline oracles as propagandistic literature against ;reek and later
against >oman occupation" The political antiD>oman and antiDpagan
tone is typical of the $ewish and &hristian parts of <ibylline oracles; they
also contain religious propaganda for the respecti#e religion" Because
$ewish parts used pagan material and &hristian authors interpolated
$ewish parts or used $ewish material it is sometimes difficult to decide
what #erses are pagan $ewish or &hristian" ,he %ib1lline &racles
perhaps became a part of $ewish *and &hristian+ apocalyptic literature
because of their emphasis on eschatology" The oldest $ewish G<ibylH is
contained in the third book: it dates from about AE8 B&E and describes
the coming of the 5essiah" Book -B was written by a $ew about 28 &E:
the eruption of Besu#ius *.I+ is #iewed as a di#ine punishment for the
massacre of $ews in the >oman war *.8+" Book B was written by a $ew
about A/1"
-- Esdras *or -B Esdras+
Two important apocalyptic pseudepigrapha *-- Esdras and the
!pocal1pse of Baruch+ in which the political and eschatological aspects
are central to the aim of the books were written in 6alestine at the end
of the Ast century &E as a conse0uence of the catastrophic destruction
of the <econd Temple in $erusalem *.8+" Both were written as if they
reflected the doom that befell the people of -srael after the destruction
of the ,irst Temple *124 B&E+ by the Babylonians" -- Esdras *or -B
Esdras+ was written in Hebrew but only #arious translations from a lost
;reek #ersion are preser#ed" The 7atin #ersion *in which chapters A@/
and A1@A4 ha#e been added by a &hristian hand+ at one time was
printed at the end of the 7atin Bible" The book consists of si) #isions
attributed to the biblical E:ra *who is at the beginning of the book
erroneously identified with <alathiel the father of Ferubbabel a leader
of the returning e)iles from Babylon+" The tragedy of his nation e#okes
in the heart of the author 0uestions about ;od=s righteousness the
human condition the meaning of history and the election of -srael;
GE:raH does not find consolation and full answer in the words of the
angel who was sent to him which also contain re#elations about the last
days" -n the fourth #ision GE:raH sees a mourning woman; she
disappears and a city *the !ew $erusalem+ stands in her place" -n the
fifth #ision a monstrous eagle appears the symbol of the >oman Empire
and a lion the symbol of the 5essiah" The final #ictory of the 5essiah is
described in the last #ision of the man *<on of man+ coming from the
sea" -n chapter AE GE:raH is described as dictating IE books: /E are the
books of the Hebrew Bible and the other .8 are esoteric"
The Apocalypse of Baruch
The !pocal1pse of Baruch was written about the same time as -- *-B+
Esdras and the less profound !pocal1pse probably depends much upon
-- Esdras" The !pocal1pse of Baruch sur#i#es only in a <yriac #ersion
translated from ;reek; originally the book was composed in Hebrew or
Aramaic and is ascribed to Baruch the disciple of $eremiah and a
contemporary of the destruction of the ,irst Temple" -f -- Esdras asks
0uestions about important problems of human history and the tragic
situation of -srael after the destruction of the <econd Temple the
!pocal1pse of Baruch apparently was written to gi#e a positi#e
traditional answer to these doubts"
6seudepigrapha connected with the 9ead <ea <crolls
There are three 6seudepigrapha that are closely connected with the
writings of the 9ead <ea sect: the Book of 6ubilees, the Ethiopic Book of
4noch, and the ,estaments of the ,8el(e )atriarchs. -t is not accidental
that fragments of the two first books and of two sources of the third
were found among the 9ead <ea <crolls"
The Book of $ubilees
,rom the fragments of the Book of 6ubilees among the 9ead <ea <crolls
scholars note that the book was originally written in biblical Hebrew"
The whole book is preser#ed in an Ethiopic #ersion translated from
;reek"
The book is written in the form of a re#ealed history of -srael from the
creation until the dwelling of 5oses on 5t" <inai where the content of
the book was re#ealed to 5oses by Gthe angel of the presence"H The
Book of 6ubilees in fact is a legendary rewriting of the book of ;enesis
and a part of E)odus" One of the main purposes of the author is to
promote in the form of di#ine re#elation a special sectarian
interpretation of $ewish law" All the legal prescriptions noted in the
book were practiced by the 9ead <ea sect; in connection with the solar
calendar of 1/ weeks one of the 9ead <ea <crolls e#en mentions the
Book of 6ubilees as the source" The *unpublished+ ,emple %croll, a book
of sectarian prescriptions that paraphrases%also as di#ine re#elation%
a part of the 5osaic 7aw and was composed by the 9ead <ea sect before
A88 B&E *i.e., in the same period as the Book of 6ubilees+ closely
resembles some parts of the Book of 6ubilees. Thus the Book of 6ubilees
could be accepted by the 9ead <ea sect and apparently was written in
the same circles immediately before the sect itself came into e)istence"
The apocalyptical hopes e)pressed in the book are also identical to
those of the 9ead <ea sect"
The Book of Enoch
Another book that was written during the period of the apocalyptic
mo#ement in which the 9ead <ea sect came into e)istence is the Book of
4noch, or / 4noch. -t was completely preser#ed in an Ethiopic translation
from ;reek and large parts from the beginning and end of the ;reek
#ersion ha#e been published from two papyri" Aramaic fragments of
many parts of the book were found among the 9ead <ea <crolls as were
Hebrew fragments of the Book of 2oah, either one of the sources of
4noch or a parallel elaboration of the same material" 6assages of the
Book of 2oah were included in 4noch by its redactor *editor+" <cholars
generally agree that the somewhat hapha:ard redaction of the book was
made in its ;reek stage when a redactor put together #arious treatises
of the Enochic literature that were written at #arious times and reflected
#arious trends of the mo#ement"
Besides the passages from the Book of 2oah, fi#e treatises are included
in the Book of 4noch. The hero of all of them is the biblical Enoch" The
first treatise *chapters A@?4+ speaks about the fall of the angels who
rebelled before the ,lood and describes Enoch=s celestial (ourneys in
which di#ine secrets were re#ealed to him" -t was probably written in the
late /nd century B&E"
The second part of the Book of 4noch is the G6arablesH *or <imilitudes+
of Enoch *?.@.A+" These three eschatological sermons of Enoch refer to
#isions; their original language was probably Hebrew rather than
Aramaic" This treatise is an important witness for the belief in the
coming of the <on of man who is e)pressly identified with the 5essiah;
in chapters .8@.A which are probably a later addition the <on of man is
identified with Enoch himself" The treatise probably dates from the Ast
century B&E"
As Aramaic fragments from the 9ead <ea <crolls show the astronomical
book entitled GThe Book of the Hea#enly 7uminariesH *chapters ./@2/+
is in the present form abbre#iated in the Book of 4noch. All these
astronomical mysteries were shown to Enoch by the angel Nriel" The
treatise propagates the same solar calendar that is also known from the
Book of 6ubilees and from the 9ead <ea sect" This treatise was probably
written before the year A88 B&E"
The fourth treatise *chapters 2?@I8+ contains two #isions of Enoch: the
first *chapters 2?@2E+ about the ,lood is in reality only a sort of
introduction to the second one *Gthe #ision of se#enty shepherdsH+
which describes the history of the world from Adam to the messianic
age; the personages of the #isions are allegorically described as #arious
kinds of animals" The symbolic description of history continues to the
time of $udas 5accabeus; then follows the last assault of ;entiles and
the messianic period" Thus the treatise was written in the early
Hasmonean period some time after the biblical Book of 9aniel"
The fifth treatise *chapters IA@A8.+ contains Enoch=s speech of moral
admonition to his family" The moral stress and the social impact is
similar to parts of $esus= teaching; e#en the form of beatitudes
*blessings+ and woes is present" The treatise shows some affinities to
the 9ead <ea <crolls but the author was not a member of the 9ead <ea
sect; he opposes the central teaching of the sect the doctrine of
predestination *I2: E@1+" The treatise apparently was written at the end
of the Ast century B&E" &hapter A81 lacking in the ;reek #ersion is a
late interpolation probably of &hristian origin"
The author of the treatise himself apparently incorporated into it a small
apocalypse the GApocalypse of 'eeksH *I?:A@A8; IA:A/@A.+; in it the
whole of human history is di#ided into ten weeks; se#en of them belong
to the past and the last three to the future"
Testaments of the Twel#e 6atriarchs
The third pseudepigraphon that shows important affinities with the
9ead <ea sect is the ,estaments of the ,8el(e )atriarchs, the last
speeches of the A/ sons of the Hebrew patriarch $acob" -n its e)tant
form containing &hristian passages the book was written in ;reek"
,ragments of two original <emitic sources of the book were found
among the 9ead <ea <crolls: the Aramaic GTestament of 7e#iH
*fragments of it were also disco#ered in Aramaic in the medie#al ;eni:a
or synagogue storeroom in &airo+ and a Hebrew fragment of the
GTestaments of !aphtali"H A Hebrew GTestament of $udahH which was
used both by the Book of 6ubilees and the ,estaments of the ,8el(e
)atriarchs in their description of the wars of the sons of $acob also
probably e)isted"
'hether Hebrew and Aramaic prototypes for all the A/ testaments of
the patriarchs e)isted is difficult to ascertain" The present book was
originally written in ;reek" -n it each of the sons of $acob before his
death gi#es moral ad#ice to his descendants based upon his own
e)perience" All the testaments with the e)ception of ;ad also contain
apocalyptic predictions"
Between the ,estaments of the ,8el(e )atriarchs and the 9ead <ea sect
there is a historical and ideological connection" The sources of the book
were found among the scrolls the source of the GTestament of 7e#iH is
0uoted in a sectarian writing *the 9amascus 9ocument+ a dualistic
outlook is common to the book and the sect and the de#il is named
Belial in both" There are howe#er important differences: in regard to
the nature of the dualism between good and e#il there is in the
,estaments the concept of the good and bad inclination known from
rabbinical literature which does not e)ist in the scrolls; though the sect
belie#ed in an afterlife of souls the ,estaments reflect the belief in the
resurrection of the body; there are no traces of the doctrine of
predestination in the testaments a doctrine that is so important for the
sect" Only the GTestament of AsherH preaches as did the 9ead <ea sect
hatred against sinners; the other testaments stress as does rabbinic
literature and especially $esus the precept of lo#e for ;od and
neighbour" Thus it is probable that the testaments of the patriarchs
were composed in circles in which doctrines of the 9ead <ea sect were
mitigated and combined with some rabbinic doctrines" A similar
humanistic position founded both on doctrines of the 9ead <ea sect
and of the 6harisees is typical of $esus= message and there are
important parallels between his message and the ,estaments of the
,8el(e )atriarchs.
Kumran literature *9ead <ea <crolls+
9isco#ery of the 9ead <ea <crolls
!ew literary documents from the intertestamental period were found in
the ca#es of Kumran in the #icinity of the 9ead <ea in the AIE8s but
only a portion of them has yet been published" All the 9ead <ea <crolls
were written before the destruction of the <econd Temple; with the
e)ception of small ;reek fragments they are all in Hebrew and Aramaic"
The scrolls formed the library of an ancient $ewish sect which probably
came into e)istence at the end of the /nd century B&E and was founded
by a religious genius called in the scrolls the Teacher of >ighteousness"
<cholars ha#e tried to identify the sect with all possible groups of
ancient $udaism including the Fealots and early &hristians but it is now
most often identified with the Essenes; all that the sectarian scrolls
contain fits pre#ious information about the Essenes and the 9ead <ea
<crolls help scholars to interpret the descriptions about the Essenes in
ancient sources"
,indings and conclusions
Apocryphal and pseudepigraphal writings
The importance of the disco#ery is #ery great; the scrolls of books of the
Old Testament caused a new e#aluation of the history of the te)t of the
Hebrew Bible; fragments of the Apocrypha *<irach and Tobit+ and of
already known and unknown 6seudepigrapha enlarge knowledge about
$ewish literature of the intertestamental period and the properly
sectarian scrolls are important witnesses about an ancient sect that
influenced in some points the origins of &hristianity"
Among the pre#iously unknown 6seudepigrapha were large parts of an
Aramaic scroll the Genesis !pocr1phon, which retells stories from
;enesis in the manner of a number of apocryphal books" The chapters
that are preser#ed are concerned with 7amech his grandfather Enoch
!oah and Abraham and the narrators in the scroll are the respecti#e
biblical heroes" There is a close affinity between this scroll and the Book
of 6ubilees and Book of 4noch, fragments of these books ha#ing been
also found among the 9ead <ea <crolls" Another pseudepigraphon that
resembles the 9ead <ea sect in spirit is the ,estaments of the ,8el(e
)atriarchs3 fragments of two of its sources namely the Aramaic
GTestament of 7e#iH and a Hebrew GTestament of !aphtaliH are e)tant
in the Kumran library" All these books were composed in an apocalyptic
mo#ement in $udaism in the midst of which the 9ead <ea sect
originated" -t is sometimes difficult to ascertain if a work was written
within the sect itself or if it represents the broader mo#ement" The
largest scroll the ,emple %croll, is as yet unpublished" -t describes%by
the mouth of ;od himself and in Hebrew%not the Temple of the last
days but the Temple as it should ha#e been built" There are strong ties
between the ,emple %croll and the Book of 6ubilees and the
prescriptions in it fit the conceptions of the sect; the work was
composed by the sectarians themsel#es"
6esharim
An important source of knowledge about the history of the 9ead <ea
sect is the pesharim *GcommentariesH; singular pesher+" The sectarian
authors commented on the books of Old Testament prophets and the
book of 6salms and in the commentaries e)plained the biblical te)t as
speaking about the history of the sect and of e#ents that happened in
the time of its e)istence" According to the manner of apocalyptic
literature in the pesharim, persons and groups are not named with their
proper names but are described by symbolic titles%e.g., the Teacher of
>ighteousness for the founder of the sect" The most important sectarian
commentaries are the pesharim on Habakkuk and on !ahum"
The 'ar of the <ons of 7ight Against the <ons of 9arkness
One of the most interesting 9ead <ea <crolls is ,he War of the %ons of
ight !gainst the %ons of Darkness, a description of the eschatological
war between the <ons of 7ight%i.e., the sect%and the rest of mankind
first with the other $ews and then with the ;entiles" At the end the <ons
of 7ight will con0uer the whole world and in this war they will be helped
by hea#enly hosts; the <ons of 9arkness aided by the de#il Belial and
his demonic army and finally all wicked ones will be destroyed" The
work contains prayers and speeches that will be uttered in the
eschatological war as well as military and other ordinances" Thus the
book also could be called the Manual of Discipline for the last war"
Books of ordinances
Other books of ordinances of the sect ha#e been preser#ed containing
prescriptions and other material" Three such compositions are written
on one scroll: the Manual of Discipline, the Rule of the 9ongregation,
and the manual of Bene+ictions. The Manual of Discipline is the rule *or
statement of regulations+ of the Essene community; the most important
part of this work is a treatise about the special theology of the sect" The
Rule of the 9ongregation contains prescriptions for the eschatological
future when the sect is e)pected to be the elite of the nation" The
manual of Bene+ictions, preser#ed only in a fragmentary state contains
benedictions that are to be said in the eschatological future"
Another sectarian book of ordinances is the 9amascus 9ocument *the
Fadokite ,ragments+" The work was already known from two medie#al
copies before the disco#ery of the 9ead <ea <crolls but fragments of it
also were found in Kumran and the connection between this work and
the 9ead <ea sect is e#ident" The 9amascus 9ocument was written in a
community in 9amascus which was not as rigidly organi:ed as the
Essenes" The work contains the rules of this community and
reminiscences of the sect=s history" <ome scholars think that
G9amascusH is only a symbolical name for Kumran"
Hodayot
One of the most important Essene works is the $o+a1ot *G6raisesH+%a
modern Hebrew name for the ,hanksgi(ing )salms. This scroll contains
sectarian hymns of praise to ;od" -n its #iew of the fleshly nature of
man who can be (ustified only by ;od=s undeser#ed grace it resembles
<t" 6aul=s approach to the same problem" <ome scholars think that the
work or a part of it was written by the Teacher of >ighteousness"
Among other fragments of scrolls liturgical te)ts of prayers were found
as well as fragments of horoscopes written in a cryptic script"
9a#id ,lusser
!ew Testament canon te)ts and #ersions
The !ew Testament canon
&onditions aiding the formation of the canon
The !ew Testament consists of /. books which are the residue or
precipitate out of many Ast@/ndDcenturyDA9 writings that &hristian
groups considered sacred" -n these #arious writings the early church
transmitted its traditions: its e)perience understanding and
interpretation of $esus as the &hrist and the selfDunderstanding of the
church" -n a seemingly circuitous interplay between the historical and
theological processes the church selected these /. writings as
normati#e for its life and teachings%i.e., as its canon *from the ;reek
kanon, literally a reed or cane used as a measuring rod and
figurati#ely a rule or standard+" Other accounts letters and re#elations
%e.g., the Di+ache *Teaching of the Twel#e Apostles+ Gospel of )eter
0irst etter of 9lement etter of Barnabas !pocal1pse :Re(elation; of
)eter %hepher+ of $ermas%e)ist but through a comple) process the
canon was fi)ed for both the Eastern and 'estern churches in the Eth
century" The canon contained four ;ospels *5atthew 5ark 7uke and
$ohn+ Acts /A letters and one book of a strictly re#elatory character
>e#elation" These were not necessarily the oldest writings not all
e0ually re#elatory and not all directed to the church at large"
The Old Testament in its ;reek translation the <eptuagint *7LL+ was
the Bible of the earliest &hristians" The !ew &o#enant or Testament
was #iewed as the fulfillment of the Old Testament promises of
sal#ation that were continued for the new -srael the church through the
Holy <pirit which had come through &hrist upon the whole people of
;od" Thus the <pirit which in the Old Testament had been #iewed as
resting only on special charismatic figures in the !ew Testament
became Gdemocrati:edH%i.e., was gi#en to the whole people of the !ew
&o#enant" -n postbiblical $udaism of the first &hristian centuries it was
belie#ed that the <pirit had ceased after the writing of the Book of
5alachi *the last book of the Old Testament canon+ and that no longer
could anyone say GThus saith the 7ordH as had the prophets nor could
any further holy writ be produced"
The descent of the <pirit on the community of the 5essiah *i.e., the
&hrist+ was thus percei#ed by &hristians as a sign of the beginning of
the age to come and the church understood itself as ha#ing access to
that inspiration through the <pirit" Ha#ing this understanding of itself
the church created the !ew Testament canon not only as a continuation
and fulfillment of the Old Testament but also as 0ualitati#ely different
because a new age had been ushered in" These /. books therefore were
not merely appended to the traditional $ewish threefold di#ision of the
Old Testament%the 7aw *Torah+ the 6rophets *!e#i=im+ and the
'ritings *Cetu#im+%but rather became the !ew Testament the second
part of the &hristian Bible of which the Old Testament is the first"
Because of a belief that something almost magical occurs%with an
element of secrecy%when a transmitted oral tradition is put into
writing there was in both the Old and !ew Testaments an e)pression
of reluctance about committing sacred material to writing" 'hen such
sacred writings are studied to find the re#ealed word of ;od a settled
delimiting of the writings%i.e., a canon%must be selected" -n the last
decade of the Ast century the <ynod of $amnia *$abneh+ in 6alestine
fi)ed the canon of the Bible for $udaism which following a long period
of flu) and fluidity and contro#ersy about certain of its books &hristians
came to call the Old Testament" A possible factor in the timing of this
$ewish canon was a situation of crisis: the fall of $erusalem and reaction
to the fact that the <eptuagint was used by &hristians and to their
ad#antage as in the translation of the Hebrew word 'alma *Gyoung
womanH+ in chapter . #erse AE of -saiah%GBehold a young woman
shall concei#e and bear a son and shall call his name -mmanuelH%into
the ;reek term parthenos *G#irginH+"
As far as the !ew Testament is concerned there could be no Bible
without a church that created it; yet con#ersely ha#ing been nurtured
by the content of the writings themsel#es the church selected the
canon" The concept of inspiration was not decisi#e in the matter of
demarcation because the church understood itself as ha#ing access to
inspiration through the guidance of the <pirit" -ndeed until c. A9 A18
&hristians could produce writings either anonymously or
pseudonymously%i.e., using the name of some acknowledged
important biblical or apostolic figure" The practice was not belie#ed to
be either a trick or fraud" Apart from letters in which the person of the
writer was clearly attested%as in those of 6aul which ha#e distincti#e
historical theological and stylistic traits peculiar to 6aul%the other
writings placed their emphases on the message or re#elation con#eyed
and the author was considered to be only an instrument or witness to
the Holy <pirit or the 7ord" 'hen the message was committed to
writing the instrument was considered irrele#ant because the true
author was belie#ed to be the <pirit" By the midD/nd century howe#er
with the delay of the final coming *the 6arousia+ of the 5essiah as the
#ictorious eschatological *endDtime+ (udge and with a resulting
increased awareness of history increasingly a distinction was made
between the apostolic time and the present" There also was a gradual
cessation of Gauthentically pseudonymousH writings in which the author
could identify with &hrist and the Apostles and thereby gain
ecclesiastical recognition"
The process of canoni:ation
The process of canoni:ation was relati#ely long and remarkably fle)ible
and detached; #arious books in use were recogni:ed as inspired but the
&hurch ,athers noted without embarrassment or criticism how some
held certain books to be canonical and others did not" Emerging
&hristianity assumed that through the <pirit the selection of canonical
books was GcertainH enough for the needs of the church" -nspiration it is
to be stressed was neither a di#isi#e nor a decisi#e criterion" Only when
the canon had become selfDe#ident was it argued that inspiration and
canonicity coincided and this coincidence became the presupposition of
6rotestant orthodo)y *e.g., the authority of the Bible through the
inspiration of the Holy <pirit+"
The need for consolidation and delimitation
Biewed both phenomenologically and practically the canon had to be
consolidated and delimited" <een historically howe#er there were a
number of reasons that forced the issue of limiting the canon" Oral
tradition had begun to deteriorate in postDapostolic times partly
because many or most of the eyewitnesses to the earliest e#ents of
$esus= life and death and the beginning of the church had died" Also the
oral tradition may simply ha#e suffered in transmission" 6apias *died c.
A?8+ a bishop of Hieropolis in Asia 5inor was said by -renaeus *died
c. /88+ a bishop of 7ugdunum *now 7yon ,rance+ to ha#e been an
eyewitness of the Apostle $ohn" 6apias had said G,or - did not suppose
that the things from the books would aid me so much as the things from
the li#ing and continuing #oice"H Eusebius *c. /48@c. ?E8+ a church
historian reported these comments in his 4cclesiastical $istor1 and
pointed out inconsistencies in 6apias= recollections doubted his
understanding and called him Ga man of e)ceedingly small
intelligence"H 7arge sections of oral tradition howe#er which were
probably translated in part from Aramaic before being written down in
;reek%such as the 6assion *suffering of &hrist+ narrati#e many sayings
of $esus and early liturgical material%benefitted by the #ery
conser#ati#ism implicit in such traditions" But because the church
percei#ed its risen 7ord as a li#ing 7ord e#en his words could be
ad(usted or adapted to fit specific church needs" Toward the end of the
Ast century there was also a conscious production of gospels" <ome
gospels purported to be words of the risen 7ord that did not reflect
apostolic traditions and e#en claimed superiority o#er them" <uch
claims were deemed heretical and helped to push the early church
toward canoni:ation"
,aced with heresy and claims to late re#elations the early church was
constrained to retain the historical dimension of its faith the ephapa',
or the Gonce for allH re#elation of ;od in $esus &hrist"
-mpulse toward canoni:ation from heretical mo#ements
;nosticism *a religious system with influence both on $udaism and
&hristianity+ tended to foster speculation cutting loose from historical
re#elation" -n defense the orthodo) churches stressed the apostolic
tradition by focussing on ;ospels and letters from apostolic li#es and
distinguished them from ;nostic writings such as the Gospel of ,ruth
*mentioned by -renaeus+ and now found in &optic translation in a
collection of ;nostic writings from Egypt; it is a &optic manuscript of a
Balentinian ;nostic speculation from the midD/nd century%i.e., a work
based on the teachings of Balentinus a ;nostic teacher from
Ale)andria" -n the same collection is the Gospel of ,homas in &optic
actually a collection of sayings purporting to be the words of the risen
&hrist the li#ing 7ord" This GgospelH also occurred in ;reek *c. AE8+ and
warnings against it as heretical were made by the &hurch ,athers in the
/nd to the Eth centuries"
-n a general prophetic apocalyptic mood another heresy 5ontanism
arose" This was an ecstatic enthusiastic mo#ement claiming special
re#elation and stressing Gthe age of the spirit"H 5ontanus *died c. A.1+
and two prophetesses claimed that their oracular statements contained
new and contemporary authoritati#e re#elations" This break with the
apostolic time caused #igorous response" An antiD5ontanist reported
that Gthe false prophet is one who speaks in ecstasy after which follow
freedom " " " and madness of soul"H
The single most decisi#e factor in the process of canoni:ation was the
influence of 5arcion *flourished c. AE8+ who had ;nostic tendencies
and who set up a GcanonH that totally repudiated the Old Testament and
anything $ewish" He #iewed the &reator ;od of the Old Testament as a
cruel ;od of retribution and the $ewish 7aw" His canon consisted of ,he
Gospel, a Gcleaned upH 7uke *the least $ewish+ and the !postolikon *ten
6auline letters with Old Testament references and analogies edited out
without Hebrews - and -- Timothy and Titus+" This restricti#e canon
acted as a catalyst to the formation of a canon more in line with the
thought of the church catholic *uni#ersal+"
7ateD/ndDcentury canons
By the end of the /nd century -renaeus used the four canonical ;ospels
A? letters of 6aul - 6eter - and -- $ohn >e#elation %hepher+ of $ermas
*a work later e)cluded from the canon+ and Acts" $ustin 5artyr *died c.
A41+ a &hristian apologist wrote of the reading of the ;ospels Gthe
memoirs of the ApostlesH in the ser#ices in which they were the basis
for sermons" -n his writings he 0uoted freely from the ;ospels
Hebrews the 6auline 7etters - 6eter and Acts" $ustin=s <yrian pupil
Tatian *c. A48+ although he 0uotes from $ohn separately is best known
for his Diatessaron *literally Gthrough fourH egospelsf but also a
musicological term meaning GchoralH GharmonyH+ which was a life of
&hrist compiled from all four ;ospels but based on the outline and
structure of $ohn" This indicates both that Tatian was aware of four
gospel traditions and that their canonicity was not fi)ed in final form at
his time in <yria" Although Tatian was later declared a heretic the
Diatessaron was used until the 1th century and influenced the 'estern
&hurch e#en after four separated gospels were established"
The first clear witness to a catalog of authoritati#e !ew Testament
writings is found in the soDcalled 5uratorian &anon a crude and
uncultured 7atin 2thDcentury manuscript translated from a ;reek list
written in >ome c. A.8@A28 named for its modern disco#erer and
publisher 7odo#ica Antonio 5uratori *A4./@A.18+" Though the first
lines are lost 7uke is referred to as Gthe third book of the ;ospelH and
the canon thus contains e5atthew 5arkf 7uke $ohn Acts A? 6auline
letters $ude two letters of $ohn and >e#elation" &oncerning the
!pocal1pse of )eter, it notes that it may be read although some persons
ob(ect; it re(ects the %hepher+ of $ermas as ha#ing been written only
recently in >ome and lacking connection with the apostolic age" The
'isdom of <olomon *a $ewish intertestamental writing+ is included in
the accepted works as written in <olomon=s honour"
<ome principles for determining the criteria of canonicity begin to be
apparent: apostolicity true doctrine *regula fi+ei+ and widespread
geographical usage" <uch principles are indicated by 5uratori=s
argument that the 6auline 7etters are canonical and uni#ersal%the
'ord of ;od for the whole church%although they are addressed to
specific churches on the analogy of the letters to the se#en churches in
>e#elation; in a prophetic statement to the whole church se#en specific
churches are addressed then the specific letters of 6aul can be read for
all" Thus the catholic status of the 6auline letters to se#en churches is
#indicated on the basis of the re#elation of $esus &hrist to $ohn the seer
and writer of >e#elation" 'ide usage in the church is indicated in calling
Acts the Acts of all the Apostles and in the intention of the Ggeneral
addressH%e.g., GTo those who are calledH in $ude%of the &atholic *or
general+ 7etters%i.e., - and -- 6eter - -- and --- $ohn $ames and $ude"
The criterion of accordance with recei#ed teaching is plain in the
re(ection of heretical writings" The 5uratorian &anon itself may ha#e
been in part a response to 5arcion=s heretical and reducti#e canon"
The criteria of true doctrine usage and apostolicity all taken together
must be satisfied then in order that a book be (udged canonical" Thus
e#en though the %hepher+ of $ermas, the 0irst etter of 9lement, and
the Di+ache may ha#e been widely used and contain true doctrines they
were not canonical because they were not apostolic nor connected to the
apostolic age or they were local writings without support in many
areas"
9uring the time of the definiti#e formation of the canon in the /nd
century apparent differences e)isted in the 'estern churches *centred
in or in close contact with >ome+ and those of the East *as in Ale)andria
and Asia 5inor+" -t is not surprising that the >oman 5uratorian &anon
omitted Hebrews and accepted and held >e#elation in high esteem for
Hebrews allows for no repentance for the bapti:ed &hristian who
commits apostasy *re(ection of faith+ a problem in the 'estern &hurch
when it was sub(ected to persecution" -n the East on the other hand
there was a dogmatic resistance to the teaching of a A888Dyear reign of
the 5essiah before the end time%i.e., chiliasm or millenarianism%in
>e#elation" There was also a difference in the acceptance of Acts and the
&atholic 7etters" 'ith the continued e)pansion of the church
particularly in the /nd century consolidation was necessary"
&anonical standards of the ?rd and Eth centuries
&lement of Ale)andria a theologian who flourished in the late /nd
century seemed to be practically unconcerned about canonicity" To him
inspiration is what mattered and he made use of the Gospel of the
$ebre8s, the Gospel of the 4g1ptians, the etter of Barnabas, the
Di+ache, and other e)tracanonical works" Origen *died c. /1E+
&lement=s pupil and one of the greatest thinkers of the early church
distinguished at least three classes of writings basing his (udgment on
ma(ority usage in places that he had #isited: *A+ homologoumena or
anantirrheta Gundisputed in the churches of ;od throughout the whole
worldH *the four ;ospels A? 6auline 7etters - 6eter - $ohn Acts and
>e#elation+; */+ amphiballomena, GdisputedH *-- 6eter -- and --- $ohn
Hebrews $ames and $ude+; and *?+ notha, GspuriousH *Gospel of the
4g1ptians ,homas and others+" He used the term GscriptureH *graphe+
for the Di+ache the etter of Barnabas, and the %hepher+ of $ermas,
but did not consider them canonical" Eusebius shows the situation in the
early Eth century" Nni#ersally accepted are: the four ;ospels Acts AE
6auline 7etters *including Hebrews+ - $ohn and - 6eter" The disputed
writings are of two kinds: *A+ those known and accepted by many
*$ames $ude -- 6eter -- and --- $ohn and */+ those called GspuriousH but
not Gfoul and impiousH *!cts of )aul, %hepher+ of $ermas, !pocal1pse
of )eter, etter of Barnabas, Di+ache and possibly the Gospel of the
$ebre8s+; finally there are the heretically spurious *e.g., Gospel of )eter,
!cts of 6ohn+" >e#elation is listed both as fully accepted *Gif
permissibleH+ and as spurious but not impious" -t is important that
Eusebius feels free to make authoritati#e use of the disputed writings"
Thus canon and authoritati#e re#elation are not yet the same thing"
9etermination of the canon in the Eth century
Athanasius a EthDcentury bishop of Ale)andria and a significant
theologian delimited the canon and settled the strife between East and
'est" On a principle of inclusi#eness both >e#elation and Hebrews *as
part of the 6auline corpus+ were accepted" The /. books of the !ew
Testament%and they only%were declared canonical" -n the ;reek
churches there was still contro#ersy about >e#elation but in the 7atin
&hurch under the influence of $erome Athanasius= decision was
accepted" -t is notable howe#er that in a midDEthDcentury manuscript
called &ode) <inaiticus the etter of Barnabas and the %hepher+ of
$ermas are included at the end but with no indication of secondary
status and that in the 1thDcentury &ode) Ale)andrinus there is no
demarcation between >e#elation and - and -- &lement"
-n the <yriac &hurch Tatian=s Diatessaron was used until the 1th
century and in the ?rd century the AE 6auline 7etters were added"
Because Tatian had been declared a heretic there was a clear episcopal
order to ha#e the four separated ;ospels when according to tradition
>abbula bishop of Edessa introduced the <yriac #ersion known as the
6eshitta%also adding Acts $ames - 6eter and - $ohn%making a //D
book canon" Only much later perhaps in the .th century did the <yriac
canon come into agreement with the ;reek /. books"
9e#elopments in the A4th century
'ith the ad#ent of printing and differences between >oman &atholics
and 6rotestants the canon and its relationship to tradition finally
became fi)ed" 9uring the &ounterD>eformation &ouncil of Trent *A1E1@
4?+ the canon of the entire Bible was set in A1E4 as the Bulgate based
on $erome=s 7atin #ersion" ,or 7uther the criterion of what was
canonical was both apostolicity or what is of an apostolic nature and
Gwas &hristum treibetH%what dri#es toward or leads to &hrist" This
latter criterion he did not find in for e)ample Hebrews $ames $ude
and >e#elation; e#en so he bowed to tradition and placed these books
last in the !ew Testament"
Te)ts and #ersions
Te)tual criticism
The physical aspects of !ew Testament te)ts
To establish the reliability of the te)t of ancient manuscripts in order to
reach the te)t that the author originally wrote *or rather dictated+
in#ol#es the physical aspects of the te)ts: collection collation of
differences or #ariant readings in manuscripts and comparison in
matters of dating geographical origins and the amount of editing or
re#ision noted using as many copies as are a#ailable" Te)tual criticism
starts thus with the manuscripts themsel#es" ,amilies of manuscripts
may be recogni:ed by noting similarities and differences degrees of
dependence or stages of their transmission leading back to the earliest
te)t or autograph" The techni0ues used in te)tual studies of ancient
manuscripts are the same whether they deal with secular philosophical
or religious te)ts" !ew Testament te)tual criticism howe#er operates
under uni0ue conditions because of an abundance of manuscripts and
the rather short gap between the time of original writing and the e)tant
manuscripts shorter than that of the Old Testament"
&ompared with other ancient manuscripts the te)t of the !ew
Testament is dependable and consistent but on an absolute scale there
are far more #ariant readings as compared with those of for e)ample
classical ;reek authors" This is the result on the one hand of a great
number of sur#i#ing manuscripts and e)tant manuscript fragments and
on the other of the fact that the time gap between an oral phase of
transmission and the written stage was far shorter than that of many
other ancient ;reek manuscripts" The missionary message%the
kerygma *proclamation+%with reports of the 6assion death
>esurrection and Ascension of $esus &hrist and collections of his deeds
and sayings was at first oral tradition" 7ater it was written down in
;ospel form" The letters of 6aul Apostle to the ;entiles who founded or
corresponded with churches were also collected and distributed as he
had dictated them" All autographs of !ew Testament books ha#e
disappeared" -n sharp contrast to the fact that the oldest e)tant full
manuscript of a work by the ;reek philosopher 6lato *died ?E. B&+ is a
copy written in 2I1%a gap of more than A888 years bridged by only a
few papyrus te)ts%there was a time gap of less than /88 or ?88 years
between the original accounts of the !ew Testament e#ents and e)tant
manuscripts" -n fact a small *about /"1 inches by ?"1 inches e4"E by 2"I
centimetresf+ papyrus fragment with #erses from the A2th chapter of the
;ospel According to $ohn can be dated c. A/8@A?8; this earliest known
fragment of the !ew Testament was written E8 years or less after the
presumed date of the production of that ;ospel *c. I8+"
E)cluding papyri found preser#ed in the dry sands as in Egypt *where
the ;ospel According to $ohn was e#idently popular (udging from the
large number of fragments found there+ the appro)imate number of
!ew Testament manuscripts dating from the ?rd to A2th centuries are:
/888 of the four ;ospels; E88 of Acts 6auline and &atholic letters
together; ?88 of 6auline letters alone; /18 of >e#elation; and /888
lectionaries%i.e., collections of gospel *and sometimes Acts and letter+
selections or pericopes meant to be used in public worship" Kuotations
from the &hurch ,athers%some of which are so e)tensi#e as to include
almost the whole !ew Testament%account for more than A18888
te)tual #ariants" Of the 0uotations in the ,athers howe#er it is difficult
to make (udgments because the 0uotations may ha#e been intended to
be e)act from some particular te)t traditions but others may ha#e been
from memory conflations harmoni:ations or allusions" Of the many
!ew Testament manuscripts to date howe#er only about 18 contain the
entire /. books of the !ew Testament" The ma(ority ha#e the four
;ospels and >e#elation is the least well attested" 6rior to the printing
press *A1th century+ all copies of Bibles show te)tual #ariations"
Types of writing materials and methods
-n Hellenistic times *c. ?88 B&@c. A9 ?88+ official records were often
inscribed on stone or metal tablets" 7iterary works and detailed letters
were written on parchment or papyrus though short or temporary
records were written or scratched on potsherds *ostraca+ or wa) tablets"
<crolls were made by gluing together papyrus sheets *made from the
pith of the papyrus reed+ or by sewing together parchment lea#es *made
from treated and scraped animal skins+; they were written in columns
and read by shifting the roll backward and forward from some wooden
support on one or both ends" <uch scrolls were used for literary or
religious works and seldom e)ceeded ?8 feet *nine metres+ in length
because of their weight and awkwardness in handling"
-n contrast the church used not scrolls but the code) *book+ form for its
literature" A code) was formed by sewing pages of papyrus or
parchment of e0ual si:e one upon another and #ertically down the
middle forming a 0uire; both sides of the pages thus formed could be
written upon" -n anti0uity the code) was the less honourable form of
writing material used for notes and casual records" The use of the book
form testifies to the low cultural and educational status of early
&hristianity%and as the church rose to prominence it brought Gthe
bookH with it" !ot until the time of the >oman emperor &onstantine in
the Eth century when &hristianity became a state religion were there
parchment codices containing the whole !ew Testament"
<ome #ery early !ew Testament manuscripts and fragments thereof are
papyrus but parchment when a#ailable became the best writing
material until the ad#ent of printing" The ma(ority of !ew Testament
manuscripts from the Eth to A1th centuries are parchment codices"
'hen parchment codices occasionally were deemed no longer of use
the writing was scraped off and a new te)t written upon it" <uch a
rewritten *rescriptus+ manuscript is called a palimpsest *from the ;reek
palin, GagainH and psao, G- scrapeH+" Often the original te)t of a
palimpsest can be discerned by photographic process"
-n !ew Testament times there were two main types of ;reek writing:
ma(uscules *or uncials+ and minuscules" 5a(uscules are all capital
*uppercase+ letters and the word uncial *literally A3A/ of a whole
about an inch+ points to the si:e of their letters" 5inuscules are
lowercase manuscripts" Both uncials and minuscules might ha#e
ligatures making them into semiDconnected cursi#es" -n ;recoD>oman
times minuscules were used for the usual daily writing" -n parchments
from the Eth to the Ith centuries both ma(uscules and minuscules were
used for !ew Testament manuscripts but by the AAth century all the
manuscripts were minuscules"
-n these early !ew Testament manuscripts there were no spaces
between either letters or words rarely an indication that a word was
GhyphenatedH no chapter or #erse di#isions no punctuation and no
accents or breathing marks on the ;reek words" There was only a
continuous flow of letters" -n addition there were numerous *and
sometimes #ariable+ abbre#iations marked only by a line abo#e *e.g. -&
for -H&ON& or $esus and C& for k1rios, or 7ord" !ot until the 2th@Ith
century was there any indication of accents or breathing marks *both of
which may make a difference in the meaning of some words+;
punctuation occurred sporadically at this period; but not until the
5iddle Ages were the te)ts supplied with such helps as chapters *c.
A/88+ and #erses *c. A118+"
Occasionally the parchment was stained *e.g., purple+ and the ink was
sil#er *e.g., &ode) Argenteus a 1th@4thDcentury ;othic translation+"
-nitial letters were sometimes illuminated often with red ink *from
which comes the present English word rubric based on the 7atin for
GredH namely ruber+"
Types of manuscript errors
<ince scribes either copied manuscripts or wrote from dictation
manuscript #ariants could be of se#eral types: copying hearing
accidental or intentional" Errors in copying were common particularly
with uncial letters that looked alike" -n early manuscripts O& *for hos,
Gehef whoH+ for e)ample might easily be mistaken for the traditional
abbre#iation of ;od: & *for EO& theos+" 9ittography *the picking up of a
word or group of words and repeating it+ and haplography *the omission
of syllables words or lines+ are errors most apt to occur where there are
similar words or syllables in#ol#ed" -n chapter A. #erse A1 of $ohn in
one manuscript the following error occurs: G- do not pray that thou
shouldest take them from the eworld but that thou shouldst keep them
from thef e#il oneH becomes G- do not pray that thou shouldst take them
from the e#il one"H This is ob#iously a reading that omitted the words
between two identical ends of lines%i.e., an error due to
homoioteleuton *similar ending of lines+"
Especially in uncial manuscripts with continuous writing there is a
problem of word di#ision" An English e)ample may ser#e to illustrate:
;O9-<!O'HE>E may be read G;od is now hereH or G;od is nowhere"H
-nternal e#idence from the conte)t can usually sol#e such problems"
&orrections of a manuscript either abo#e the line of writing or in the
margin *and also marginal comments+ may be read and copied into the
te)t and become part of it as a gloss"
Errors of hearing are particularly common when words ha#e the same
pronunciation as others but differ in spelling *as in English: Gtheir
thereH; Gmeet meatH+" This kind of error increased in fre0uency in the
early &hristian Era because some #owels and diphthongs lost their
distincti#e sound and came to be pronounced alike" ,or e)ample the
;reek #owels e, i, and u and the diphthongs ei, oi, and ui all sounded
like the ee *as in GfeetH+" >emarkable mistranslations can occur as for
e)ample in - &orinthians chapter A1 #erse 1E: G9eath is swallowed up
in #ictoryH%becomes by itacism *pronunciation of the ;reek letter e+
G9eath is swallowed up in conflictH *neikos+" Another problem of itacism
is the distinction between declensions of the Ast and /nd persons in the
plural *GweH and GyouH+ in ;reek which can sound the same *hemeis,
GweH; humeis, GyouH+ because the initial #owels are not clearly
differentiated" <uch errors can cause interpretati#e difficulties"
A different category of error occurs in dictation or copying when
se0uences of words syllables or letters in a word are mi)ed up
synonyms substituted in familiar passages words read across a twoD *or
more+ column manuscript instead of down or assimilated to a parallel"
-ntentional changes might in#ol#e corrections of spelling or grammar
harmoni:ations or e#en doctrinal emendations and might be passed on
from manuscript to manuscript" 6aleographers%i.e., scientists of
ancient writing%can note changes of hands in manuscript copying or
the addition of new hands such as those of correctors of a later date"
6aleography a science of dating manuscripts by typological analysis of
their scripts is the most precise and ob(ecti#e means known for
determining the age of a manuscript" <cript groups belong typologically
to their generation; and changes can be noted with great accuracy o#er
relati#ely short periods of time" 9ating of manuscript material by a
radioacti#eDcarbon test re0uires that a small part of the material be
destroyed in the process; it is less accurate than dating from
paleography"
&ritical scholarship
Te)tual criticism of the ;reek !ew Testament attempts to come as near
as possible to the original manuscripts *which did not sur#i#e+ based on
reconstructions from e)tant manuscripts of #arious ages and locales"
Assessment of the indi#idual manuscripts and their relationships to
each other can produce a fairly reliable te)t from #arious readings that
may ha#e been the result of copying and recopying of manuscripts" -t is
not always age that matters" Older manuscripts may be corrupt and a
reading in a later manuscript may in reality be ancient" !o single
witness or group of witnesses is reliable in all its readings"
'hen Erasmus the 9utch Humanist prepared the ;reek te)t for the
first printed edition *A1A4+ of the !ew Testament he depended on a few
manuscripts of the type that had dominated the church=s manuscripts
for centuries and that had had its origin in &onstantinople" His edition
was produced hastily he e#en translated some parts for which he did
not ha#e a ;reek te)t from $erome=s 7atin te)t *Bulgate+" -n about A1//
&ardinal ,rancisco $imMne: a <panish scholarly churchman published
his &omplutensian 6olyglot at AlcalR *7atin: &omplutum+ <pain a Bible
in which parallel columns of the Old Testament are printed in Hebrew
the Bulgate and the <eptuagint *7LL+ together with the Aramaic
Targum *translation or paraphrase+ of Onkelos to the 6entateuch with a
translation into 7atin" The ;reek !ew Testament was #olume 1 of this
work and the te)t tradition behind it cannot be determined with any
accuracy" 9uring the ne)t decades new editions of Erasmus= te)t
profited from more and better manuscript e#idence and the printer
>obert Estienne of 6aris produced in A118 the first te)t with a critical
apparatus *#ariant readings in #arious manuscripts+" This edition
became influential as a chief witness for the ,e'tus Receptus *the
recei#ed standard te)t+ that came to dominate !ew Testament studies
for more than ?88 years" This ,e'tus Receptus is the basis for all the
translations in the churches of the >eformation including the Cing
$ames Bersion"
7arge e)tensi#e !ew Testament critical editions prepared by the
;erman scholars &" #on Tischendorf *A24I@./+ and H" #on <oden
*AI8/@A?+ had <igla *signs+ for the #arious te)tual witnesses; they are
comple) to use and different from each other" The current system a
re#ision by an American scholar &">" ;regory *adopted in AI82+
though not uncomplicated has made uniform practice possible" A more
pragmatic method of designation and rough classification was that of
the <wiss scholar $"$" 'ettstein=s edition *A.1A@1/+" His te)tual
apparatus was relati#ely uncomplicated" He introduced the use of
capital >oman ;reek or Hebrew letters for uncials and Arabic numbers
for minuscules" 7ater a ;othic 6 with e)ponents came into use for
papyri and in the few cases needed ;othic or Old English O and T with
e)ponents for ostraca and talismans *engra#ed amulets+" 7ectionaries
are usually designated by an italici:ed lowercase l with e)ponents in
Arabic numbers"
Cnown ostraca%i.e., broken pieces of pottery *or potsherds+ inscribed
with ink%contain short portions of si) !ew Testament books and
number about /1" About nine talismans date from the Eth to A/th
centuries; they are goodDluck charms with a few #erses on parchment
wood or papyrus" ,our of these contain the 7ord=s 6rayer" These short
portions of writing howe#er are hardly of significance for a study of the
!ew Testament te)tual tradition"
Te)ts and manuscripts
-n referring to manuscript te)t types by their place of origin one posits
the idea that the ma(or centers of &hristendom established more or less
standard te)ts: Ale)andria; &aesarea and Antioch *Eastern+; -taly and
;allia plus Africa *'estern+; &onstantinople the home for the By:antine
te)t type or the ,e'tus Receptus. 'hile such a geographical scheme has
become less accurate or helpful it still ser#es as a rough classification
of te)t types"
Nncials
The main uncials known in the A.th and A2th centuries were: A 9 9
p
E
a

and &"
A &ode) Ale)andrinus is an earlyD1thDcentury manuscript containing
most of the !ew Testament but with lacunae *gaps+ in 5atthew $ohn
and -- &orinthians plus the inclusion of the e)tracanonical - and --
&lement" -n the ;ospels the te)t is of the By:antine type but in the rest
of the !ew Testament it is Ale)andrian" -n A4/. the A uncial was
presented to Cing &harles - of England by the 6atriarch of
&onstantinople; it has been in the British 5useum in 7ondon since
A.1A"
9 &ode) Be:ae &antabrigiensis is a 1thDcentury ;recoD>oman bilingual
te)t *with ;reek and 7atin pages facing each other+" 9 contains most of
the four ;ospels and Acts and a small part of --- $ohn and is thus
designated 9
ea
*e for e(angelia, or GgospelsH; and a for acta, or Acts+" -n
7uke and especially in Acts 9
ea
has a te)t that is #ery different from
other witnesses" &ode) Be:ae has many distincti#e longer and shorter
readings and seems almost to be a separate edition" -ts Acts for
e)ample is oneDtenth longer than usual" 9 represents the 'estern te)t
tradition" 9
ea
was ac0uired by Theodore Be:a a >eformed theologian
and classical scholar in A14/ from a monastery in 7yon *in ,rance+" He
presented it to the Nni#ersity of &ambridge England in A12A *hence
Be:a &antabrigiensis+"
9
p
&ode) &laromontanus of the same 'estern te)t type although not
remarkably dissimilar from other known te)ts contains the 6auline
7etters including Hebrews" 9
p
*p for 6auline epistles+ is sometimes
referred to as 9
/
" Be:a ac0uired this 4thDcentury manuscript at about the
same time as 9
ea
but 9
p
was from the 5onastery of &lermont at
Beau#ais *hence &laramontanus+" -t is now in the BibliothS0ue
!ationale in 6aris"
E
a
&ode) 7audianus is a bilingual ;recoD7atin te)t of Acts presented in
A4?4 by Archbishop 7aud an Anglican churchman to the Bodleian
7ibrary at O)ford" -t is a lateD4thD or earlyD.thDcentury manuscript often
agreeing with 9
ea
and its 'estern readings but also ha#ing a mi)ture of
te)t types often the By:antine"
& &ode) Ephraemi <yri rescriptus is a palimpsest" Originally written as
a biblical manuscript in the 1th century it was erased in the A/th
century and the treatises or sermons of Ephraem <yrus a EthDcentury
<yrian &hurch ,ather were written o#er the scraped te)t" The
manuscript was found c. A.88 by the ,rench preacher and scholar 6ierre
Alli); and Tischendorf with the use of chemical reagents later
deciphered the almost 48 percent of the !ew Testament contained in it
publishing it in A2E?" The te)t had two correctors after the 1th century
but is on the whole By:antine and reflects the not too useful common
te)t of the Ith century"
Although there are numerous minuscules *and lectionaries+ their
significance in ha#ing readings going back to the first si) centuries A9
was not noted until te)tual criticism had become more refined in later
centuries"
The main uncials and some significant minuscules that were disco#ered
and in#estigated in the AIth century changed the course of the te)tual
criticism and led the way to better manuscript e#idence and methods of
dealing with it" This has continued into the /8th century" The main new
manuscript witnesses are designated O or < B ' and "
;ospel According to
$ohn 1:?2@4:/E from
the &ode) <inaiticus"
-n the British 5useum"
9ourtes1 of the trustees
of the British Museum
O or < &ode) <inaiticus was disco#ered in A21I by Tischendorf at the
5onastery of <t" &atherine at the foot of 5t" <inai *hence <inaiticus+
after a partial disco#ery of E? lea#es of a EthDcentury biblical code)
there in A2EE" Though some of the Old Testament is missing a whole
EthDcentury !ew Testament is preser#ed with the etter of Barnabas
and most of the %hepher+ of $ermas at the end" There were probably
three hands and se#eral later correctors" Tischendorf con#inced the
monks that gi#ing the precious manuscript to Tsar Ale)ander -- of
>ussia would grant them needed protection of their abbey and the
;reek &hurch" Tischendorf subse0uently published O *<+ at 7eip:ig and
then presented it to the Tsar" The manuscript remained in 7eningrad
until AI?? during which time the O)ford Nni#ersity 6ress in AIAA
published a facsimile of the !ew Testament from photographs of the
manuscript taken by Cirsopp 7ake an English biblical scholar" The
manuscript was sold in AI?? by the <o#iet regime to the British
5useum for VA88888" The te)t type of O is in the Ale)andrian group
although it has some 'estern readings" 7ater corrections representing
attempts to alter the te)t to a different standard probably were made
about the 4th or .th century at &aesarea"
B &ode) Baticanus a biblical manuscript of the midDEth century in the
Batican 7ibrary since before AE.1 appeared in photographic facsimile
in A22I@I8 and AI8E" The !ew Testament lacks Hebrews from chapter
I #erse AE on the 6astorals 6hilemon and >e#elation" Because B has
no ornamentation some scholars think it slightly older than O" Others
howe#er belie#e that both B and O ha#ing predominantly Ale)andrian
te)ts may ha#e been produced at the same time when &onstantine
ordered 18 copies of the <criptures" As an early representation of the
Ale)andrian te)t B is in#aluable as a most trustworthy ancient ;reek
te)t"
' &ode) 'ashingtonianus *or ,reerianus+ consists of the four ;ospels
in the soDcalled 'estern order *5atthew $ohn 7uke and 5ark as 9
ea
+"
-t was ac0uired in Egypt by &"7" ,reer an American businessman and
philanthropist *hence the ,reerD;ospels+ in AI84 and is now in the
,reer ;allery of Art of the <mithsonian -nstitution in 'ashington 9"&"
&ode) 'ashingtonianus is a Eth@1thDcentury manuscript probably
copied from se#eral different manuscripts or te)tual families" The
By:antine 'estern *similar to Old 7atin+ &aesarean and Ale)andrian
te)t types are all represented at one point or another" One of the most
interesting #ariant readings is a long ending to the ;ospel According to
5ark following a reference to the risen &hrist *not found in most
manuscript traditions+"
&ode) Coridethianus is a IthDcentury manuscript taking its name from
the place of the scribe=s monastery Coridethi in the &aucasus
5ountains near the &aspian <ea" contains the ;ospels; 5atthew 7uke
and $ohn ha#e a te)t similar to most By:antine manuscripts but the te)t
of 5ark is similar to the type of te)t that Origen and Eusebius used in
the ?rd@Eth centuries a &aesarean type" The manuscript is now in
Tbilisi capital city of the >epublic of ;eorgia"
5inuscules
Although there are many minuscules most of them come from the Ith
century on; a few howe#er shed significant light on earlier readings
representing otherwise not well attested te)ts or te)tual Gfamilies"H -n
the early /8th century the English scholar Cirsopp 7ake *hence 7ake
group+ disco#ered a te)tual family of manuscripts known as ,amily A:A
AA2 A?A and /8I *from the A/th to AEth centuries+ that ha#e a te)t type
similar to that of a ?rd@EthDcentury &aesarean type" At the end of the
AIth century '"H" ,errar a classical scholar at 9ublin Nni#ersity
*hence the ,errar group+ found that manuscripts A? 4I A/E and ?E4
%and some minuscules disco#ered later *from the AAth to A1th
centuries+%also seemed to be witnesses to the &aesarean te)t type"
5anuscript ?? the GKueen of the &ursi#esH is a Ith@A8thDcentury
manuscript now at the BibliothS0ue !ationale in 6aris; it contains the
whole !ew Testament e)cept >e#elation and is a reliable witness to the
Ale)andrian te)t *similar to B+ but in Acts and the 6auline 7etters
shows influence of the By:antine te)t type"
7ectionaries range from the 1th to the 4th century on; some early ones
are uncials though many are minuscules" <cholarly work with lectionary
te)ts is only at its beginning but the te)tual types of lectionaries may
preser#e a te)tual tradition that antedates its compilation and ser#es to
gi#e e)amples of the #arious te)t forms"
6apyri
The earliest !ew Testament manuscript witnesses */nd@2th centuries+
are papyri mainly found preser#ed in fragments in the dry sands of
Egypt" Only in the latter decades of the /8th century ha#e the relati#ely
recently disco#ered !ew Testament papyri been published" Of those
cataloged to date there are about .4 !ew Testament manuscripts with
fragments of #arious parts of the !ew Testament more than half of
them being from the /nd to Eth centuries" All the witnesses prior to E88
are of Egyptian pro#enance and their primiti#e te)t types though
mainly Ale)andrian establish that many te)t types e)isted and
de#eloped side by side" One of the most significant papyrus finds is p
1/

from c. A?8 to AE8 the earliest e)tant manuscript of any part of the !ew
Testament" 6
1/
consists of a fragment ha#ing on one side $ohn A2:?A@??
and on the other $ohn A2:?.@?2 indicating that it was a code) of which
the te)t type may be Ale)andrian" -t is now in the $ohn >ylands 7ibrary
at 5anchester"
-n the early AI?8s British mining engineer A" &hester Beatty ac0uired
three ?rdDcentury papyri from Egypt; they were published in AI?E@?."
Cnown as p
E1
p
E4
and p
E.
they are for the most part in his pri#ate
library in 9ublin"
6
E1
Beatty Biblical 6apyrus - *and some lea#es in Bienna+ contains ?8
lea#es of an earlyD or midD?rdDcentury code) of 5atthew 5ark 7uke
$ohn and Acts" Each ;ospel is of a different te)t type and although the
lea#es are mutilated the Ale)andrian te)t appears to predominate
*particularly in Acts in which a short nonD'estern te)t pre#ails+; the
whole may be thought of as preD&aesarean"
6
E4
Beatty Biblical 6apyrus -- *and 6apyrus /// at the Nni#ersity of
5ichigan+ consists of 24 lea#es of an earlyD?rdDcentury *c. /88+ code)
0uire containing the 6auline 7etters in the following order: >omans
Hebrews - and -- &orinthians Ephesians ;alatians 6hilippians
&olossians and - Thessalonians" Although some of the lea#es are 0uite
mutilated the te)t type of p
E4
appears to be Ale)andrian" 6
E.
Beatty
Biblical 6apyrus --- is from the late ?rd century" -t contains >e#" I:A8@
A.:/" -t is the oldest but not the best te)t of >e#elation and agrees with
A & and O"
Other early significant papyri are p
44
p
E2
p
./
p
.1
and p
.E
" 6
44
also known
as 6apyrus Bodmer -- contains in AE4 lea#es *some ha#ing lacunae+
almost all of the ;ospel According to $ohn including chapter /A" This
code) written before /88 is thus merely one century remo#ed from the
time of the autograph the original te)t" -ts te)t like that of p
E1
is mi)ed
but it has elements of an early Ale)andrian te)t" 6
44
and the other
Bodmer papyri which 5artin Bodmer a <wiss pri#ate collector
ac0uired from Egypt were published AI14@4A" They are in the pri#ate
Bodmer library at &ologny near ;ene#a" 6
E2
is a lateD?rdDcentury te)t of
Acts now in a library in ,lorence" -t contains Acts /?:AA@A. /?@/I and
illustrates a ;reek form of the 'estern te)t in Egypt in the ?rd century"
The papyri of p
./
6apyri Bodmer B-- and B--- are also from the ?rd
century" B-- contains a manuscript of $ude in a mi)ed te)t and B---
contains - and -- 6eter" -n - 6eter the ;reek was written by a scribe
whose nati#e language was &optic; there are many e)amples of
misspellings and itacisms that when corrected lea#e a te)t similar to the
Ale)andrian witnesses" The papyri of p
.1
6apyri Bodmer L-B and LB are
/nd@?rdDcentury codices containing most of 7uke and of $ohn with $ohn
connected to 7uke on the same page *unlike the 'estern order of the
;ospels+" The te)t coincides most with B but also has affinities with p
44

and p
E1
as a predecessor of Ale)andrian form"
6
.E
Bodmer 6apyrus LB-- is a 4th@.thDcentury te)t of Acts and the
&atholic 7etters" Acts show affinities with O and A and no parallels with
the 'estern te)t"
These and other papyri witness to the state of the early te)t of the !ew
Testament in Egypt indicating that no one te)t dominated and that te)t
types of different origin flourished side by side"
Bersions
Early #ersions
E#en with all these witnesses there remain problems in the ;reek te)t"
These include #ariants about which there is no settled opinion and some
few words for which no accurate meaning can be found because they
occur only once in the !ew Testament and not in prior ;reek works"
Bery early translations of the !ew Testament made as it spread into the
nonD;reekDspeaking regions of the missionary world the soDcalled early
#ersions may pro#ide e#idence for otherwise unknown meanings and
reflections of early te)t types"
-n the Eastern half of the 5editerranean Coine *common #ernacular+
;reek was understood but elsewhere other languages were used"
'here >oman rule dominated 7atin came into use%in !orth Africa
perhaps in parts of Asia 5inor ;aul and <pain *c. ?rd century+" Old
7atin #ersions had many #ariants and these translations traditionally
known as the /tala, or Old 7atin *O"7"+ are designated in small letters of
the >oman alphabet" The African #ersions were further from the ;reek
than were those made in Europe"
-n dealing with the !ew Testament $erome prepared a 7atin recension
of the ;ospels using a European form of the Old 7atin and some ;reek
manuscripts" Though the completed 7atin translation at the end of the
Eth century was produced by no one editor or compiler a commonly
accepted 7atin te)t the Bulgate emerged" A reworked official critical
edition was a concern of the &ouncil of Trent *A1E1@4?+ and in A1I/ the
&lementine Bulgate named after 6ope &lement B--- became the
authoritati#e edition" <ince Batican -- *AI4/@41+ an ecumenical group
of biblical scholars using the best a#ailable manuscript witnesses has
been engaged in the preparation of a critically sound re#ision of the
Bulgate"
At Edessa *in <yria+ and western 5esopotamia neither 7atin nor ;reek
was understood" Therefore <yriac *a <emitic language related to
Aramaic+ was used" Old <yriac was probably the original language of the
Diatessaron */nd century+ but only fragments of Old <yriac
manuscripts sur#i#e" The 6eshitta *common simple+ <yriac *known as
syr
pesh
+ became the <yrian //Dbook Bulgate of the !ew Testament and
at the end of the Eth century its te)t was transmitted with great fidelity"
The 6hilo)enian *syr
phil
+ and Harclean *syr
harc
+ #ersions followed in the
4th@.th centuries and contained all /. of the !ew Testament books"
The 6alestinian *similar to 6alestinian Aramaic+ <yriac *syr
pal
+ may date
to the 1th century but is known chiefly from AAthD to A/thDcentury
lectionaries and is 0uite independent of other <yriac #ersions reflecting
a different te)t type"
-n Egypt in the later Hellenistic period the !ew Testament was
translated into &optic%in the south *Npper Egypt+ the <ahidic *cop
sah
+
and in the north *7ower Egypt+ the Bohairic *cop
boh
+ the two principal
dialects" By the Eth century the <ahidic #ersion was known and the
Bohairic somewhat later" The &optic #ersions are fairly literal and reflect
a /nd@?rdDcentury Ale)andrian ;reek te)t type with some 'estern
#ariants"
A ;othic #ersion was made from the By:antine te)t type by a
missionary Nlfilas *late Eth century+; an Armenian #ersion *1th century+
traditionally was belie#ed to ha#e been made from the <yriac but may
ha#e come from a ;reek te)t" >elated perhaps to the Armenian was a
;eorgian #ersion; and an Ethiopic #ersion *c. 4th@.th century+ was
influenced by both &optic and later Arabic traditions" -n the #arious
#ersions there is e#idence of geographical spread of the history of the
underlying te)t traditions used and of how they were interpreted in the
early centuries"
The many readings in the ;reek 7atin and <yriac ,athers who can be
dated and located can to some e)tent shed light on the underlying
!ew Testament te)ts they 0uoted or used"
Another use both of the #ersions and of the patristic 0uotations is
elucidation of the meaning of hitherto unknown ;reek words in the !ew
Testament"
An e)ample is epiousios in the 7ord=s 6rayer as gi#en in #erse AA of
chapter 4 of 5atthew and #erse ? chapter AA of 7uke" The traditional
translation in the 'estern &hurch is GdailyH *referring to bread+" ,rom
the Old 7atin $erome the early <yriac #ersions and a retro#ersion of
the 7ord=s 6rayer into a proposed Aramaic substratum the meaning is
either GdailyH or more likely Gfor the morrowH; and modern translations
include this meaning in footnotes including the suggestion that it may
refer to eucharistic bread" The ;reek is possibly a coined compound
word that on the basis of its component parts yields Gfor the morrowH
or Gthat which is coming soon"H <uch latter treatment is not con(ectural
emendation but rather creati#e analysis in conte)t where no ;reek
#ariants help" The biblical scholar in possession of many #ariants
usually uses con(ecture only as a means of last resort and any
con(ecture must be both intrinsically suitable and account for the
reading considered corrupt in the transmitted te)t"
7ater and modern editions
!ew Testament editions in the A2th century did not 0uestion the ,e'tus
Receptus :,.R.;, despite new manuscript e#idence and study but its
limitations became apparent" E" 'ells a British mathematician and
theological writer *A.AI+ was the first to edit a complete !ew
Testament that abandoned the ,.R. in fa#our of more ancient
manuscripts; and English scholar >ichard Bentley *A./8+ also tried to go
back to early manuscripts to restore an ancient te)t but their work was
ignored" -n A.?E $"A" Bengel a ;erman 7utheran biblical theologian
stressed the idea that not only manuscripts but also families of
manuscript traditions must be differentiated and he initiated the
formulation of criteria for te)t criticism" $"$" 'ettstein=s edition *A.?8@
1A+ had a wealth of classical and rabbinic 0uotations but his theory on
te)t was better than the te)t itself" A ;erman 7utheran theologian $"<"
<emler *A.4.+ further refined Bengel=s classification of families"
$"$" ;riesbach *A.E1@A2A/+ a ;erman scholar and student of <emler
adapted the te)tDfamily classification to include 'estern and
Ale)andrian te)t groups that preceded the &onstantinopolitan
groupings" He cautiously began to alter te)ts according to increasingly
scientific canons of te)t criticism" These are with #arious refinements
still used as for e)ample that Gthe difficult is to be preferred to the
easy readingH and Gthe shorter is preferable to a longerH%both of
which reason *with many other factors+ that correction smoothing or
interpretation leads to clearer and longer readings"
-n the AIth century classical philologist Carl 7achmann=s critical te)t
*A2?A+ bypassed the ,.R., using manuscripts prior to the Eth century" &"
#on Tischendorf=s disco#ery of O *<+ and his !ew Testament te)t *2th
edition A24E+ collated the best manuscripts and had the richest critical
apparatus thus far"
Two English biblical scholars B"," 'estcott and ,"$"A" Hort of
&ambridge using O o_n_ omooo@o@o_nm@mo_
A22A@2/ and classified the te)t witnesses into four groupings: m_
!eutral *B O the purest and earliest Eastern te)t+; Ale)andrian *a
smoothed !eutral te)t as it de#eloped in Ale)andria+; 'estern *9 Old
<yrian O"7" the 'estern ,athers with glosses that caused many
readings to be re(ected+; and <yrian *A
e
and the By:antine tradition as it
later de#eloped+" <uch a Gfamily treeH clearly showed the ,.R. *<yrian+
and hence the Cing $ames Bersion based upon it as an inferior te)t
type; and the >e#ised <tandard Bersion is based on such superior te)t
types as B and O"
Another critical edition *AI8/@A?+ was made by H" #on <oden a ;erman
biblical scholar who presupposed recensions to which all manuscripts
can lead back" The importance of his work is in his enormous critical
apparatus rather than in his theoretical groupings" B"H" <treeter an
English scholar re#ised 'estcott and Hort=s classification in AI/E"
Basically he challenged the concept of any uncontaminated descent
from originals and made the obser#ation *already alluded to in the
e#olution of papyrus e#idence+ that e#en the earliest manuscripts are of
mi)ed te)t types" Jet <treeter grouped te)ts in fi#e families:
Ale)andrian &aesarean Antiochene European 'estern and African
'estern%parts of which all led into the By:antine te)t and had become
the ,.R.
9espite grouping it is clear that no reading backward from te)t families
can reach an autograph" A strictly local te)t theory is useless in #iew of
the papyrus e#idence that there were no Gunmi)edH early te)ts" The use
of e)ternal e#idence cannot push beyond the boundary of the ?rd
century" This insight brought about a new perspecti#e" Only by using
the canons of the internal e#idence of readings can the best te)ts be
determined e#aluating the #ariants from case to case%namely the
eclectic method" -n modern times therefore the #alue of te)t families is
primarily that of a step in the study of the history of the te)ts and their
transmission" The eclectic method of reconstruction of an earliest
possible !ew Testament te)t will yield the closest appro)imation of the
historical te)ts put together into the !ew Testament canon" *,or other
later and modern #ersions see abo#e Old Testament canon te)ts and
#ersions"+
!ew Testament history
The $ewish and Hellenistic matri)
Background
The historical background of the !ew Testament and its times must be
#iewed in con(unction with the $ewish matri) from which it e#ol#ed and
the Hellenistic *;reek cultural+ world into which it e)panded during a
period of $ewish religious propaganda" -t is difficult howe#er to
separate the phenomena of the $ewish and Hellenistic backgrounds
because the $udaism out of which the church arose was a part of a #ery
Helleni:ed world" The con0uests of Ale)ander the ;reat culminated in
??A B& and the subtle but strong influence of ;reek culture language
and customs that was spread by his con0uests united his empire" $ews
in both 6alestine and the 9iaspora *9ispersion+ were howe#er affected
by Hellenism as in ideas of cosmic dualism and rich religious imagery
deri#ed in part from Eastern influence as a result of the ;reek
con0uests" ;reek words were transliterated into Hebrew and Aramaic
e#en in connection with religious ideas and institutions as for e)ample
synagogue *religious assembly+ <anhedrin *religious court+ and
paraclete *ad#ocate intercessor+" -t could be argued that the #ery
preoccupation with ancient te)ts and tradition and the interpretation
thereof is a Hellenistic phenomenon" Thus what may appear as the
most indigenous element in the acti#ity of the $ewish scribes sages and
rabbis *teachers+%i.e., te)tual scholarship%has its parallels in
Hellenistic culture and is part of the general culture of the times" The
thought worlds merged confronted each other and communicated with
each other"
The Hasmonean kingdom
After Ale)ander=s death the empire was split and first the 6tolemies an
Egyptian dynasty and then the <eleucids a <yrian dynasty held
6alestine" Antiochus -B Epiphanes a /ndDcenturyDB& <eleucid king
desecrated the Temple in $erusalem; a successful $ewish re#olt under
the 5accabees a priestly family resulted in its purification *A4E B&+
and in freedom from <yrian domination in AE/ B&" This began the
Hasmonean *5accabean+ dynasty which appropriated the powers both
of king and of high priest" This reign which created dissatisfaction on
the part of other groups who considered their own claims falsely
usurped lasted until internecine strife brought it to an end" $ohn
Hyrcanus -- a AstDcenturyDB& Hasmonean king appealed to >ome for
help and 6ompey a >oman general inter#ened bringing 6alestine
under >oman rule in 4? B&" $ohn Hyrcanus gi#en the title of ethnarch
was later e)ecuted for treason *?8 B&+ thus ending the Hasmonean
line but $ewish independence had come to an end by >oman
occupation"
>ule by the Herods
The Herods who followed were under the control of >ome" Herod the
;reat son of Antipater of -dumaea was made king of $udaea ha#ing
sided with >ome and he ruled with >oman fa#our *?.@E B&+" Though he
was a good statesman and architect he was hated by the $ews as a
foreigner and semiD$ew" $esus was born a few years before the end of his
reign and Gthe slaughter of the innocentsH young children of
Bethlehem who were killed as possible pretenders to Herod=s throne
was attributed to Herod" After his death 6alestine was di#ided among
three of his sons: 6hilip was made tetrarch of -turea *the northeast
0uarter of the pro#ince+ and ruled from E B& until A9 ?." Herod Antipas
became tetrarch of ;alilee and 6eraea until A9 ?I and like his father
was a builder rebuilding <epphoris and Tiberias before he was
banished" Herod Antipas had $ohn the Baptist beheaded and treated
$esus with contempt at $esus= trial before him before sending him back
to 6ontius 6ilate the >oman procurator *A9 /4@?4+ at the time of
$esus= &rucifi)ion" Archelaus was made ethnarch of $udaea <amaria
and -dumaea but was remo#ed by A9 4 for his oppressi#e rule and
$udaea then became an imperial pro#ince go#erned by procurators
responsible to the emperor"
Two other Herods are mentioned in the !ew Testament: Agrippa -
*called GHerod the kingH A9 ?.@EE+ had $ames the brother of $ohn
killed and had 6eter arrested; and the last of the Herods Agrippa --
king of Trachonitis *c. A9 18@A88+ welcomed the procurator ,estus *c.
A9 48@4/+ who replaced ,eli) *c. A9 1/@48+ for the trial of 6aul"
>oman occupation and $ewish re#olts
-n A9 44@.8 there was a $ewish re#olt while !ero was emperor of >ome
*1E@42+" 'hen he died and was succeeded by Bespasian his former
army commander *4I@.I+ the siege and final destruction of $erusalem
occurred *A9 .8+" Before this e#ent $ewish &hristians had fled perhaps
to 6ella and Johanan ben Fakkai a leading $ewish rabbi with a group
of rabbinical scholars fled to Ja#neh where they established an
academy that ga#e leadership to the $ews" Nnder the emperors Tra(an
*I2@AA.+ and Hadrian *AA.@A?2+ $ews in Egypt and 5esopotamia
rebelled and again fought unsuccessfully against >ome in 6alestine for
forbidding the practice of religious rites and under <imeon Bar Cokhba
*or Bar Co:iba+ a $ewish re#olutionary messianic figure the final $ewish
war was waged *A?/@A?1+" After this defeat $erusalem became a >oman
colony; a temple to $upiter was erected there and $ews were pre#ented
from entering the city until the Eth century"
'hen the >omans had entered 6alestine in 4? B& they practiced a
relati#ely humane occupation until c. A9 44@.8" They did not interfere
with religious practices unless they considered them a threat to >ome
and their rights of re0uisition were precise and limited"
$ewish sects and parties
,rom both the !ew Testament and e)trabiblical material the main
religious groups or parties in 6alestinian $udaism may be discerned"
<uch descriptions howe#er may be somewhat biassed or apologetic"
6hilo an Ale)andrian $ewish philosopher *died c. A9 E8+ $osephus a
$ewish apologist to the >omans *died c. A88+ and sectarian writings
found at Kumran near the 9ead <ea in AIE. that date back to about c.
/88 B& and end about A9 .8 all pro#ide data about the respecti#e
$ewish religious groups in 6alestine in the Ast century B& and the Ast
century A9" The 6harisees *typically $esus= opponents although his
ideas may ha#e been close to their own+ the <adducees and the Fealots
are mentioned in the !ew Testament" The Essenes were described by
6hilo and $osephus but new e#idence from their own writings makes
their group better understood *i.e., the 9ead <ea <crolls from Kumran+"
The 6harisees
The 6harisees *possibly spiritual descendants of the Hasidim e6ious
Onesf who were the e)ponents of 5accabean re#olt+ were strict
adherents to the 7aw" Their name may come from parush<i.e.,
GseparatedH from what is unclean or what is unholy" They were deeply
concerned with the 5osaic 7aw and how to keep it and they were
inno#ators in adapting the 7aw to new situations" They belie#ed that the
7aw was for all the people and democrati:ed it%e#en the priestly laws
were to be obser#ed by all not only by the priestly class%so that they
actually had a belief in a priesthood of all belie#ers" They included Oral
as well as 'ritten 7aw in their interpretations" Though they did not
accept the >oman occupation they kept to themsel#es and by pious
acts such as gi#ing alms and burying the dead they upheld the 7aw"
Their interpretations of 7aw were sometimes considered casuistic
because they belie#ed they must find interpretations that would help all
people to keep the 7aw" Their underlying hope was eschatological: in
the day when -srael obeyed the Torah the Cingdom would come" The
6harisees were called Gsmooth interpretersH by their opponents but
their hope was to find a way to make the li#ing of the 7aw possible for
all people" -n their meal fellowship :ha(ura; they obser#ed the laws
strictly and formed a nucleus of obedient -srael" The 6harisees belie#ed
in the resurrection of the dead and had a de#eloped angelology"
The <adducees
The <adducees more conser#ati#e and static consisted mainly of the
old priesthood and landed aristocracy and perhaps some Herodians"
They were collaborators with >ome" They did not belie#e in resurrection
because they found no Old Testament enunciation of such a doctrine" -n
a way they seemed to respect the 6harisees in legal matters; but both
the 6harisees%because they were a bourgeois rather than a popular
mo#ement%and the <adducees%because they were aristocrats%
re(ected the 'am ha#aret- *6eople of the 7and+ who were no party but
simply the poor common people whom they considered ignorant of the
7aw"
The Fealots
The Fealots were re#olutionaries who plotted acti#ely against the
>oman oppression" That the 6harisees did not react in this way was
perhaps because of their belief in 6ro#idence: what happens is the will
of ;od and their free will is e)pressed in the conte)t of trust and piety
in con(unction with an eschatological hope of winning ;od=s Cingdom
through obedience to 7aw"
The Essenes
Though the Essenes of the 9ead <ea <crolls are not mentioned in the
!ew Testament they are described by 6hilo $osephus and Eusebius a
EthDcentury &hristian historian" 'ith publication of the Essenes= own
sectarian writings since the AI18s howe#er they ha#e become well
known" They did not ha#e any really new ideas but their founder the
Teacher of >ighteousness belie#ed that he knew the interpretation of
the prophets for his time in a way that was not e#en known to the
prophets of their own day" Their withdrawal into desert seclusion was in
opposition to the ruling powers in the city and the Temple of $erusalem"
They li#ed apart from society in constant study of the <criptures and
with a firm belief that they were the elect of -srael li#ing in the end of
days and to whom would come messianic figures%a messiah of 9a#id
*royal+ and a messiah of Aaron *priestly+" 5embership in their group
and acceptance or re(ection of its founder determined their place in the
age to come" After a long period of probation and initiation a man
became a member of this elect community that had strict rules of
community discipline that would seal or destroy his membership in their
!ew &o#enant" >itual lustrations preceded most liturgical rites the
most important one of which was participation in a sacred meal%an
anticipation of the messianic ban0uet to which only the fully initiated
members in good standing were admitted and which was presided o#er
by representati#es of the 9a#idic and Aaronic messiahs" ,rom what is
known of them their communities were celibate li#ing Gin the presence
of the angelsH and thus re0uired to be in a state of ritual purity" Their
laws were strict their discipline se#ere and%unlike 6harisees
<adducees and Fealots%they were not simply different parties within
$udaism but a separate eschatological sect" The 6harisees did ha#e
lodges and a common meal but membership in the 6harisaic party did
not as it did with the Essenes guarantee a place in the age to come; and
the attitude of the 6harisees to a leader or founder was not as it was to
the Essenes one of the bases on which such place could be attained"
Thus the Essenes%as the early $ewish &hristians%were an
eschatological $ewish sect" They belie#ed that they alone among those
li#ing in the end time would be sa#ed" The apocalypticism of the
Essenes and the early &hristians had many similarities but the
&hristians had a higher eschatological intensity because they already
knew who the 5essiah would be when he came in the future at the
6arousia *the G<econdH Ad#ent+ and they also had a recollection of the
earthly $esus knowledge of the risen 7ord and the gift of the <pirit
upon the church" Both communities li#ed in an era wherein the cosmic
battle of ;od #ersus <atanDBelial was taking place but the &hristian
community already had the traditions of $esus= #ictory o#er <atan and
the e)perience of his >esurrection" Both Essenes and &hristians were
sects with tightly knit organi:ations but the church had a historically
based messiah" The Essenes probably were killed or forced to flee from
their wilderness community c. A9 42 yet some of their ideas can still be
traced in the ministry of $ohn the Baptist *who might ha#e been an
Essene+ and in the thought world of the !ew Testament *see also
$udaism+"
The religious situation in the ;recoD>oman world of the Ast century A9
Hellenistic religions
'ith the e)pansion of &hristianity into the Hellenistic world either to
$ews or increasingly to ;entiles there were #arious reasons why the
&hristian message that spread for e)ample by 6aul met the needs of
the Hellenistic Age and world" There was no lack of religions but there
was a crisis of uphea#al unrest and uncertainty and a desire to escape
from mortality and the domination of unbending fate" There was also a
desire to win personal knowledge of the uni#erse and a dignified status
within it%i.e., a religious identity crisis" &ityDstates with their cults of
ci#ic gods were unstable because men changed from place to place and
the gods of the city were distant from indi#idual needs and an)ieties"
After Ale)ander=s con0uests the resulting religious syncretism did not
meet indi#idual needs and longings that were increasingly becoming
conscious" 5any ;entiles turned to $udaism at least as Ggod fearersH
and later to &hristianity" There were also Gmystery religionsH the
secrets of which were known only to the initiate which may ha#e arisen
from Eastern fertility cults with their dying and rising gods and were
transformed in the Hellenistic Age to cults of a sa#iour god whose dying
and rising gi#es personal immortality" <uch mystery cults often
pro#ided meaningful relationships with fellow initiates"
Astrology
There were elements in the ;reek world that may ha#e come from the
East partly Egyptian and Babylonian which ga#e rise to astrology" The
basic con#iction of astrology was that the hea#enly bodies were deities
that in a direct way control life and e#ents on earth" An older idea of
t1che, or GfateH originally signified the chance element in the uni#erse
a capriciousness that increased insecurity" Astrology transformed this
into a fate or destiny in which e#erything is strictly regulated by
celestial deities" 5an=s problem then is that of finding security from
o#erwhelming powers outside human control" One way is to Gread a
horoscope"H Because the hea#enly deities are systematic and orderly
according to astronomic obser#ation this order and regularity can be
e)ploited to see how and in what way e#ents will happen and can
perhaps be used or a#oided" Another way is to deal with such forces
through magic" ,rom the Hellenistic period many magical papyri with
formulas for dealing with sicknesses demons and other ad#erse forces
ha#e been found" 5agic attempts to manipulate and control what affects
the world by a kind of participation in the e#ent"
6hilosophical solutions
<olutions were also sought in philosophy" <ocrates a 1thDcenturyDB&
;reek philosopher was largely concerned with the search for the
GgoodH the good life" After 6lato and Aristotle howe#er philosophical
systems sought to supply man=s longing for inward security and
stability" These were sought not by an inDdepth understanding of reality
but by ad hoc constructions%a new dogmatism for pro#iding infallible
plans and attaining immediate security%that the age demanded" Those
philosophies were crude constructions that ga#e shelter and were
defended by an unyielding dogmatism as absolute truths; if they were
pro#ed false they would remo#e their promised security" Epicureanism
founded by the ;reek philosopher Epicurus *?EA@/.8 B&+ was basically
a philosophy of escape and its goal was serenity and tran0uillity a
negati#e concept characteri:ed by absence of fear pain and struggle"
,ate pro#idence and the afterlife were eliminated to deny the an)ieties
they pro#oked in terms of control reward or (udgment" Epicurus
attempted to meet this crisis by adopting a completely material #iew of
the uni#erse including the soul and thereby eliminating interference by
deities both in life and after death" He did belie#e in the gods; but they
too li#ed in their own perfect tran0uillity away from the uni#erse" The
Epicurean was both selfDreliant and at peace with the absence of pain"
There was also emphasis on friendship and the de#elopment of close
communities"
Feno a ?rdDcenturyDB& philosopher was the founder of <toicism"
<toicism was a rule of life that held that all reality was material but was
animated by a rational principle that was at the same time both the law
of the uni#erse and of the human soul" The wise man then could accept
and learn to li#e a life in conformity to this permeating reason without
letting anything affect him" He responded to duty and accepted it"
&ynicism was a philosophy that maintained a cosmic #iew of life with a
method of dealing with crisis by reducing man=s needs to a minimum"
7ater in the Hellenistic period a group of <toic@&ynic preachers arose
and in !ew Testament times wandered around calling men to repent
and change their li#es from sin to #irtue"
Adaptation of the &hristian message to the Hellenistic religious situation
The &hristian message adapted itself to this Hellenistic situation of
crisis and pro#ed a successful answer: $esus was proclaimed as 7ord and
<a#iour Baptism was practiced as a form of initiation and a passage
from death to new life and the 7ord=s <upper was celebrated as a sacral
meal" The ob#ious difference between &hristianity and the mystery
religions is that a historical person $esus forms the center of cult and
de#otion; his titles came from his $ewish background" Adaptation took
place out of the $ewish matri) of &hristianity%and Hellenistic terms
that were meaningful were also used such as illumination and
regeneration" <uch terms are not to be found in the earliest origins of
&hristianity but in the communication of the &hristian message to a new
en#ironment" Among the religious and philosophic needs of the time
was that of a cult that pro#ided for the needs of the indi#idual along
with a community of worship" &hrist as 7ord was #iewed as uni#ersal
and his teachings made the uni#erse understandable as well as
pro#iding a basis for ethics" -n a period of e)pansion all religions are to
some e)tent syncretistic as is the case of &hristianity in the /nd
century" <uch a phenomenon belongs to a religion in a time of strength"
Though uni#ersal howe#er &hrist was belie#ed to ha#e an e)clusi#e
claim and in this there was security and relief for the an)ieties of the
period" The church was more than a philosophy; it had a social and
enduring structure" -t also reached out to all men%not only to those
regarded as the best of men" -t called them to a new life and ga#e them a
new home and community the church"
The life of $esus
Though the fact that $esus was a historical person has been stressed
significant too is the fact that a full biography of accurate chronology is
not possible" The !ew Testament writers were less concerned with such
difficulties than the person who attempts to construct some
chronological accounts in retrospect" Both the indifference of early
secular historians and the confusions and appro)imations attributable
to the simultaneous use of >oman and $ewish calendars make the
establishment of a chronology of $esus= life difficult" That the accounts
of 5atthew and 7uke do not agree is a further problem" Thus only an
appro)imate chronology may be reconstructed from a few somewhat
conflicting facts" The points of reference are best taken from knowledge
of the history of the times reflected in the passages"
According to 5atthew $esus was born near the end of the reign of
Herod the ;reat thus before E B&" -n 7uke chapter / #erses A to /
$esus is said to ha#e been born at the time of a census when Kuirinius
was go#ernor of <yria" <uch a census did occur but in A9 4@." Because
this was after Herod=s death and not in agreement with a possible date
of $esus= baptism this late date is unlikely" There may ha#e been an
earlier census under another go#ernor; an inscription in the 7ateran
5useum records an unnamed go#ernor who twice ruled <yria and the
suggestion has been made that this was indeed Kuirinius and that in
an earlier time a reported census according to >oman calculation might
ha#e been carried out c. 2 B& one of a series of such" 'ith such
speculation and the combined e#idence of 5atthew and 7uke an
appro)imate year of birth might be .@4 B&"
-n 7uke chapter ? #erse /? it is stated that $esus= ministry began when
he was about ?8 years of age" This would not come within the dates of
the procuratorship of 6ontius 6ilate *A9 /4@?4+ and the age might
simply appro)imate a term for $esus= ha#ing arri#ed at maturity" -n 7uke
se#eral dates are implied to assist in dating the Baptism of $esus: the
A1th year of Tiberius *c. /I according to his accession as coDemperor
with Augustus+ while 6ontius 6ilate was in office *during /4@?4+ while
Herod Antipas was tetrarch *E B&@A9 ?I+ and 6hilip tetrarch *E B&@A9
?.+" These limits make a speculation of $esus= Baptism and the start of
his ministry c. A9 /.3/2"
The duration of $esus= ministry can be an a#erage of the one year as
indicated in the <ynoptic ;ospels *5atthew 5ark and 7uke+ or about
three years as indicated in $ohn based on #arious cycles of har#ests and
festi#als" This would be about two years" Because $esus was crucified
before ?4 and his ministry started about /.3/2 he then was crucified
about A9 ?8 *see also $esus+"
The chronology of 6aul
,or the chronology of 6aul=s ministry there are also some e)traDbiblical
data: According to $osephus Herod Agrippa - was made ruler of all
6alestine by the emperor &laudius in A9 EA and reigned for three years"
His death was thus in A9 EE" A famine in &laudius= reign took place
when Tiberius Ale)ander was procurator of $udaea *c. E4@E2+ and
Egyptian papyri suggest *by reference to high wheat prices+ that the
date of the famine was about E4" The ;allio inscription at 9elphi *in
;reece+ gi#es a date for ;allio proconsul of Achaia when 6aul was at
&orinth" -t notes that &laudius was acclaimed emperor for the /4th time"
This would bring the date of being declared emperor to about 1/ and
;allio=s term of office *about one year+ to about 1A@1/"
The chronology of 6aul=s missionary (ourneys and the dates of his
letters ha#e been the ob(ect of an in#estigation made difficult by the fact
that the account in Acts does not agree with 6aul=s own letters which
are of course more reliable"
'ith the help of e)ternal references some degree of absolute
chronology might be sought%with se#eral years= margin both because
of uncertainty as to e)traDbiblical dating and much ambiguity about
internal e#idence" Although 6aul would be in a better position to know
his own situation often his letters are in their present form combined
fragments from #arious times *see below The <econd 7etter of 6aul to
the &orinthians and The 7etter of 6aul to the 6hilippians+" A chronology
can be reached by comparing 6aul=s accounts of his (ourneys and
so(ourns with those reported in Acts" ;i#en references in Acts and the
;allio inscription it is possible to place 6aul in &orinth in A9 1A and
since he was there for A2 months it can be assumed that he began his
missionary work sometime in EI *he had pre#iously been in
Thessalonica and 6hilippi and in Troas and Asia 5inor+" This probably
fits in with the Ge)pulsionH of $ews from >ome about A9 EI thus
indicating that 6aul met 6riscilla and A0uila two >oman $ewish
&hristians in &orinth at this time" This indicates that he was at an
Gapostolic conferenceH at $erusalem sometime shortly before this *a
comparison of chapters A? and A1 of Acts with chapters A and / of
;alatians shows that the author of Acts made two #isits out of the one
recorded by 6aul+ which was either in EI or E2"
Though the dates in ;alatians A and / are uncertain%not indicating
whether they refer to A. years in toto or only AE years because half
years were e0uated with whole ones%they do establish the call of 6aul
to become a &hristian in ?A or about ?E@?1" 'orking in the other
direction it is known that 6aul wrote to the Thessalonians from &orinth
thus indicating a date of about 18 as probable for the writing of -
Thessalonians"
,rom &orinth 6aul went to Ephesus where according to Acts he
remained *probably in prison+ for three years" This would place him in
Ephesus during the period 1/@11 thus allowing time for a (ourney from
&orinth #ia Ephesus to Antioch and then back to Ephesus" A se0uence
gi#en in Acts chapters A4 and A2 shows two possibilities for 6aul to
ha#e been in ;alatia that work in agreement with ;alatians chapter E
#erse A? demonstrating that ;alatians was written from Ephesus about
1?@1E" Ephesus can also be the location from which came - &or" 6hil"
and probably 6hilem"
-- &orinthians appears to ha#e been written from 5acedonia during 11"
,rom the dating of the periods of ,eli) and ,estus in office at &aesarea
*midD18s+ and from the e#ents in ,eli)= time of office it is probable that
6aul was in prison under ,eli) by 14"
Thus data of Acts A2 and /8 regarding the (ourney and so(ourn at
&orinth can be correlated with data in >omans A1 to place the epistle to
the >omans in about the year 14 before the (ourney back to $erusalem
ending in the arrest of 6aul in 14" The two years of Acts /E:/. can then
be e)plained as the time during which 6aul was in prison at &aesarea so
that in 12 6aul was before ,estus and was sent to >ome"
That 6aul was then in >ome for two more years is established in Acts
chapter /2 #erse ?8" -t can be concluded that 6aul died sometime after
48 possibly during or before the !eronian persecution of 4E *cf. - &lem"
1+" All this does not resol#e the 0uestion of a possible <panish (ourney
nor gi#e precise dates and locations for -- Thessalonians &olossians
Ephesians or the 6astoral 7etters *see also 6aul+"
!ew Testament literature
-ntroduction to the ;ospels
5eaning of the term gospel
,rom the late A9 E8s and until his martyrdom in the 48s 6aul wrote
letters to the churches that he founded or guided" These are the earliest
&hristian writings that the church has and in them he refers to Gthe
gospelH *euangelion+" -n >omans chapter A #erse A he says: G6aul a
ser#ant of $esus &hrist called to be an apostle set apart for the gospel
of ;od " " "H and goes on to describe this GgospelH in what was already by
that time traditional language such as: Gpromised beforehand through
his prophets in the holy scriptures the gospel concerning his <on who
was descended " " " our 7ordH *>om" A:A@E+" This gospel is the power of
;od for sal#ation to e#eryone who has faith G" " " for in it the
righteousness of ;od is re#ealed through faith for faith " " "H *A:A.+" -n -
&orinthians 6aul had reminded his congregation in styli:ed terms of
Gthe gospelH he had brought to them" -t consisted of the announcement
that $esus had died and risen according to the <criptures"
Thus the GgospelH was an authoritati#e proclamation *as announced by
a herald ker1'+ or the kerygma *that which is proclaimed ker1gma+"
The earthly life of $esus is hardly noted or missed because something
more glorious%the ascended 7ord who sent the <pirit upon the church
%is what matters"
-n the speeches of 6eter in Acts the transition from kerygma to creed or
#ice #ersa is almost interchangeable" -n Acts / $esus is #iewed as
resurrected and e)alted at the right hand of ;od and made both 7ord
and &hrist" -n Acts ? 6eter=s speech proclaims $esus as the &hrist ha#ing
been recei#ed in hea#en to be sent at the end of time as (udge for the
#indication and sal#ation of those who belie#e in him" Here the
proclaimed message the gospel is more basic than an o#er#iew of
$esus= earthly life which in Acts is referred to only briefly as Ghis acting
with power going about doing good and healing and e)orcisingH
*A8:?2ff"+" <uch an e)tended kergyma can be seen as a transition from
the original meaning of gospel as the GmessageH to gospel meaning an
account of the life of $esus"
The term gospel has connotations of the traditions of $esus= earthly
ministry and 6assion that were remembered and then written in the
accounts of 5atthew 5ark 7uke and $ohn" They are written from the
postD>esurrection perspecti#e and they contain an e)tensi#e and
common 6assion narrati#e as they deal with the earthly ministry of
$esus from hindsight" And so the use of the term gospel for 5atthew
5ark 7uke and $ohn has taken the place of the original creedal@
kerygmatic use in early &hristianity" -t is also to be noted that in the
E#angelists= accounts their theological presuppositions and the
situations of their addressees molded the formation of the four
canonical ;ospels written after the 6auline 7etters" The primary
affirmations%of $esus as the &hrist his message of the Cingdom and
his >esurrection%preceded the E#angelists= accounts" <ome of these
affirmations were e)trapolated backward *much as the E)odus e#ent
central in the Old Testament was e)trapolated backward and was the
theological presupposition for the patriarchal narrati#es in ;enesis+"
These stories were shaped by the purpose for their telling: religious
propaganda or preaching to inspire belief" The kerygmatic or creedal
beginning was e)panded with material about the life and teaching of
$esus which a re#erence for and a preoccupation with the holy figure of
$esus demanded out of lo#ing curiosity about his earthly ministry and
life"
The English word gospel is deri#ed from the AngloD<a)on go+spell
*Ggood storyH+" The classical ;reek word euangelion means Ga reward
for bringing of good newsH or the Ggood newsH itself" -n the emperor
cult particularly in which the >oman emperor was #enerated as the
spirit and protector of the empire the term took on a religious meaning:
the announcement of the appearance or accession to the throne of the
ruler" -n contemporary ;reek it denoted a weighty authoritati#e royal
and official message"
-n the !ew Testament no stress can be placed on the etymological
*root+ meaning of eu *GgoodH+; in 7uke chapter ? #erse A2 *as in other
places+ the word means simply authoritati#e news concerning
impending (udgment"
,orm criticism
-n the 6auline writings as noted abo#e gospel kerygma and creed
come close together from oral to written formulas that were transmitted
about the &hrist e#ent: $esus= death and >esurrection" -n the apostolic
,athers *early /nd century+ the transition was made from oral to written
tradition; the translation of the presumed Aramaic traditions had taken
place before the ;ospel material had been committed to writing" By the
time of $ustin 5artyr *c. A11+ these writings were called ;ospels and
referred to in the plural; they contain the words deeds and 6assion
narrati#es%i.e., the present four ;ospels compiled and edited by the
E#angelists according to their #arious needs and theological emphases"
$ustin also referred to these as Gmemoirs of the Apostles"H
<uch a ;ospel began with a missionary announcement concerning a
cosmic di#ine figure a man with di#ine characteristics who would bring
sal#ation and hope to the world" The earthly historical $esus howe#er
was the criterion of the proclamation%being both the content of the
church=s proclamation and the ob(ect of its faith"
The identification of basic patterns in the history of oral and written
traditions%the stage of tradition prior to any literary form and
particularly as the traditions passed from an oral to a written form%and
the determination of their creati#e milieu or their situations and
functions in #arious places and under #arious circumstances are tasks
of form criticism" Through such study small independent units may be
isolated in a postulated more primiti#e form than they were before
being incorporated into more e)tended accounts" The term %it-#im#
eben refers to the G<it: im 7eben der CircheH%i.e., the situation in the
life of the church in which the material was shaped and ad(usted to the
needs at hand" Only through such studies is it possible to progress
tentati#ely to an assessment of a G<it: im 7eben $esu"H
Both $ews and ;entiles could use GbiographiesH often for propaganda
purposes" 6hilo and $osephus recounted the wonderful li#es and deeds
of Old Testament heroes such as 5oses; and there are miraculous tales
of the prophets Eli(ah and Elisha told in order that faith might be
inspired or (ustified" A miracle worker *theios aner, Gdi#ine manH+ and
stories about him comprised an aretalogy *from arete G#irtueH; also
manifestation of di#ine power miracle+" Aretalogies were fre0uently
used to represent the essential creed and belief of a religious or
philosophical mo#ement" ,he ife of !pollonius of ,1ana, a !eoD
6ythagorean philosopher and wonderDworker *transmitted by the ;reek
writer 6hilostratus+ was widely read" He was depicted as ha#ing
performed miracles and as being possessed of di#ine cosmic power not
as an e)ception but as an e)ample to men who ha#e the possibility of
sharing such power *cf. 5att" I:2+" There were tales of Heracles the
;reek hero and a whole literature of Ale)ander the ;reat as wonderD
workers di#ine men"
Though the pericopes *small units+ of which the ;ospels are constituted
include many forms or genres they are mainly di#ided into narrati#es
*including legends miracle stories e)orcisms healings and tales+ and
sayings *prophetic and apocalyptic sayings pro#erbs and wisdom
sayings parables church discipline and rules for the community
&hristological sayings such as the socalled G- amH sayings ee.g., G- am
the bread of lifeHf in $ohn re#elations and legal sayings+" <ome stories
may simply be the background for a pithy saying; these latter are
sometimes called paradigmatic sayings and the pronouncement stories
are their #ehicles of transmission" The forms ha#e many different
names but form criticism started with Homeric form analysis *taking
oral tradition into account+ which was applied to Old Testament studies
by Hermann ;unkel a ;erman biblical scholar and applied to the !ew
Testament on the basis of the ;erman classical philologist Eduard
!orden=s stylistic studies by such biblical scholars as >udolf Bultmann
and 5artin 9ibelius"
,orm criticism asks and answers 0uestions about what shaped the
preliterary tradition and the earliest written traditions into blocks as
they are found in the ;ospels" This may be a historical conte)t *as a
missionary situation+ a need for admonition *as churchDdiscipline
sections+ or for the transmission of teaching in a faithful way *as in a
GschoolH be it 5atthean 6auline or $ohannine+" One large block of the
material howe#er is to all intents and purposes the same *although
differing in details+ in all four canonical ;ospels: the 6assion narrati#e"
-n the <ynoptic ;ospels there is also a basic nucleus in the sayings
about $esus that are mysterious prophetic and apocalyptic and that
point to the significance of $esus as the &hrist who has come in history
in the person of $esus of !a:areth"
<uch formDcritical studies were centred on the smaller units of tradition
*pericopes+ that make up the ;ospels and their intention was partly to
assess relati#e age and authenticity of such traditions" -n more recent
times the tools of form criticism ha#e been applied to a more synthetic
method that could be used to determine the relation between a genre of
literature and the &hristological and theological perspecti#es that made
such genres natural" A presentation of $esus material in the form of
more or less disconnected sayings *as in the soDcalled K <ource
composed of independent sayings behind 5atthew and 7uke and in the
Gospel of ,homas3 see below The twoD and fourDsource hypotheses+
tends to fit a &hristology in which $esus is #iewed as a teacher of
'isdom an en#oy of 'isdom or as 'isdom herself" The collections of
wonder stories *aretalogies+ grew out of a &hristology of $esus as the
di#ine man" Another type of $esus material with independent e)istence
seems to ha#e been Gre#elationsH or GapocalypsesH in which $esus
&hrist speaks to his followers" This is seen for e)ample in 5ark A? -
Thessalonians chapter E the canonical book of >e#elation to $ohn and
the noncanonical Di+ache A4"
These genres of material now represented in the canonical ;ospels are
amply represented also in the noncanonical writings from the first
&hristian centuries" The disco#ery of a ;nostic library of &optic writings
at !a(= Hammadi in Egypt in the AIE8s ga#e scholars a new
opportunity to compare the canonical ;ospels with the $esus material of
these #arious types some of them ha#ing been called and used as
gospels *such as the Gospel of ,homas+" -n the light of such a wider
spectrum of material it appears that the gospel form for which 5ark is
the earliest witness became a criterion for the orthodo) transmission of
the &hristian message about $esus" By making the confession of $esus as
the crucified and risen 7ord *the earliest kerygma and GgospelH as found
in 6aul and Acts+ the form of an e)tensi#e 6assion account prefaced by a
limited amount of narrati#e and teaching 5ark set the stage for a faith
that anchored faith in $esus &hrist in the e#ents of the earthly life of
$esus" This form of the GgospelH became the standard within which the
other commonly accepted ;ospels grew" -t became the criterion for later
creedal statements concerning $esus &hrist as true ;od and true man"
By such a criterion gospels that seemed to disregard his humanity *e.g.,
Gospel of ,homas, the Gospel of )eter+ were (udged heretical"
The <ynoptic problem
Early theories about the <ynoptic problem
<ince the A.28s 5atthew 5ark and 7uke ha#e been referred to as the
<ynoptic ;ospels *from s1noptikos, Gseen togetherH+" The e)tensi#e
parallels in structure content and wording of 5atthew 5ark and 7uke
make it e#en possible to arrange them side by side so that
corresponding sections can be seen in parallel columns" $ohn &al#in the
A4thDcentury >eformer wrote a commentary on these ;ospels as a
harmony" <uch an arrangement is called a GsynopsisH or ;ospel
harmony and by careful comparison of their construction compilation
and actual agreement or disagreement in wording or content literaryD or
sourceDcritical relationships can be seen" Augustine the great Eth@1thD
century 'estern theologian considered 5ark to be an abridged
5atthew and until the AIth century some #ariation of this solution to
literary dependency dominated the scene" -t still recurs from time to
time"
The <ynoptic problem is one of literary or of source criticism and deals
with the written sources after compilation and redaction" 5atthew was
the ;ospel most used for the selections read in the liturgy of the church
and other ;ospels were used to fill in the picture" One attempted
solution to the problem of priority was the proposed e)istence of an
Aramaic primiti#e gospel which is now lost as the first ;ospel from
which a later 5ark in ;reek was translated and arranged" The ;reek
5ark would thus be first based on a prior <emitic 5atthew and later
both 5ark and 5atthew would be translations dependent on 5atthew
and 7uke dependent on both" The preser#ation of an ecclesiastical
priority of 5atthew breaks down because of the literary wordDforDword
agreement in 5atthew 5ark and 7uke" This agreement occurs to far
too great an e)tent to be accounted for in translations and re#isions not
to mention the agreement in the order of the #arious pericopes as they
are #iewed in a synoptic parallel arrangement"
,or similar reasons a fragment theory holding that the ;ospels were
constructed of small written collections brought together in #arying
se0uences cannot stand the test of actual structure%but it has the merit
of stressing compilation of sources"
-n A.2I $"$" ;riesbach a ;erman biblical scholar hypothesi:ed that the
<ynoptics had not de#eloped independently but in his GusageD
hypothesisH he recogni:ed that there must be literary dependency" He
thought that 5ark used 5atthew as well as 7uke but this could not
account for the close relationship of 5atthew and 7uke" His basic
concept of literary dependency howe#er pa#ed the way for C"
7achmann who obser#ed in A2?1 that 5atthew and 7uke agree only
when they also agree with 5ark and that where material is introduced
that is not in 5ark it is inserted in different places" This it is held can
only be e)plained on the basis of the priority of 5ark and its use as the
patterning form of 5atthew and 7uke" This insight led to a soDcalled
twoDsource hypothesis *by two ;erman biblical scholars Heinrich
Holt:mann in A24? and Bernhard 'eiss in A22.@22+ which with
#arious modifications and refinements of other scholars is the generally
accepted solution to the <ynoptic problem"
The twoD and fourDsource hypotheses
The twoDsource hypothesis is predicated upon the following
obser#ations: 5atthew and 7uke used 5ark both for its narrati#e
material as well as for the basic structural outline of chronology of
$esus= life" 5atthew and 7uke use a second source which is called K
*from ;erman Quelle, GsourceH+ not e)tant for the sayings *logia+
found in common in both of them" Thus 5ark and K are the main
components of 5atthew and 7uke" -n both 5atthew and 7uke there is
material that is peculiar to each of their ;ospels; this material is
probably drawn from some other sources which may be designated 5
*material found only in 5atthew=s special source+ and 7 *material found
only in 7uke=s special source+" This is known as the fourDdocument
hypothesis which was elaborated in AI/1 by B"H" <treeter an English
biblical scholar" The placement of K material in 7uke and 5atthew
disagrees at certain points according to the needs and theologies of the
addressees of the gospels but in 5atthew the 5arcan chronology is the
basic scheme into which K is put" 5ark=s order is kept on the whole by
5atthew and 7uke but where it differs at least one agrees with 5ark"
After chapter E in 5atthew and 7uke not a single passage from K is in
the same place" K was a source written in ;reek as was 5ark which can
be demonstrated by word agreement *not possible for e)ample with a
translation from Aramaic although perhaps the ;reek has #estiges of
<emitic structure form+" A diagram might thus be:
-n appro)imate figures 5ark=s te)t has 44A #erses more than 488 of
which appear in 5atthew and ?18 in 7uke" Only c. ?A #erses of 5ark are
found nowhere in 5atthew or 7uke" -n the material common to all three
<ynoptics there is #ery seldom #erbatim agreement of 5atthew and
7uke against 5ark though such agreement is common between
5atthew and 5ark or 7uke and 5ark or where all three concur"
The postulated common saying source of 5atthew and 7uke K would
account for much #erbatim agreement of 5atthew and 7uke when they
include sayings absent from 5ark" The fact that the sayings are used in
different ways or different conte)ts in 5atthew and 7uke is an
indication of a somewhat free way in which the editors could take
material and mold it to their gi#en situations and needs" An e)ample of
this is the parable in 5atthew and 7uke about the lost sheep *5att"
A2:A8@AE 7uke A1:?@.+" The basic material has been used in different
ways" -n 5atthew the conte)t is church discipline%how a brother in
&hrist who has lapsed or who is in danger of doing so is to be gently and
graciously dealt with%and 5atthew shapes it accordingly *the sheep
has Ggone astrayH+" -n 7uke the parable e)emplifies $esus= attitude
toward sinners and is directed against the critical 6harisees and scribes
who ob(ect to $esus= contact with sinners and outsiders *the sheep is
GlostH+"
Another e)ample of two passages used #erbatim in 7uke and 5atthew is
$esus= lament o#er $erusalem" -n 7uke *A?:?E@?1; the lament o#er
$erusalem+ $esus refers to how they will cry GBlessed be the Cing who
comes in the name of the 7ordH when he enters $erusalem *7k" AI:?2+" -n
7uke the passage is structured into the life of $esus and refers to his
triumphal entry into $erusalem GBlessed is he who comes in the name of
the 7ordH+" -n 5atthew */?:?.@?I+ this same lament is placed after the
entry into the city */A:I+ and thus refers to the fall of $erusalem and the
7ast $udgment" Apparently 7uke has historici:ed a primarily
eschatological saying"
<ince the AI?8s scholars ha#e increasingly refined sources postulated
sources behind sources and many stages of their formation" The
premise of the twoD *or fourD+ source hypothesis is basic and pro#ides
information as to literary sources; further refinement is of interest only
to the specialist" Another mo#ement in synoptic research%and also
research including $ohn%is that which concentrates rather on the
treatment of gospels as a whole formally and theologically with
patterns or cycles to be in#estigated" -t may be significant that the latest
and best regarded ;reek synopsis is that of the ;erman scholar Curt
Aland %1nopsis Quattuor 4(angeliorum *AI4E; %1nopsis of the 0our
Gospels, AI./+ which includes the ;ospel According to $ohn and as an
appendi) the Gospel of ,homas, as well as ample 0uotations from
noncanonical gospels and $esus= sayings preser#ed in the &hurch
,athers"
The <ynoptic ;ospels
The ;ospel According to 5ark: background and o#er#iew
The ;ospel According to 5ark is the second in canonical order of the
;ospels and is both the earliest gospel that sur#i#ed and the shortest"
6robably contemporaneous with K it has no direct connection with it"
The 6assion narrati#e comprises E8 percent of 5ark and from chapter
2 #erse /. onward there is hea#y reference forward to the 6assion"
Though the author of 5ark is probably unknown authority is
traditionally deri#ed from a supposed connection with the Apostle
6eter who had transmitted the traditions before his martyr death under
!ero=s persecution *c. 4E@41+" 6apias a /ndDcentury bishop in Asia
5inor is 0uoted as saying that 5ark had been 6eter=s amanuensis
*secretary+ who wrote as he remembered *after 6eter=s death+ though
not in the right order" Because 6apias was from the East perhaps the
$ohannine order would ha#e priority as is the case in the structure of
the <yrian scholar Tatian=s Diatesseron *harmony of the ;ospels+"
Attempts ha#e been made to identify 5ark as the $ohn 5ark mentioned
in Acts A/ or as the disciple who fled naked in the garden *5ark AE+" A
reference to Gmy son 5arkH in - 6eter is part of the same tradition by
which 5ark was related to 6eter; thus the E#angelist=s apostolic
guarantor was 6eter"
The setting is a ;entile church" There is no special interest in problems
with $ews and little precision in stating $ewish #iews arguments or
terminology" ,ull #alidity is gi#en the worship of the ;entiles" -n further
support of a ;entile setting and >oman pro#enance is the argument that
5ark uses a high percentage of soDcalled 7atinisms%i.e., 7atin
loanwords in ;reek for military officers money and other such terms"
<imilar translations and transliterations howe#er ha#e been found in
the $erusalem Talmud a compendium of $ewish law lore and
commentary which certainly was not of >oman pro#enance" The
argument from 7atinisms must be weighed against the fact that 7atin
could be used anywhere in the widespread >oman Empire" -n addition
for the first three centuries the language of the church of >ome was
;reek%so the ;entile addressees might (ust as well ha#e been <yrian as
>oman" The 7atinisms%as well as the Aramaisms%are rather an
indication of the #ernacular style of 5ark which was Gimpro#edH by the
other E#angelists"
5ark is written in rather crude and plain ;reek with great realism"
$esus= healing of a blind man is done in two stages: first the blind man
sees men but they look like trees walking and only after further healing
acti#ity on $esus= part is he restored to see e#erything clearly" This
concrete element was lost in the rest of the tradition" -t is also perhaps
possible that this twoDstage healing is a good analogy for understanding
5ark theologically: first through enigmatic miracles and parables in
secret and only later after recognition of $esus as the &hrist is there a
gradual clarification leading to the empty tomb" -n chapter ? #erse /A
those closest to $esus call him insane *Ghe is beside himselfH+ a
statement without parallel in the other ;ospels"
-n 5ark some Aramaic is retained transliterated into ;reek and then
translated%e.g., in the raising of $airus= daughter *1:EA+ and in the
healing of the deaf mute *.:?E+" The wellDknown abba, ,ather is
retained in 5ark=s account of $esus= prayer in ;ethsemane" -n the two
miracle stories the Aramaic may ha#e been retained to enhance the
miracle by the techni0ue of preser#ing $esus= actual words" And a cry of
$esus on the &ross is gi#en in Aramai:ed Hebrew"
The stories in 5ark are wo#en together with simple stereotyped
connecti#es such as the use of kai euthus *Gand immediatelyH
GstraightwayH+ which may be thought of as a <emitic style *as a typical
simple connecti#e in the Old Testament narrati#e style+" 5ore likely
howe#er this abruptness indicated that the compilerDredactor of 5ark
has used geography and people simply as props or scenes to be used as
needed to connect the e#ents in the ser#ice of the narrati#e"
E)cept for the 6assion narrati#e there is little chronological
information" >eferences in chapters A? and AE appear to presuppose
that the $erusalem Temple *destroyed in A9 .8+ still stood *in 5atthew
and 7uke this is no longer the case+; but the conte)t of chapter A? the
G7ittle ApocalypseH is so interwo#en with eschatological traditions of
both the $ewish and &hristian e)pectations in the Ast century that it
cannot ser#e with certainty as a historical reference" To some e)tent
howe#er chapter A? does help to date 5ark%the priority of which has
already been established from literary criticism%because it is in good
agreement with the traditions that 5ark was written after the
martyrdom of 6eter" 5ark may thus be dated somewhere after 4E and
before .8 when the $ewish war ended"
The ;ospel According to 5ark: uni0ue structure
The organi:ation and schemati:ing of 5ark re#eals its special thrust" -t
may be roughly di#ided into three parts: *A+ A:A@2:/4%the ;alilean
ministry%an account of mighty deeds *an aretalogy+; */+ 2:/.@A8:1/%
discussions with his disciples centred on suffering; and *?+ AA:A@A4:2%
contro#ersies 6assion death the empty tomb and the e)pected
6arousia in ;alilee"
GThe beginning of the ;ospelH in the first words of 5ark apparently
refers to $ohn the Baptist who is clearly described as a forerunner of the
5essiah who calls the people to repentance" $esus ne#er calls himself
the 5essiah *&hrist+" After $esus= Baptism by $ohn the hea#ens open
the <pirit descends and a hea#enly #oice proclaims $esus as ;od=s
belo#ed son with whom He is well pleased" Already in this account there
is a certain secrecy because it is not clear whether the onlookers or only
$esus witnessed or heard" $esus was then dri#en by the <pirit into the
wilderness the place of demons and struggle to be tempted by <atan
surrounded by wild beasts *the symbols of the power of e#il and
persecution+ and ministered to by angels" Here again he is in secret
alone" The opening of the struggle with <atan is depicted and the
attendance by angels is a sign of $esus= success in the test"
5any references to persecution in 5ark point toward >oman oppression
and a martyr church that was preoccupied with a confrontation with the
<atanic power behind the world=s hostility to $esus and his message"
There was stress on the underlying fact that the church must witness
before the authorities in a hostile world" 5uch of the martyrological
aspect of 5ark=s account is grounded in his interpretation of the basic
function of $esus= 6assion and death and its implication that the
&hristian life is a life of suffering witness"
'hat $esus preached in ;alilee at the beginning of his ministry was that
the time is fulfilled and the Cingdom of ;od is Gat handH; i.e., #ery #ery
near%therefore repentb *A:A1+" -n 5atthew this same message is that of
both $ohn the Baptist *?:/+ and $esus *E:A.+" This sets the stage; and the
miraculous ministry in ;alilee about which the followers are en(oined to
secrecy points not so much to $esus as the wonderDworker as to the
great scheme of pushing back the frontier of <atan" Toward the end of
this first section the 6harisees ask $esus for a sign and he answers in
no uncertain terms that no sign will be gi#en *2:A/+" -n the <ynoptic
;ospels the miracles are ne#er called GsignsH *as in $ohn+; and no sign is
to be gi#en prior to the cosmological eschatological signs from hea#en
that belong to the end: darkening of the <un and 5oon and e)treme
tribulations that in postbiblical $ewish eschatology%the mood of the
first &hristian century%is a sign of the coming of the hea#enly <on of
man to (udge the world"
6arables are a re#elatory mode of e)pression; they are not (ust
illustrations of ideas or principles" $esus the re#ealer tells his disciples
that the secret of the Cingdom of ;od is gi#en to them but that to the
outsider e#erything is in parables *or riddles+ in or+er that they may not
hear and understand lest they repent and be forgi#en *E:A8@A/+" This
mystery and hiddenness is particularly related to the parables about the
coming of the kingdom" Jet e#en $esus= disciples did not recogni:e him
as the 5essiah although his miracles were such that only a messianic
figure could perform them: forgi#ing sins on earth casting out demons
raising the dead making the deaf hear and the stammerer *the dumb+
speak and the blind to see%all fulfillments of Old Testament prophecy
concerning the 5essiah" Only the demons supranatural beings
recogni:e $esus" There is a constant campaign against <atan from the
temptation after $esus= Baptism until his death on the &ross and in
each act of healing or e)orcism there is anticipated the ultimate defeat
of <atan and the manifestation of the power of the new age" -n all this
5ark stresses the need for secrecy and 6eter=s confession of $esus as
the &hrist *2:/I+ is told in 5ark as the opportunity to moti#ate an
acceptance of the admonition Gnot to tellH by reference to the necessity
of suffering"
This strong emphasis on the necessity of suffering%in the life of $esus
and in the life of the disciples%before the hour of #ictory gi#es the best
e)planation to what scholars ha#e called the secrecy motif in 5ark%i.e.,
the constant stress on not telling the world about $esus= messianic
power"
According to 'illiam 'rede a ;erman scholar the messianic secret
motif was a literary and apologetic de#ice by which the &hristological
faith of the early church could be reconciled with the fact that $esus
ne#er claimed to be the 5essiah" According to 'rede 5ark=s solution
was: $esus always knew it but kept it a secret for the inner group" After
6eter=s confession at &aesarea 6hilippi $esus began to speak of a
suffering <on of man" The <on of man in $ewish apocalyptic was a
glorious transcendent hea#enly figure who would come #ictorious on
clouds of glory to (udge the world at the end of time" <uffering was not
part of this picture" E" <(\berg *AI11+ has interpreted the messianic
secret not as a literary in#ention but as an understanding both that the
5essiah would appear without recognition e)cept by those who are
chosen and to whom he re#eals himself and that he must suffer" ,or
outsiders then he remains a mystery until the age to come" E#en his
disciples did not understand the necessity of suffering" Only in the light
of >esurrection faith%the hope of the 6arousia and final #ictory o#er
<atan%could they understand that he had to suffer and die to fulfill his
mission and how they too must suffer"
5artyrological aspects in 5ark can be noted from the beginning"
Already according to /:/8 $esus= disciples are not to fast until Gwhen the
bridegroom is taken away from them and then they will fast " " " "H -n
5ark 2 to A8 there is great concentration on discussions with the
disciples" The theme is suffering and repeatedly they are reminded that
there is no way of coming to glory e)cept through suffering" Three
6assion predictions meet either with re(ection fear or confusion" -n the
Transfiguration *I:/@A?; in which three disciples%6eter $ames and
$ohn%see $esus become brighter and Eli(ah and 5oses two Old
Testament prophets appear+ there is the same emphasis" The tension
between future glory and prior suffering is the more striking when the
Transfiguration is recogni:ed as a >esurrection appearance placed here
in an anticipatory manner" The disciples are reminded of an association
of Eli(ah with $ohn the Baptist and his fate" This is also a hidden
epiphany *manifestation+%the triumphal enthroned king closely
(u)taposed with suffering and death"
After the third 6assion prediction in chapter A8 two of the disciples ask
for places of honour when $esus is glorified" He reminds them that
suffering must precede glory for GThe <on of man also came not to be
ser#ed but to ser#e and to gi#e his life as a ransom for many"H -t is
worth noting that this is the only reference to the death of &hrist as a
ransom or sacrifice but that 5ark does not dwell on the &hristological
implications but uses the saying for ethical purposes" E#en so the
5arcan te)t gi#es one of the important building blocks for
&hristological growth and reflection on the suffering <on of man"
$ust as $esus= public ministry in 5ark started with the calling of
disciples so the central part of the ;ospel calls them to participate
through suffering in his own confrontation with the power of <atan"
-n the last section of the ;ospel the scene is shifted to $erusalem where
$esus is going to die" His entry is described as triumphal and openly
messianic and is accompanied by actedDout parables in a (udgment of a
barren fig tree casting money changers out of the Temple and in a
parable of a #ineyard in which the belo#ed son of the owner is killed"
There is an increasing conflict and alienation of the authorities" &hapter
A? the G7ittle ApocalypseH made up of a comple) arrangement of
apocalyptic traditions ser#es as instruction to the disciples and thence
to the church that they must endure through tribulation and persecution
until the end time" Thus although the setting is $erusalem the
orientation is toward ;alilee the place where the 6arousia is e)pected"
The Holy <pirit will come to those who must witness in the situation of
trial before go#ernors and authorities *A?:AA+; in the final eschatological
trials only by ;od=s inter#ention can anyone endure unless the time be
shortened for the elect" Because this chapter is shaped as a discourse
that precedes the 6assion narrati#e it ser#es as a farewell address a
type of testament including apocalyptic sayings and warnings to the
messianic community at the end of the Gnarrati#eH before the 6assion%
as do most testament forms *admonitions gi#en before death to those
belo#ed who will remain behind+"
The &ross is both the high point of the ;ospel and its lowest le#el of
ab(ect humiliation and suffering" A cry of dereliction and agony and the
cosmic sign of the rending of the Temple #eil bring from a ;entile
centurion acknowledgment of $esus as <on of ;od" The disciples reacted
to the scandal of the &ross with discouragement although already the
scene is set for a meeting in ;alilee" There are no #isions of the risen
7ord howe#er in the best manuscripts *#erses I@/8 are commonly held
to be later additions+ and 5ark thus remains an openDended ;ospel"
The >esurrection is neither described nor interpreted" !ot e)ultation
but rather in#ol#ement in the battle with <atan is the inheritance until
the #ictorious coming in glory of the 7ord%a continual process with the
empty tomb pointing to hope of the final #ictory and glory the 6arousia
in ;alilee" The ;ospel ends on the note of e)pectation" The mood from
the last words of $esus to the disciples remains: 'hat - say to you - say
to all: 'atchb
The ;ospel According to 5atthew
5atthew is the first in order of the four canonical ;ospels and is often
called the GecclesiasticalH ;ospel both because it was much used for
selections for pericopes for the church year and because it deals to a
great e)tent with the life and conduct of the church and its members"
5atthew ga#e the frame the basic shape and colour to the early
church=s picture of $esus" 5atthew used almost all of 5ark upon which
it is to a large e)tent structured some material peculiar only to
5atthew and sayings from K as they ser#e the needs of the church" This
;ospel e)pands and enhances the stark description of $esus from 5ark"
The fall of $erusalem *A9 .8+ had occurred and this dates 5atthew
later than 5ark c. .8@28"
Although there is a 5atthew named among the #arious lists of $esus=
disciples more telling is the fact that the name of 7e#i the ta) collector
who in 5ark became a follower of $esus in 5atthew is changed to
5atthew" -t would appear from this that 5atthew was claiming
apostolic authority for his ;ospel through this de#ice but that the writer
of 5atthew is probably anonymous"
The ;ospel grew out of a GschoolH led by a man with considerable
knowledge of $ewish ways of teaching and interpretation" This is
suggested by the many ways in which 5atthew is related to $udaism" -t
is in some ways the most G$ewishH ;ospel" <triking are AA Gformula
0uotationsH *GThis was to fulfill what was spoken by the prophet " " "H+
claiming the fulfillment of Old Testament messianic prophecies"
The outstanding feature of 5atthew is its di#ision into fi#e discourses
or sermons following narrati#e sections with episodes and #ignettes
that precede and feed into them: *A+ chapters 1@.%the <ermon on the
5ount%a sharpened ethic for the Cingdom and a higher righteousness
than that of the 6harisees; */+ chapter A8%a discourse on mission
witness and martyrological potential for disciples with an
eschatological conte)t *including material from 5ark A?+; *?+ chapter A?
%parables about the coming of the Cingdom; *E+ chapter A2%on church
discipline harshness toward leaders who lead their flock astray and
more gentleness toward sinning members; and *1+ chapters /?@/1%
concerned with the end time *the 6arousia+ and watchful waiting for it
and firmness in faith in ;od and his Holy <pirit" Each sermon is
preceded by a didactic use of narrati#es e#ents and miracles leading
up to them many from the 5arcan outline" Each of the fi#e sections of
narrati#e and discourse ends with a similar formula: Gnow when $esus
had finished these sayings" " " "H The style suggests a catechism for
&hristian beha#iour based on the e)ample of $esus: a handbook for
teaching and administration of the church" This presupposes a teaching
and acting community a church in which the ;ospel functions" The
;reek word ekklesia, *GchurchH+ is used in the ;ospels only in 5atthew
*A4:A2 and A2:A.+"
The discourses are preceded by etiological *sources or origins+ material
of chapters A@/ in which the birth narrati#e relates $esus= descent *by
adoption according to the will of ;od+ through $oseph into the 9a#idic
royal line" Though a #irgin birth is mentioned it is not capitali:ed upon
theologically in 5atthew" The story includes a flight into Egypt
*recalling a 5osaic tradition+" <ome G<emitismsH add to the $ewish
fla#our such as calling the Cingdom of ;od the Cingdom of the
Hea#en*s+" The name $esus *<a#iour+ is theologically meaningful to
5atthew *A:/A+" &hapter / reflects on the geographical framework of the
5essiah=s birth and tells how the messianic baby born in Bethlehem
came to dwell in !a:areth"
After the fi#e narrati#e and discourse units 5atthew continues from
chapter /4 on with the 6assion narrati#e burial a >esurrection account
and the appearance of the risen 7ord in ;alilee where he gi#es the final
Ggreat commissionH with which 5atthew ends"
5atthew is not only an original ;reek document but its addressees are
;reekDspeaking ;entile &hristians" By the time of the ;ospel According
to 5atthew there had been a relati#ely smooth and mild transition into
a ;entile &hristian milieu" The setting could be <yria but hardly
Antioch where the 6auline mission had sharpened the theological
issues far beyond what seems to be the case in 5atthew" 5atthew has
no need to argue against the 7aw or Torah as di#isi#e for the church *as
had been the case earlier with 6aul in >omans and ;alatians in which
the 7aw was di#isi#e among ;entile &hristians and $ewish &hristians+
and indeed the 7aw is upheld in 5atthew *1:A.@AI+" ,or 5atthew
there had already been a separation of &hristianity from its $ewish
matri)" 'hen he speaks about the Gscribes and the 6hariseesH he thinks
of the synagogue Gacross the streetH from the now primarily ;entile
church" &hristianity is presented as superior to $udaism e#en in regard
to the 7aw and its ethical demands"
The 5atthean church is conscious of its $ewish origins but also of a
great difference in that it is permeated with an eschatological
perspecti#e seeing itself not only as participating in the suffering of
&hrist *as in 5ark+ but also as functioning e#en in the face of
persecution while patiently%but eagerly%awaiting the 6arousia" The
0uestions of the mission of the church and the degree of the GcomingH of
the Cingdom with the person and coming of $esus are handled by the
E#angelist by a GtimetableH de#ice" The ;ospel is arranged so that only
after the >esurrection is the power of the 7ord fully manifest as
uni#ersal and continuing" Before the >esurrection the disciples are sent
nowhere among the ;entiles but only to the lost sheep of the house of
-srael; and the end time is e)pected before the mission will ha#e gone
through the towns of -srael" E#en in his earthly ministry howe#er $esus
proleptically with a sort of holy impatience heals the son of a belie#ing
>oman centurion and responds to the persistent faith of a &anaanite
woman%whose heathen background is stressed e#en more than her
geographical designation <yroD6hoenician gi#en in the parallel in 5ark
%by healing her daughter" The $ewish origins of $esus= teaching and the
way the E#angelist presents them do not deny but push beyond them"
The prophecies are fulfilled the 7aw is kept and the church=s mission is
finally uni#ersal partly because the unbelief of the pious $ewish leaders
left the gospel message to the poor the sick the sinner the outcast and
the ;entile"
-n 5atthew because of the use of K and 5atthew=s theological
organi:ation there is stress on $esus as teacher his sharpening or
radicali:ing of the 7aw in an eschatological conte)t; and $esus is
presented not in secret but as an openly proclaimed 5essiah Cing and
$udge" -n the temptation narrati#e $esus refuses <atan=s temptations
because they are of the de#il but he himself later in the ;ospel does
feed the multitude and after the >esurrection he claims all authority in
hea#en and on earth" By o#ercoming <atan $esus ga#e e)ample to his
church to stand firm in persecution" 5essianic titles are more used in
5atthew than in 5ark" -n the e)orcism of demoniacs the demons cry
out calling him <on of ;od and rebuking him for ha#ing come Gbefore
the timeH *2:/I+" Again this shows that $esus in his earthly ministry had
power o#er demons power belonging only to the 5essiah and the age
to come; and he pushed this timetable ahead" Jet as in 5ark the
miracles are not to be interpreted as signs" 'hen asked for a sign the
5atthean account gi#es only the sign of $onah an Old Testament
prophet%i.e., the preaching of the gospel%which in later tradition took
on an added interpretation as presaging the <on of man *$esus+ being
three days and nights in the tomb *A/:E8 a later addition to 5atthew+"
E#en the antitheses in the <ermon on the 5ount are not new but
demonstrate a higher ethic%one that is sharpened strict more
immediate because the end time is percei#ed as coming soon" 6eople
who took this intensification of the 7aw upon themsel#es dared to do it
as an e)ample of Gmessianic licenseH%i.e., to use the ethics of the
Cingdom in the present in a church still under historical ambiguity and
in constant struggle with <atan"
At such points the peculiar nature of 5atthew comes into focus" The
sharpening of the 7aw and the messianic license for the disciples are
clearly there" At the same time 5atthew presents the ma)ims of $esus as
attracti#e to a wider audience with Hellenistic tastes: $esus is the
teacher of a superior ethic beyond casuistry and particularism"
<imilarly in chapter A1 he renders ma)ims about food laws as an
e)ample of enlightened attitudes not as rules for actual beha#iour"
According to 5atthew the GprofessionallyH pious were blind and
unhearing and these traits led to their replacement by those who are
called in 5atthew the Glittle onesH; in ,inal $udgment the CingD5essiah
will (udge according to their response to him who is himself represented
as one of Gthe least of these"H The depiction of $esus as 7ord Cing
$udge <a#iour 5essiah <on of man and <on of ;od *all messianic
titles+ is made in a highly pitched eschatological tone" The 7ord=s 6rayer
is presented in this conte)t and for e)ample the GtemptationH *trial
test+ of G7ead us not into temptationH is no ordinary sin but the ordeal
before the end time the coming of the Cingdom for which the 5atthean
church prays" 5artyrdom though not to be pursued can be endured
through the help of the <pirit and the e)ample of $esus"
The 6assion narrati#e is forceful and direct" 6ilate=s part in sentencing
$esus to be crucified is somewhat modified and the guilt of the $ews
increased in comparison with the 5arcan account" -n 5atthew the
>esurrection is properly witnessed by more than one male witness so
that there can be no ambiguity as to the meaning of the empty tomb"
The risen 7ord directs his disciples to go to ;alilee and the ;ospel
According to 5atthew ends with a glorious epiphany there and with
$esus= commission to the disciples%the church%to go to the ;entiles
because the risen $esus is 7ord of hea#en and earth for all time"
The ;ospel According to 7uke
7uke is the third in order of the canonical gospels which together with
Acts its continuation is dedicated by 7uke to the same patron Gmost
e)cellentH Theophilus" Theophilus may ha#e been a >oman called by a
title of high degree because he is an official or out of respect; or he may
ha#e been an e)emplification of the ;entile &hristian addressees of the
7ucan ;ospel" The account in 7uke@Acts is for the purpose of instruction
and for establishing reliability by going back to the apostolic age" The
#ery style of this preface follows the pattern of ;reek historiography
and thus 7uke is called the GhistoricalH ;ospel" Historically reliable
information cannot be e)pected howe#er because 7uke=s sources were
not historical; they rather were embedded in tradition and proclamation"
7uke is howe#er a historian in structuring his sources especially in
structuring his chronology into periods to show how ;od=s plan of
sal#ation was unfolded in world history" That he uses e#ents and names
is secondary to his intention and their historical accuracy is of less
importance than the schemati:ation by which he shows $esus to be the
<a#iour of the world and the church in its mission *Acts+ to be part of an
orderly progress according to ;od=s plan"
The sources of the ;ospel are arranged in the ser#ice of its theological
thrust with definite periodi:ation of the narrati#e" Appro)imately oneD
third of 7uke is from 5ark *about 48 percent of 5ark+; /8 percent of
7uke is deri#ed from K *sometimes arranged with parts of 7+" Almost 18
percent is from 7uke=s special source *7+ especially the infancy
narrati#es of $ohn the Baptist and $esus and parables peculiar to 7uke
*e.g., the prodigal son the good <amaritan the rich fool+" 7 material is
also interwo#en into the 6assion narrati#e" 'hile 5atthew structured
similar teaching materials in his fi#e discourses 7uke places them in an
e)tensi#e tra#el account that takes $esus from ;alilee to $udaea #ia
$ericho to $erusalem" This is similar to the ways in which Acts is
structured on the principle of bringing the word from $erusalem to >ome
*see below+"
The author has been identified with 7uke Gthe belo#ed physicianH
6aul=s companion on his (ourneys presumably a ;entile *&ol" E:AE and
AA; cf" -- Tim" E:AA 6hilem" /E+" There is no 6apias fragment concerning
7uke and only lateD/ndDcentury traditions claim *somewhat
ambiguously+ that 6aul was the guarantor of 7uke=s ;ospel traditions"
The 5uratorian &anon refers to 7uke the physician 6aul=s companion;
-renaeus depicts 7uke as a follower of 6aul=s gospel" Eusebius has 7uke
as an Antiochene physician who was with 6aul in order to gi#e the
;ospel apostolic authority" >eferences are often made to 7uke=s medical
language but there is no e#idence of such language beyond that to
which any educated ;reek might ha#e been e)posed" Of more import is
the fact that in the writings of 7uke specifically 6auline ideas are
significantly missing; while 6aul speaks of the death of &hrist 7uke
speaks rather of the suffering and there are other differing and
discrepant ideas on 7aw and eschatology" -n short the author of this
gospel remains unknown"
7uke can be dated c. 28" There is no con(ecture about its place of
writing e)cept that it probably was outside of 6alestine because the
writer had no accurate idea of its geography" 7uke uses a good literary
style of the Hellenistic Age in terms of synta)" His language has a
GbiblicalH ring already in its own time because of his use of the
<eptuagint style; he is a ;reek familiar with the <eptuagint which was
written for ;reeks; he seldom uses loanwords and repeatedly impro#es
5ark=s wording" The hymns of chapters A and / *the 5agnificat
beginning G5y soul magnifies the 7ordH; the Benedictus beginning
GBlessed be the 7ord ;od of -sraelH; the !unc 9imittis beginning G!ow
lettest thou thy ser#ant depart in peaceH+ and the birth narrati#es of
$ohn the Baptist and $esus either came from some early oral tradition or
were consciously modelled on the basis of the language of the
<eptuagint" These sections pro#ide insight into the early &hristian
community and the hymns in particular reflect the Old Testament
psalms or the ,hanksgi(ing )salms from Kumran" Though on the whole
5atthew is the ;ospel most used for the lectionaries the &hristmas
story comes from 7uke" The Gold ageH motif of the birth of $ohn to
Eli:abeth also recalls the Old Testament birth of <amuel the (udge" All
the material about $ohn the Baptist howe#er is deliberately placed
prior to that of $esus" 'hen 5ary the mother of $esus #isits Eli:abeth
$esus= superiority to $ohn is already established" The 9a#idic royal
tradition is thus depicted as superior to the priestly tradition"
'riting out of the cultural tradition of Hellenism and that of $ewish
'ana8im piety%i.e., the piety of the poor and the humble entertaining
messianic e)pectations%7uke has Ghumani:edH the portrait of $esus"
6iety and prayer *his own and that of others+ are stressed" 7o#e and
compassion for the poor and despised and hatred of the rich are
emphasi:ed as is $esus= attitude toward women children and sinners"
-n the &rucifi)ion scene the discussion between the robbers and $esus=
assurance that one of them would be with him in 6aradise as well as the
words G,ather into thy hands - commit my spiritbH%which are in
contrast to the cry of dereliction in 5ark and 5atthew%all point toward
the paradigm of the truly pious man" 6arables peculiar to 7uke%among
which are those of the good <amaritan the importunate friend the lost
coin and the prodigal son%ha#e an element of warmth and tenderness"
Thus 7uke Gci#ili:esH the more stark eschatological emphasis of 5ark
*and 5atthew+ leading the way perhaps to a lessening of
eschatological hopes in a time in which the imminent 6arousia was not
e)pected but pushed into the distant future"
The interplay between 7uke and Acts re#eals 7uke=s answer to the
coming of the Cingdom" Once the church has the Holy <pirit the delay
of the 6arousia has been answered for a time" Thus 7uke di#ides history
into three periods: *A+ the end of the prophetic era of -srael as a
preparation for re#elation with $ohn the Baptist as the end of the old
dispensation; */+ the re#elation of $esus= ministry as the centre of time%
with <atan ha#ing departed after the temptation and until he once
again appears entering into $udas to betray $esus; and *?+ the beginning
of the period of the church after $esus= 6assion and >esurrection"
&onsistent with this schemati:ation $ohn the Baptist=s arrest occurs
before $esus= Baptism though it is placed later in 5ark and 5atthew"
,rom the beginning the rule of the <pirit is a central theme important
in healing the ministry the message and the promise of the continued
guidance of the <pirit in the age of the church pointing toward part two
of 7uke=s work the book of Acts of the Apostles in which 6entecost *the
recei#ing of the Holy <pirit by A/8 disciples gathered together the 18th
day after Easter+ is a decisi#e e#ent"
$ust as 7uke arranges his ;ospel to show the di#ine plan of sal#ation in
historical periodi:ation so he orders its structure in accordance with a
geographical scheme" &hapter A *#erse 2+ of Acts pro#ides the
framework: after the coming of the <pirit the church will witness in
$erusalem in all $udaea and <amaria and then to the end of the
inhabited world" These places foreshadow the church=s mission" The end
of the old dispensation takes place in $erusalem and its en#irons" The
>esurrection appearances in 7uke are placed in $erusalem *5ark
5atthew and $ohn point toward ;alilee+" $erusalem is also the place of
the beginning of the church and the old holy place thus becomes the
centre of the new holy community" The necessity of suffering was made
clear and interpreted as the fulfillment of prophecy" >e(ection by people
from his old home !a:areth and by $ewish religious leaders
corresponds to the beginning of the ministry to the ;entiles%to the end
of the earth"
7uke=s account of the &rucifi)ion heightens the guilt of the $ews adding
a trial and mockery by Herod Antipas" The &rucifi)ion in 7uke is
interpreted as an anticipatory e#ent: that the &hrist must suffer by
means of death before entering into glory" $esus= death therefore is not
interpreted in terms of an e)piatory redempti#e act" The centurion who
saw the e#ent praised ;od and called $esus a righteous man thus
describing his fate as that of a martyr but with no special meaning for
sal#ation" The link between past sal#ation history and the period of the
church is through the <pirit; sal#ation history continues in Acts"
The fourth ;ospel: The ;ospel According to $ohn
Nni0ueness of $ohn
$ohn is the last ;ospel and in many ways different from the <ynoptic
;ospels" The 0uestion in the <ynoptic ;ospels concerns the e)tent to
which the di#ine reality broke into history in $esus= coming and the
answers are gi#en in terms of the closeness of the new age" $ohn from
the #ery beginning presents $esus in terms of glory: the &hrist the
e)alted 7ord mighty from the beginning and throughout his ministry
pointing to the &ross as his glorification and a re#elation of the glory of
the ,ather" The >esurrection together with $esus= promise to send the
6araclete *the Holy <pirit+ as witness spokesman and helper for the
church is a continuation of the glorious re#elation and manifestation
*;reek epiphaneia+"
-renaeus calls $ohn the belo#ed disciple who wrote the ;ospel in
Ephesus" 6apias mentions $ohn the son of Febedee the disciple as well
as another $ohn the presbyter who might ha#e been at Ephesus" ,rom
internal e#idence the ;ospel was written by a belo#ed disciple whose
name is unknown" Because both e)ternal and internal e#idence are
doubtful a working hypothesis is that $ohn and the $ohannine letters
were written and edited somewhere in the East *perhaps Ephesus+ as
the product of a GschoolH or $ohannine circle at the end of the Ast
century" The addressees were ;entile &hristians but there is accurate
knowledge and much reference to 6alestine which might be a reflection
of early ;ospel tradition" The $ews are e0uated with the opponents of
$esus and the separation of church and synagogue is complete also
pointing to a lateDAstDcentury dating" The author of $ohn knows part of
the tradition behind the <ynoptic ;ospels but it is unlikely that he knew
them as literary sources" His use of common tradition is molded to his
own style and theology differing markedly with the <ynoptics in many
ways" Jet $ohn is a significant source of $esus= life and ministry and it
does not stand as a Gforeign bodyH among the ;ospels" &onfidence in
some apostolic traditions behind $ohn is an organic link with the
apostolic witness and from beginning to end the confidence is
anchored in $esus= words and the disciples= e)perience%although much
has been changed in redaction" Traces of eyewitness accounts occur in
$ohn=s unified ;ospel narrati#e but they are interpreted as is also the
case with the other ;ospels" &lement of Ale)andria a lateD/ndDcentury
theologian calls $ohn the Gspiritual gospelH that complements and
supplements the <ynoptics" Although the ;reek of $ohn is relati#ely
simple the power behind it *and its GpoeticH translation especially in
the Cing $ames Bersion+ makes it a most beautiful writing" Barious
backgrounds for $ohn ha#e been suggested: ;reek philosophy
*especially the <toic concept of the logos, or GwordH as immanent
reason+; the works of 6hilo of Ale)andria in which there is an
impersonal logos concept that can not be the ob(ect of faith and lo#e;
Hermetic writings comprising esoteric magical works from Egypt
*/nd@?rd centuries A9+ that contain both ;reek and Oriental
speculations on monotheistic religion and the re#elation of ;od;
;nosticism a /ndDcentury religious mo#ement that emphasi:ed
sal#ation through knowledge and a metaphysical dualism;
5andaeanism a form of ;nosticism based on -ranian Babylonian
Egyptian and $ewish sources; and 6alestinian $udaism from which both
Hellenistic and $ewish ideas came" -n the last source there is a 'isdom
component and some ideas that possibly come from Kumran such as a
dualism of good #ersus e#il truth #ersus falsehood and light #ersus
darkness" Of these backgrounds perhaps all ha#e played a part but the
last appears to fit $ohn best" -n the thought world of $ewish ;nosticism
there is a mythological descending and ascending en#oy of ;od" -n the
prologue of $ohn there is embedded what is proclaimed as a historical
fact: The 7ogos *'ord+ took on new meaning in &hrist" The &reator of
the world entered anew with creati#e power" But history and
interpretation are always so ine)tricably bound together that one cannot
be separated from the other"
,orm and content of $ohn
-n $ohn there is a mi)ture of long meditational discourses on definite
themes and concrete e#ents recalling the structure of 5atthew *with
e#ents plus discourses+; and although the source problem is comple)
and research is still grappling with it there can be little doubt that $ohn
depended on a distinct source for his se#en miracles *the sign eor
semeiaf source+: *A+ turning water to wine at the marriage at &ana; */+
the healing of an official=s son; *?+ the healing of a paralytic at the pool
at Beth:atha; *E+ the feeding of the multitude; *1+ $esus walking on
water; *4+ the cure of one blind from birth; and *.+ the raising of 7a:arus
from the dead" -n chapter /8 #erse ?8 the purpose of the signs is
stated: G$esus did many other signs in the presence of the disciples
which are not written in this book; but these are written that you may
belie#e that $esus is the &hrist the <on of ;od and that belie#ing you
may ha#e life in his name"H
A ma(or part of $ohn is in the form of selfDre#elatory discourses by $esus"
<ome would assign these to a distinct source but they may rather be the
work of the author"
$esus= coming GhourH%the hour of his glorification%could not come
about at any bidding but only according to a di#ine plan and $esus is
obedient to it" The 6araclete is promised to come to the disciples and it
is necessary that $esus go away in order that the 6araclete may come to
the church" -n $ohn &hrist is depicted as belonging to a higher world
and his kingship is not of this world" He is said to ha#e come into this
world to his own people and they re(ected him but this is but another
e)ample of the church=s mission ha#ing passed both historically and
theologically to the ;entile milieu"
The &hristology in $ohn is heightened: though the <ynoptics ha#e $esus
speaking about the Cingdom in $ohn $esus speaks about himself" This
heightened &hristology can be seen in many of the G- amH sayings of
$esus :e.g., G- am the bread of lifeH+ in the conte)t of their discourses and
accompanying signs" This type of discourse is a concentration in terms
and titles of the way in which the 5essiah openly re#eals his identity by
a striking phenomenon: in the Old Testament the association with G-
amH is the re#elation of the name of ;od in the theophany
*manifestation of ;od+ to 5oses *E)odus+ and this theophanic
interpretation carries o#er in $ohn" $esus says G- amH with regard to his
function as 5essiah as di#ine" These sayings are selfDre#elatory
pronouncements: *A+ bread of life */+ light of the world *?+ door of the
sheepfold *E+ good shepherd *1+ resurrection and life *4+ way truth
and life and *.+ true #ine" <uch theophanic e)pressions are heightened
in other sayings: G- and the ,ather are oneH; GBefore Abraham was -
amH; GHe who has seen me has seen the ,atherH; and Thomas= cry after
the >esurrection G5y 7ord and my ;od"H
$ohn AE is a farewell speech one of a series before the 6assion" -n
testament form it is the bidding of farewell by one who is dying and
gi#ing comfort to those he lo#es" -n $ohn howe#er the eons *ages+
o#erlap" The significance of the farewell address thus is in the teaching
that $esus is ;od=s representati#e" The fact that he must go to the ,ather
means that the eschatological era already started in $esus= presence as
the &hrist and will be intensified at his death and manifested further in
the coming of the <pirit to the church" The times shift; the eschatology
%here and still to come%also shifts but remains on the whole reali:ed
in $ohn although there is still a tension between the GalreadyH and the
Gnot yet"H
$ohn=s allegorical thought is shown by his ending of the miracle of $esus=
walking on the sea" The frightened disciples took him into their boat
Gand immediately the boat was at the land"H This fits the pattern of
$ohn=s ;ospel namely that when $esus is with his church the new era
has already arri#ed and where $esus is there is the Cingdom fulfilled"
<imilarly the raising of 7a:arus in chapter AA is to demonstrate that the
power of the >esurrection of the fulfilled GeschatonH *last times+ is
already present in $esus as &hrist now not only in some future time"
Thus there would appear to be a Greali:ed eschatologyH in $ohn; i.e., the
last times are reali:ed in the person and work of $esus" The coming of
the <pirit the 6araclete howe#er is still to come so e#en in this most
eschatological ;ospel there is a building up a crescendo of
glorification" -n chapter A/ #erse ?/ $esus is depicted as saying G-
when - am lifted up " " " will draw all men to myselfH%again an
e)altation and glorification that points to the &ross" At the point of
death on the &ross $esus= words G-t is finishedH are interpreted to mean
that part of the GeschatonH is consummated fulfilled" After the finding
of the empty tomb there is a >esurrection appearance to the disciples"
This includes the Gdoubting ThomasH pericope which teaches that those
who ha#e to depend on the witness of the ;ospel are at no
disad#antage"
-n an appended chapter /A there is a touching story of the Apostle
6eter who ha#ing denied his 7ord thrice is three times asked by $esus
if he lo#es him" 6eter affirms his knowledge that $esus knows what lo#e
is in his heart and is gi#en the care of the church and a prediction that
he himself will be persecuted and crucified"
The numerous differences between the <ynoptics and $ohn can be
summed up thus: in $ohn eternal life is already present for the belie#er
while in the <ynoptics there is a waiting for the 6arousia for the
fulfillment of eschatological e)pectations" This $ohannine theology and
piety has great similarities to the #iews that 6aul critici:es in - &or" A1
*see below+" The contrast between 6aul and $ohn is e#en more striking if
one accepts the most plausible theory that $ohn as we ha#e it includes
passages *added later+ by which the reali:ed eschatology has been
corrected so as to fit better into the more futuristic eschatology that was
stressed in defense against the ;nostics" $ohn 1:/1@/2 is such a striking
correction"
The $ohannine chronology also differs from the <ynoptic" $ohn starts the
public ministry with the casting out of the money changers: the
<ynoptics ha#e this as the last e#ent of the earthly ministry leading to
$esus= apprehension" The public ministry in $ohn occupies two or three
years but the <ynoptics telescope it into one" -n $ohn $esus is crucified
on AE !isan the same day that the $ewish 6asso#er lamb is sacrificed; in
the <ynoptics $esus is crucified on A1 !isan" The difference in the
chronologies of the 6assion between $ohn and the <ynoptics may be
because of the use of a solar calendar in $ohn and a lunar calendar in the
<ynoptics" !e#ertheless the actual dating is of less importance than the
fact that $ohn places the &rucifi)ion at the time of the 6asso#er sacrifice
to emphasi:e $esus as the 6aschal lamb" There is no celebration of the
7ast <upper in $ohn but the feeding of the multitude in chapter 4 gi#es
the opportunity for a eucharistic discourse" Because $esus is regarded as
the &hrist from the #ery beginning of $ohn there is no baptism story%
$ohn the Baptist bears witness to $esus as the 7amb of ;od%no
temptation and no demon e)orcisms" <atan is #an0uished in the
presence of &hrist" Each of the four ;ospels presents a different facet of
the picture a different theology" Although in all the ;ospels there is
warning about persecution and the danger of discipleship each has the
retrospecti#e comfort of ha#ing knowledge of the risen 7ord who will
send the <pirit" -n $ohn howe#er there is a triumphant glorious
confidence: G-n the world you ha#e tribulation; but be of good cheer -
ha#e o#ercome the world"H
The Acts of the Apostles
As indicated by both its introduction and its theological plan *see The
;ospel According to 7uke+ Acts is the second of a twoD#olume work
compiled by the author of 7uke" Both #olumes are dedicated to
Theophilus *presumably an imperial official+ and its contents are
di#ided into periods" -n the ;ospel 7uke describes first the end of the
old dispensation and then the earthly life of $esus" !ear the end of the
;ospel the stage is set for the ne)t period: the Gnew dispensationH of
the church as presented in Acts" After the Ascension of the risen 7ord in
$erusalem *Acts A+ there is 6entecost called <ha#uot in Hebrew *i.e.,
Gthe 18th dayH after 6asso#er+" This $ewish festi#al of the re#elation of
the 7aw on 5t" <inai becomes the day when the <pirit is poured out" ,or
Acts this e#ent marks the beginning of a new era *Acts /+: as in 7uke
$esus endowed by the <pirit was led from !a:areth to $erusalem so in
Acts the outpouring of the <pirit at 6entecost leads the church from
$erusalem to >ome"
The purpose and style of Acts
Although the title Acts of the Apostles suggests that the aim of Acts is
to gi#e an account of the deeds of the Apostles the title actually was a
later addition to the work *about the end of the /nd century+" Acts
depicts the shift from $ewish &hristianity to ;entile &hristianity as
relati#ely smooth and portrays the >oman go#ernment as regarding the
&hristian doctrine as harmless" This book is the earliest Gchurch
historyH #iewing the church as guided by the <pirit until a future
6arousia *coming of the 7ord+"
6robably written shortly after 7uke *c. 21+ as a companion #olume in no
manuscripts or canonical lists is Acts attached to the ;ospel"
7uke edited his history as a series of accounts and thus Acts is not
history in the sense of accurate chronology or of continuity of e#ents but
in the ancient sense of rhetoric with an apologetic aim" The author
wea#es strands of #arying traditions and sources into patterns loosely
clustered around a nucleus of past e#ents #iewed from the #antage
point of later de#elopment"
The structuring of the material by time and geography may account for
the uni0ue way in which both the Ascension of &hrist to hea#en *E8 days
after the >esurrection+ and the outpouring of the <pirit at 6entecost *18
days after the >esurrection+ became fi)ed and dated e#ents"
The redactor *editor+ of Acts composed speeches with primary primiti#e
material within them; about oneDfifth of Acts is composed in this way"
This manner of using speeches was part of the style and purpose of the
work and was not unlike that of other ancient historians such as
$osephus 6lutarch and Tacitus"
-n the latter part of Acts are se#eral sections known as the GweD
passagesH *e.g., A4:A8 /8:1 /A:A2 /.:A /2:A4+ that appear to be
e)tracts from a tra#el diary or narrati#e" These do not howe#er
necessarily point to 7uke as a companion of 6aul%as has been
commonly assumed%but are rather a stylistic de#ice such as that
noted particularly in itinerary accounts in other ancient historical works
*e.g., 6hilostratus= ife of !pollonius of ,1ana+" Though the pronoun
changes from GtheyH to GweH the style sub(ect matter and theology do
not differ" That an actual companion of 6aul writing about his mission
(ourneys could be in so much disagreement with 6aul *whose theology
is e#idenced in his letters+ about fundamental issues such as the 7aw
his apostleship and his relationship to the $erusalem church is hardly
concei#able"
Acts was written in relati#ely good literary ;reek *especially where it
addresses the ;entiles+ but it is not consistent and the Coine
*#ernacular+ ;reek of the Ast century was apparently more natural to the
writer" There are some <emitisms especially when stressing $ewish
backgrounds; thus 6aul is called <aul in accounts of his con#ersion
e)perience on 9amascus road" -n chapter A. 6aul=s speech on the
Areopagus a hill in Athens that traditionally was the meeting place of
the city=s council for an intellectual Athenian audience is in good ;reek
assimilating ;entile thought patterns but is e)pressed in Old
Testament uni#ersalistic terms"
The content of Acts
The outline of Acts can be roughly di#ided into two parts: the mission
under 6eter centred in $erusalem *chapters A@A/+; and the missions to
the ;entiles all the way to >ome *cf. chapter A #erse 2+ under the
leadership of 6aul *chapters A?@/2+" The earlier sections deal with the
$erusalem church under 6eter and the gradual spread of the gospel
beyond $ewish limits *in chapters A8@AA for e)ample 6eter is led by the
<pirit to bapti:e the >oman centurion &ornelius+" >eferences to 6eter
are abruptly ended in chapter A/; $ames the brother of the 7ord has
become the head of the $erusalem church and 6hilip a ;reekDspeaking
missionary is commanded by the <pirit to bapti:e an Ethiopian eunuch"
6aul=s missionary (ourneys are traditionally separated into three: *A+
A?:A@AE:/2; followed by the &ouncil of $erusalem c. A9 EI *A1:A@?1+;
*/+ A1:?4@A2:// with a stop at Antioch; and *?+ A2:/?@/A:AE" After that
6aul is imprisoned and sent to >ome where Acts lea#es him witnessing
openly and unhindered in the capital of the Empire" These (ourneys may
be seen as a part of the writer=s Gtheological geographyH because they
form one continuous circuit%with stops on the way%between the
geographical poles of $erusalem and >ome" After the &ouncil of
$erusalem c. A9 EI the situation was changed and 6aul became the
spokesman for the whole &hristian mission"
The earliest chapters of Acts contain some primiti#e traditions
important both for any study of the early church and its preaching and
for the church=s own de#elopment of its understanding of itself and of
$esus" After 6eter healed a lame man he made a speech in chapter ? in
which $esus is proclaimed as the one appointed but who is now in
hea#en and who will come as the &hrist at the 6arousia *<econd
&oming+" -n his 6entecost speech in chapter / 6eter preached that ;od
made $esus 7ord and &hrist at his >esurrection"
The titles used for $esus show both a preser#ation of primiti#e tradition
and theology and a clear differentiation made by the writer between
$esus in his earthly life *in 7uke+ and reflection on him in Acts" &hrist
*5essiah+ is consciously used as the title of $esus; the title <on of man
used fre0uently in 7uke is used only once in Acts at the death of the
martyr <tephen when he is granted a #ision of the 7ord in glory" Early
titles Gser#antH and Grighteous oneH reflect the Old Testament
background of ;od=s Gsuffering ser#ant"H The Hellenistic term sa#iour
*soter+ is used in Acts in chapters 1 and A?" The more primiti#e
&hristologies and titles show not only a fle)ibility of traditions but also
the functional nature of !ew Testament &hristology"
Acts presents a picture of 6aul that differs from his own description of
himself in many of his letters both factually and theologically" -n Acts
6aul on his way to 9amascus to persecute the church is dramatically
stopped by a #isionary e)perience of $esus and is later instructed" -n his
letters howe#er 6aul stated that he was called by direct re#elation of
the risen 7ord and gi#en a #ocation for which he had been born
*recalling the call of an Old Testament prophet such as $eremiah+ and
was instructed by no man"
The account of 6aul=s relation to $udaism in Acts also differs from that in
his letters" -n Acts 6aul is presented as ha#ing recei#ed from the
$erusalem apostolic council the authority for his mission to the ;entiles
as well as their decision%the soDcalled apostolic decree *A1:/8; cf.
A1:/I+%as to the minimal basis upon which a ;entile could be accepted
into fellowship with $ewish &hristians" According to this decree ;entile
con#erts to &hristianity were to abstain from pollutions of idols *pagan
cults+ unchastity from what is strangled and from blood *referring to
the $ewish cultic food laws as showing continuity with the old -srael+"
&ircumcision howe#er was not re0uired an important concession on
the part of the $ewish &hristians"
-n Acts 6aul is not called an Apostle e)cept in passing and the
impression is gi#en contrary to 6aul=s letters that he is subordinate to
and dependent upon the twel#e Apostles" 'hen 6aul entered a new city
he went first to the synagogue" -f his message of the gospel was
re(ected he turned to the ;entiles" According to 6aul=s missionary
practice and theology the message had first to be spoken to the $ews as
a reminder that &hristianity is grounded in redempti#e history; this
pre#ents the connection with the old -srael from being forgotten"
Because most $ews re(ected 6aul=s message the author proclaimed that
sal#ation thus passed to the ;entiles"
>oman authorities are depicted as treating 6aul *and other &hristians+
in a (ust manner" The author repeatedly stressed that the >oman
authorities did not find fault with the &hristians but rather #iewed
&hristian@$ewish antagonisms merely as one problem among $ewish
factions" 'hile in &orinth during a conflict with the $ews the >oman
proconsul of Achaea in ;reece ;allio refused to hear the charges
brought against 6aul because according to >oman law they were
e)tralegal" On a later occasion in Ephesus during a conflict with the
sil#ersmiths who deri#ed their income from selling statuettes of the
goddess 9iana 6aul was protected from local antagonisms and a riot by
>oman authorities" Toward the end of his career after ha#ing been in
the protecti#e custody of the $udaean procurator ,eli) 6aul was heard
by ,eli)=s successor ,estus and the $ewish king Agrippa -- and had he
not appealed to &aesar as a >oman citi:en he could ha#e been set free"
He thus had to go to >ome to be tried and that is the last that is heard
about him in Acts"
The doctrine of the Holy <pirit is a dominant theme in Acts as it is in
the ;ospel According to 7uke" $ust as $esus started his public ministry in
7uke by reading from the Book of -saiah: GThe <pirit of the 7ord is upon
me " " "H so also in Acts the new age of the <pirit began at 6entecost
which is #iewed as the fulfillment of the prophecy of $oel that in the new
age the <pirit would be poured out on all men" That persons from many
nations heard in their own tongues the mighty works of ;od has been
#iewed as a re#ersal of the Tower of Babel narrati#e with languages no
more confused and people no longer scattered"
Although 6eter <tephen and 6aul are central figures in Acts the piety
of the humbler members of the church also permeates the book" &hurch
structure and organi:ation with apostles disciples elders prophets
and teachers e)hibits great fluidity" 6aul in bidding farewell at 5iletus
to the elders from Ephesus e)horted them to Gtake heed " " " to all the
flock in which the Holy <pirit made you guardians *bishops+ to feed the
church" " " "H Offices may be con#eyed by prayer and laying on of hands
but there is little stress on distinction of office or succession thus
indicating a #ery early period in the life of the church"
Because 6eter Gdeparts and goes to another placeH and 6aul is left
under house arrest awaiting trial the readers appear to be left in
suspense concerning the fates of these two leaders" The readers
howe#er probably knew what had happened to them%i.e., that these
Apostles had e#entually been martyred sometime in the 48s before Acts
was written" 'hat is more the interest in Acts is not in the fates of 6eter
and 6aul; the gospel has finally reached >ome the center of the
oikoumene *Gthe inhabited worldH+ and thus the ending is suitable to
the book%6aul is left Gpreaching the kingdom of ;od and teaching
about the 7ord $esus &hrist 0uite openly and unhindered"H
The 6auline 7etters
Background and o#er#iew
-n the !ew Testament canon of /. books /A are called GlettersH and
e#en the >e#elation to $ohn starts and ends in letter form" Of the /A A?
belong to the 6auline corpus; the 7etter to the Hebrews is included in
the 6auline corpus in the East but not howe#er in the 'est" Three
letters of this corpus the 6astoral 7etters are pseudonymous and thus
are not considered here" Of the remaining A8 the 7etters to the
&olossians and Ephesians are from the hand of a later 6auline follower
and -- Thessalonians is spurious" How this 6auline corpus was collected
and published remains obscure but letters as part of Holy <cripture
were an early established phenomenon of &hristianity"
The church was poor and widespread and in the early stages e)pected
an imminent 6arousia" 5ore formal sacred writings were thus
superseded in importance by letters *e.g., those of bishop -gnatius of
Antioch+ that answered practical 0uestions of the early churches"
The letters of 6aul written only about /8@?8 years after the crucifi)ion
were preser#ed collected and e#entually Gpublished"H -n general they
answered 0uestions of churches that he had founded" 'hen all the
6auline 7etters as a corpus were first known is difficult to determine"
Because 6auline theology and some 0uotations and allusions were
certainly known at the end of the Ast century the 6auline 7etters
probably were collected and circulated for general church use by the
end of the Ast century or soon thereafter" A disciple of 6aul possibly
Onesimus may ha#e used Ephesians as a co#ering letter for the whole
collection"
The letters ;alatians and >omans both contain an e)tensi#e discussion
about the 7aw *Torah+ and (ustification *in language not found in the
other letters+ to sol#e the problem of the relation of &hristianity to
$udaism and of the relationship of $ewish &hristians with ;entile
&hristians" ;alatians is older and differs from >omans in that it deals
with $udai:ers%i.e., ;entile &hristians who were infatuated with $ewish
ways and championed $ewish ceremonial law for ;entile &hristians" On
the other hand >omans speaks to the 0uestion of the $ews and the
&hristian faith and church in ;od=s plan of sal#ation"
-n - and -- &orinthians *which may include fragments of much &orinthian
correspondence preser#ed in a somewhat hapha:ard order+ there is no
preoccupation with either $ews or $udai:ing practices" They deal with a
church of ;entile &hristians and are therefore the best e#idence of how
6aul operated on ;entile territory"
The earliest book in the !ew Testament is - Thessalonians which is
concerned with the problem of eschatology" Though -- Thessalonians is
ob#ious in its imitation of the style of - Thessalonians it reflects a later
time elaborates on - Thessalonians and is thus not #iewed as genuine"
6hilippians may be a composite letter in which #arious themes of
6auline teaching are held together by a testament form" Thus it is a
compendium without too specific a focus on the 6hilippian situation"
6hilemon although addressed to a house church is uni0uely concerned
with the fate of a sla#e being returned to his master with the hope that
he will be forgi#en and be sent back to help 6aul in prison an e)ample
of manumission in 6aul=s name"
Ephesians appears to be dependent on &olossians and both although
using the 6auline style reflect a time and imagery sometimes different
from and later than 6aul=s genuine letters" Ephesians co#ers the content
of &olossians in more compact form and may be a co#ering letter for the
entire 6auline corpus by a disciple or other later 6aulinist"
The style of 6aul=s letters is an admi)ture of ;reek and $ewish form
combining 6aul=s personal concern with his official status as Apostle"
After his own name 6aul names the addressees or congregation being
addressed and adds Ggrace and peace"H This is often followed by
thanksgi#ings and intercession that are significantly adapted to the
content and purpose of the letter" 9octrinal material usually precedes
ad#ice or e)hortation *parenesis+ and the letters conclude with personal
news or admonition and a blessing: GThe grace of our 7ord $esus &hrist
be with you"H 6aul=s letters were probably dictated to an amanuensis
*who might be named for e)ample <osthenes - &or" A:/+ and some
greetings were written at the end of the letters in his own hand" They
were ob#iously meant to be read aloud in the church howe#er and thus
their style is different from that of purely personal letters"
The 7etter of 6aul to the >omans
>omans differs from all the other 6auline letters in that it was written to
a congregation o#er which 6aul did not claim apostolic authority" He
stressed that he was merely going to >ome in transit because it was his
principle not to e#angeli:e where others had worked" Because his
apostolic ministry appeared to be completed in Asia 5inor and ;reece
6aul planned to go to <pain #ia >ome a city that he had ne#er #isited"
Before going westward howe#er he first had to go to $erusalem to
deli#er to the church there a collection of money"
Because 6aul was going to a church he had not founded his writing to
the >oman &hristians offered him an opportunity to present his
theological #iews in a systematic way which he had not done in other
letters" 6aul reflected on how his special mission fitted into ;od=s plan
for the sal#ation of mankind of both $ews and ;entiles%a theme that
reached its clima) in chapters I@AA" &hapters A@2 unfold with great
specificity how the coming of $esus the 5essiah has made it possible for
the ;entiles to become heirs to ;od=s promises" His argument is at first
negati#e stating that neither ;entile nor $ew could effect his own
sal#ation" He then shows a new way in which e#entually both can be
deli#ered from the bondage of sin by being (ustified%i.e., made Gright
with ;odH%not through acceptance of the 7aw but by faith in the
crucified 7ord"
The theological section *chapters A@AA+ is followed *as is often the case
in 6auline letters+ by ethical instructions" There is little doubt about the
integrity of >omans A@A1; the letter was written from &orinth c. 14"
&hapter A4 howe#er seems to be a later addition" -t contains numerous
salutations to indi#iduals *which is unusual in that 6aul had ne#er been
to >ome+ and an antinomian *antilegalistic+ tone that would be more
appropriate to the situation in Asia 5inor" The do)ology *A4:/1@/.+ is
rhetorical and its #ocabulary is not in keeping with that of 6aul=s usual
thought" Because the do)ology occurs in different manuscripts in
#arying positions in the course of te)tual transmission it is probably
secondary" &hapter A4 may thus preser#e portions of a letter or letters
from some other time or to some place other than >ome possibly
Ephesus"
-n chapter A #erses A@A. there are greetings and thanksgi#ings leading
to the main theme of the letter: the gospel is
the power of ;od for sal#ation to e#ery one who has faith *i.e., that $esus
is the 5essiah+ to the $ew first and also to the ;reek" ,or in it the
righteousness of ;od is re#ealed through faith for faith; as it is written
GThe righteous shall li#e by faith"H
6aul took this sentence from the Old Testament Book of Habakkuk
chapter / #erse E not as a principle but as a prophecy now fulfilled"
Thus the translation should read Gwill li#eH rather than Gshall li#e"H This
does not refer to ;od=s faithfulness but rather to the belie#er=s trust"
$ustification by faith is not howe#er the answer to the 0uestion of man
plagued by conscience about his sal#ation nor is it deep theology" -t is
rather an argument totally grounded in the problem of the relationship
of $ews and ;entiles%i.e., how it will be possible for the ;entiles to be
fellow heirs with $ews and how both $ews and ;entiles can be members
of the church" -n chapters /@? both ;entiles and $ews are demonstrated
to ha#e fallen short of the glory of ;od and to be under condemnation" A
turning point howe#er is emphasi:ed in chapter ?: GBut now the
righteousness of ;od has been manifested apart from law" " " "H
$ustification is a gift through $esus &hrist and his e)piating death for the
sal#ation and #indication of all who belie#e in him" Because all this is
through &hrist and not by works of the 7aw sal#ation is e0ually
a#ailable to the ;entiles as well as to the $ews" ,or both the means is
the same: faith in $esus the &hrist"
The central problem after chapter 2 which describes the glory of the
new dispensation in &hrist and the <pirit *presented in chapters I@AA+
centres on the mystery re#ealed to 6aul namely that the ;entiles
should be incorporated and be fellow heirs with the $ews" This is what
6aul yearned for with respect to his fellow $ews" 'hat makes it e0ually
possible for $ew or ;entile to come to &hrist is (ustification by faith with
the 7aw #iewed as obsolete because &hrist is the end of the 7aw
*chapter A8 #erse E+" Thus there are in effect no distinctions between
;entile and $ew" 6aul #iewed his ministry as ha#ing made possible the
inclusion of the ;entiles; as an apostle to the ;entiles he ne#er urged
them to carry on a mission to the $ews" He en#isaged the $ewish
acceptance of &hrist as a mystery beyond human planning and effort a
di#ine e#ent that will be the clima) of history"
The ethical section *A/:A@A1:A?+ has no special reference to a situation
in >ome" A close analysis shows that 6aul here repeats thoughts and
admonitions that are more specific in other letters" A metaphor of the
church as a body *A/:1+ for e)ample is styli:ed and compressed as
compared with the fuller use of the same in - &orinthians chapter A/
and the pattern of weakness and strength in matters of food is best
understood in the light of the fuller e)position in - &orinthians chapters
2 and A8"
The ,irst 7etter of 6aul to the &orinthians
This letter is part of 6aul=s correspondence with the &orinthian
congregation founded by him and composed of ;entile &hristians" The
problems of ;alatians and >omans written to &hristians with $ewish
and >oman legal concepts are different from those of - &orinthians and
thus the (ustification language is absent"
E)cept for the brief communication with 6hilemon *see below+ -
&orinthians is the most specifically practical situationDoriented of
6aul=s letters" !o other 6auline letter is so directly de#oted to the
consideration of practical and theological problems many of them
apparently communicated by the congregation through correspondence
or by delegations" The letter therefore does not tend to stand as a unit
and it is not uniform in its treatment of the #arying situations"
7iterary criticism%or redaction%has traditionally split the letter into
se#eral fragments with a presumed historical de#elopment within a
relati#ely short period in the &orinthian church" 6aul=s reference to a
pre#ious letter of his in chapter 1 #erse I has been the ob(ect of
scholarly efforts to restore the earlier letter" The fragmentary and notD
tooDuniform nature of both - and -- &orinthians howe#er precludes
much probability of success in such searches"
'riting from Ephesus c. 1? or 1E upon hearing from a certain &hloe=s
people that the church was rent by party factions 6aul tried to bring
unity to the congregation" 'hether these factions actually represented
outside interference *e.g., &ephas e6eterf Apollos or others+ or were
factions of the congregation under the influence of a widespread heresy
of the time is a 0uestion perhaps best answered by the fact that the
factions do not come up again after - &orinthians chapter A and that -
&orinthians chapter ? reduces the factions to Apollos and 6aul who
claims he is head of no party" The &hrist GpartyH%i.e., those who claim
no party at all%*A:A/; cf. ?:/?+ may be the only GpartyH 6aul ad#ocated
because &hrist is not di#ided" 6aul warned that &hristians should not
fashion themsel#es into parties under #arious leaders because all these
leaders are ser#ants of &hrist and stewards of the mysteries of ;od
through whom &hristians come to belief" The church is not a society
with competiti#e philosophical schools"
The letter is a response to difficulties caused or increased by a relati#ely
strong group in &orinth that may be described as Genthusiasts"H This
group of enthusiasts may ha#e been protoD;nostics *early religious
dualists not yet organi:ed into definite sects+" The &orinthian
enthusiasts did howe#er ha#e some characteristics that would later be
found in /nd@?rdDcentury ;nosticism: a belief in sal#ation through
spiritual knowledge or wisdom communicated by a re#ealer *not a
redeemer+; an otherworldliness that could lead either to licentiousness
*scorn+ or asceticism *withdrawal+; and a basically dualist and
deliberately syncretistic system of beliefs using the mythical
speculations and magical ideas of their time"
The &orinthian problems might well be traced to such enthusiasts" Their
gnosis *Gesoteric knowledgeH+ was a religious knowledge that ga#e them
the feeling of superiority o#er more pedestrian &hristians" This gnosis
6aul identified as false wisdom" -n chapter AE 6aul describes the #iews
and related practices of those maintaining that they ha#e spiritual gifts
of inspiration especially speaking in tongues *glossolalia+ and gnosis.
<uch enthusiasts pri:ed elo0uent or secret wisdom; they sought a
re#ealer who had come into the world hidden from the e#il powers and
known only to those the pneumatikoi, or the spiritual elite who
recogni:e him; and they tolerated gross immorality by claiming
anything to be lawful for them *especially their slogan 0uoted by 6aul:
Gfor me all things are lawfulH+" These enthusiasts also re(ected marriage
because it furthered the propagation of the present e#il world; they
claimed to possess knowledge that made them indifferent to the world;
and they belie#ed that their sal#ation was guaranteed by ritual and
rites" Though they pri:ed spiritual gifts they scorned the ordinary
&hristian ser#ices for the community; and they did not belie#e in a
future resurrection of the dead which in their system had no place or
was nonsense"
The main 6auline answer *e.g., as emphasi:ed in chapter A?+ was that
lo#e namely concern for the building up of the community surpasses all
knowledge or spiritual gifts and that lo#e is a correcti#e because it
demands ser#ice edification *i.e., building up+ of the church and
in#ol#es &hristians with one another" Those &orinthians whom 6aul
#iewed as opponents emphasi:ed gnosis o#er against lo#e" The
discussion of the resurrection in chapter A1 sheds further light on this"
The opponents did not deny the >esurrection of $esus &hrist about
which there was common agreement but rather they debated about the
future resurrection of &hristians from the dead" Their #iew was perhaps
similar to that reported as heresy in -- Timothy chapter / #erse A2%
i.e., the belie#er already had eternal life and that a future resurrection of
the body was meaningless" -n holding such a #iew 6aul=s opponents
claimed they were faithful to the recei#ed kerygma *proclamation+"
Another indication that some &orinthians had no disagreement with
tradition but interpreted it too enthusiastically is found in - &orinthians
chapter AA" The liturgical formula pertaining to the 7ord=s <upper is
sound:
The 7ord $esus on the night when he was betrayed took bread and when
he had gi#en thanks he broke it and said GThis is my body which is for
you" 9o this in remembrance of me"H -n the same way also the cup after
supper saying GThis cup is the new co#enant in my blood" 9o this as
often as you drink it in remembrance of me"H *AA:/?@/1"+
-n a discussion of the sacraments in chapter A8 howe#er the
enthusiasts probably belie#ed in a rather magical efficacy of Baptism
and the Eucharist though 6aul 0ualified such an interpretation and took
e)ception to it" The misunderstanding of the enthusiasts points to a
special reinterpretation of <cripture and tradition *which resembles that
of the AstDcentury $ewish philosopher 6hilo and also the later ;nostics+
%taking <cripture tradition and liturgical practices as effecti#ely
bringing about an otherworldly spiritual reality immediately for those
who really understand *i.e., those who ha#e gnosis+" 6aul also critici:ed
these spiritualists for their disregard of the poor members of the
congregation who found no food left when they came from their work"
9iscussions about &hristian and apostolic freedom *in chapters 1 4 .
I and AA+ and also a discussion about being free to eat meat that had
been sacrificed to idols and lefto#ers of pagan sacrifices sold in the
marketplace were caused by conflicts with the enthusiasts who paraded
their spiritual freedom strength and superiority at the e)pense of their
weaker brothers in the faith who were not ready for this freedom" A
shift in the discussion in chapter A/ *the body and its members are
e0ual in &hrist+%from a #ery speculati#e idea of the body of &hrist to a
more metaphorical one that is reminiscent of <toic philosophical ideas
about society as an organism%can best be understood if it is assumed
that the enthusiasts actually pressed for a mythical understanding of
&hristianity in which one became literally incorporated into &hrist
otherworldly and di#ine" 6aul added some 0ualifications that brought
the church into concrete e#eryday life and e#en pro#ided a source of
political reality" A somewhat drastic understanding of spiritual gifts that
was presupposed and critici:ed by 6aul in chapters A/@AE fits well into
such a pattern"
6ermeating all the discussion of indi#idual topics in - &orinthians is the
theme of &hristian unity and edification a topic introduced and
underscored in the preface and thanksgi#ing of this letter and in its
introduction" <uch unity is defended as being #ery inclusi#e real and
concrete%as o#er against the enthusiastic attempt to speak in terms of
spiritual reality and achie#ement in which the true life of the spirit is
only for the few *i.e., the ;nostic elitists+"
6aul #iewed the necessity of unity in the wisdom of ;od as it is e#inced
in the scandal of the cross" -n order to deflate the e)alted and to make
foolish the destructi#e *speculati#e+ wisdom established by men ;od
showed his wisdom in the GfoolishnessH of $esus= crucifi)ion" Here
although hidden is ;od=s true wisdom" The opponents hailed their ideal
teachers as bringers of hidden wisdom" To this 6aul said that it is &hrist
who is the 'isdom"
-n chapters 1 and 4 6aul dealt with certain ethical scandals and
difficulties in the congregation: incest and fornication; the use of pagan
courts for settling disputes among &hristians; traffic with prostitutes%
all for the demonstration of &hristian Gfreedom"H These wrongs might
ha#e been the direct or indirect conse0uences of the spiritual GpowersH
of the enthusiasts" According to 6aul howe#er such immorality was
impossible for the &hristian because of the concreteness of his
allegiance to &hrist and of inspiration *with the idea of the body as the
temple of the Holy <pirit+"
Because 6aul e)pected an imminent 6arousia *<econd &oming of
&hrist+ he suggested *chapter .+ the unmarried state as the preferable
one but conceded that marriage can pre#ent fornication" 6aul e#en
ad#ised against breaking up mi)ed marriages between bapti:ed
&hristians *both $ews and ;entiles+ and unbapti:ed ;entiles" He
ad#ocated the practice of ascetics li#ing together as G#irginsH male and
female although he took this as a strain that is hard to bear and thus
suggested marriage in unbearable cases" !ot only the imminence of the
6arousia but also radical change *Gthe form of this world is passing
awayH+ caused 6aul on the whole to affirm the social status 0uo%
whether it concern circumcision sla#ery or other matters" E#erybody is
ad#ised to remain%for the short time ahead%in the state in which he
finds himself" <uch eschatological fer#our caused 6aul to argue against
any worldly an)iety fear or worries stemming from them" This is
reflected in the ethical criterion of possessing things as though one did
not ha#e them"
-n chapter I 6aul used his own conduct in contrast to that of the
enthusiasts who flaunted their freedom in such a way that it often had
destructi#e influences as a paradigm for an understanding of
responsible freedom" Here he showed by #arious e)amples from his own
lifeDstyle that he had ne#er made use of his rightful pri#ileges to the
fullest that he has rather been guided by what ser#es the weaker
brothers and sisters" -t is in this sense that he subdued his body and
that he urged the spiritual GsnobsH to imitate him"
-n chapters AA@AE 6aul turned to problems of corporate worship" 6aul
did not 0uestion the right and ability of prophetically gifted women to
make inspired statements in &hristian worship but he pointed out that
women need protection" Arguments about a #eil or long hair for a
woman are in the conte)t of the church=s worship before ;od himself in
which the congregation worships in the presence of the angels" 6aul
stressed the subordination of women in chapters AA and AE; they are
forbidden to speak in worship" -n chapter AE 6aul stated *perhaps+ a
general principle that would allow for e)ceptions in cases of clear
prophetic inspiration of women *cf. howe#er ;alatians chapter ? #erse
/2+"
-n discussion of proper restraint and mutual regard in celebrating the
7ord=s <upper 6aul seemed to presuppose a prior common meal
*possibly an agape meal+ as part of the eucharistic celebration" This
common meal howe#er had apparently been de#alued because of the
interest of the enthusiasts in the sacrament itself" As a result the
communal aspect showed up social differences in the community; and
some brought ample food whereas others of lower station had
nothing" -n #iew of this 6aul again used the criterion of lo#e and
suggested that people eat their meal at home and then come together
being sensiti#e to each other=s needs" The 7ord=s <upper would then be
what it is a proclamation of the death of &hrist in anticipation of his
return; mutual and corporate concern and responsibility thus become a
part of the Eucharist"
<imilarly mutual edification and lo#e are linked in chapter A? as the
appropriate centre of the discussion of spiritual gifts manifested
particularly in public worship *chapter AE+"
The emphasis on the communal aspect of the church is continued in
chapter A1" 6aul did not dwell on his own #ision of &hrist nor on his role
in founding the church at &orinth but rather argued for the resurrection
of all as a future e)perience not as though each person had already had
this e)perience" 6aul #iewed the resurrection as a collecti#e
phenomenon in the e)pectation of an endDtime resurrection from the
dead with &hrist as the first fruits of those who ha#e died"
That lo#e is to e)tend beyond the immediate community and be shared
with all the saints *members of the church+ is demonstrated in chapter
A4 the closing chapter by the collection for the $erusalem church" The
keynote might be: G7et all that you do be done in lo#e"H The final
passage%including the cry: GOur 7ord comebH%may reflect or repeat a
eucharistic formula or setting"
The <econd 7etter of 6aul to the &orinthians
This letter as is - &orinthians is composed of a collection of fragments
of 6aul=s correspondence with the &orinthians about a year later *i.e., c.
11+ from 5acedonia" The di#ersity of - &orinthians was caused by the
#ariety of problems discussed but the di#ersity of -- &orinthians was the
result of a reflection of the underlying rather turbulent history of 6aul
and his congregation" A pattern of fragments that make up --
&orinthians can be understood in terms of a de#elopment that can be
reconstructed" ;aps and editorial seams in this pattern are more
recogni:able and abrupt than those in - &orinthians and a more original
order for -- &orinthians can be restored by fitting together blocks of
material that ob#iously belong with one another in terms of conte)t and
unity of thought"
Though historical settings can be reconstructed with a high degree of
#alidity to account for the fragments of -- &orinthians later editorial
processes account for the order in which the fragments appear in the
letter as it is now written" Based on both internal and e)ternal e#idence
-- &orinthians probably was later than - &orinthians which was written
after 6aul=s first trip to &orinth" !ot long before the composition of --
&orinthians 6aul was in mortal danger in Asia and tra#elled to
5acedonia where he remained"
!ew apostles and heresies had apparently in#aded the &orinthian
congregation and 6aul sent his companion Timothy to try to bring them
back to the true gospel as 6aul had preached it" This mission was
apparently unsuccessful and 6aul in chapters / to . wrote to the
church with a defense of his apostolic office still counting on the loyalty
of the &orinthians" His letter apparently did not change things and
there is some dispute as to whether 6aul himself made an intermediate
second #isit to &orinth that was abruptly cut short by conflict with a
member of the &orinthian church who #iolently opposed him" He
considered such a second #isit but according to chapter / #erse E and
chapters A8 to A? he sent Titus to &orinth with a strongly polemical
Gletter of tearsH and an)iously awaited his return going from Troas to
5acedonia to meet him"
6aul had almost been in despair o#er the &orinthians but Titus and the
letter seemed to ha#e restored the &orinthian church to order" Titus and
some of his companions were then sent to take up the collection for the
church at $erusalem a sign of &hristian mutual lo#e and unity" He took
with him 6aul=s Gletter of reconciliationH which was written from
5acedonia and which can be noted in chapter A #erse A to chapter /
#erse ?; chapter . #erses 1 and 4; and chapter 2" -n chapter 2 the
5acedonians are held up as an e)ample of generosity" A similar section
regarding the collection is in chapter I and the Achaeans *and probably
their capital city &orinth+ were cited as an e)ample to the 5acedonians
for generous gi#ing" This was probably sent shortly before 6aul=s third
*and last+ #isit to &orinth" ,rom &orinth 6aul wrote to the >oman church
a letter that shows no sign of difficulties with the &orinthians and that
presumed the con#eying of the collection to $erusalem"
-f the &orinthian contro#ersy had been smoothed out a 0uestion is
raised as to why -- &orinthians ends in the Gletter of tearsH rather than in
the Gletter of reconciliation"H This may be understood if the literary
order of the se#eral sections was arranged by a redactor who collected
the fragments probably in the last decade of the Ast century" The
redactor may ha#e used a GformH amply illustrated in &hristian writings
of the late Ast and early /nd century; one of the endDtime e)pectations
was that Gfalse prophets would show signs and wonders to lead the
elect astrayH and chapters A8@A? deal with Gfalse prophetsH and
Gser#ants of <atan"H <uch warnings were placed at the end of writings of
that time"
<e#eral abrupt editorial seams that resulted from an arrangement of a
letter of reconciliation an apology on the nature of 6aul=s apostolic
authority a polemic against opponents two letters concerning the
collection and a possible nonD6auline insertion *in chapter 4 #erse AE
to chapter . #erse A+ can thus be understood" The reconciliation of
chapters A and . is hardly in agreement with 6aul=s elaborate defense of
his ministry in chapter /" E#en more (arring to such a reconciliation is
the polemic of chapters A8@A?" These latter chapters are #iewed as a
substantial fragment of 6aul=s Gletter of tearsH after which the
&orinthians disengaged themsel#es from outside agitators and caused
them to lea#e" <uch opponents who are mentioned in chapter AA #erse
E and who tried to attract the congregation away from 6aul=s ideas
were probably Helleni:ed $ewish &hristians from 6alestine"
The outside agitators *who pro#oked the response of chapters A8@A?+
probably were &hristians who imitated the HellenisticD$ewish
missionaries and had de#eloped an elaborate propagandi:ing
missionary theology and practices analogous to the missionary
mo#ements in the pagan world" Their goal was to pro#e the spiritual
power of their own religion in conscious and aggressi#e competition
with other religions thus hoping to attract others and con#ert them to
&hristianity"
The ma(or criteria for successful competition were affinity or identity
with the ancient 5osaic traditions and ob(ecti#e manifestations of the
current power of that tradition in the form of miraculous
demonstrations" The link between the ancient traditions and the current
careers of the itinerant missionaries was the record of $esus as
understood from the miracle stories of the ;ospels%a demonstrated
epiphany of the powers of the <pirit" These missionaries were seen as
Gdi#ine menH as were the heroes of old" Their miracles were to be
imitated" <uch traditions about $esus as a wonderDworker might ha#e
been used by 6aul=s opponents with o#erDemphasis on such works as
criteria of power"
That which 6aul attacks as GbraggingH or GboastingH particularly the
preaching of the soDcalled GsuperDapostlesH in chapter AA #erse 1 was
probably understood by his opponents as no more than faithful
testimony to and a demonstration of the spiritual powers of tradition
as they percei#ed it in their own e)periences" To them faithfulness to
$esus was primarily the acknowledgment of $esus= being the most
powerful Gdi#ine manH and secondarily their establishment and
maintenance of relationship to him through imitation in their powerful
demonstrations and wondrous acts"
6aul *who in - &orinthians chapter A had ad#ocated the dialectic of the
cross+ would thus be discredited by miracleDworking men like the
opponents in -- &orinthians" 6aul=s credibility and #alidity as an Apostle
came into 0uestion along with his &hristology which was a Gtheology of
the cross"H &onfronted with the challenge of the powerful GsuperD
apostlesH 6aul=s message could be distorted as hiding his own inability
or incapacity%an apostle who dared not take money because being an
ineffecti#e speaker and a weak person he had nothing for which to ask
payment" His defense was 6aul=s first attempt to deal with these new
problems caused by in#ading opponents who had undercut his
authority"
6aul centred his defense around the issue most debated; true
apostleship and his own sufficiency" Because he deri#ed his ministry
from ;od himself as a ser#ant preaching not himself but $esus &hrist as
7ord no Gpeddler of ;od=s word or selling or recommendation is called
for but only the li#ing record%i.e., the people brought to belie#e in
&hrist" 6aul 0uickly alluded to his own weakness and Gcarrying in the
body the death of $esus so that the life of $esus may also be
manifested " " "H *chapter E #erse A8+" 6aul found his weakness one of
the things that made him one with the 7ord and that made his ministry a
true ministry of $esus &hrist who was crucified through weakness but
li#es by the power of ;od%as does his true apostle" This weakness
seems to refer to a physical handicap of 6aul=s *epilepsyU+ the Gthorn in
the fleshH that interfered with his tra#el plans"
6aul placed his own apparent weakness in which he proclaimed that
;od had manifested himself against the boastings of the GsuperD
apostles"H Nnlike them he strikes a nonDheroic note" -t is confidence in
the power of $esus= >esurrection that produces glory for the ;ospel
message and final *eschatological+ reward and recognition for the
Apostle"
Though 6aul may himself sound GenthusiasticH his statements are
made with a realistic assessment of the world as demonstrated not
least in the sufferings of 6aul himself" Emphasis on ;od=s act of grace
howe#er makes 6aul urge the &orinthians to accept him and to reach
out to the promise of ;od=s sal#ation e#en in the present"
6aul=s defense of his apostleship and a following #isit did not succeed"
Agitation from outside opponents apparently increased and solidified"
The Gletter of tearsH reflects this situation" 6aul re#ealed himself
personally coming close to autobiographical statements" 6aul spoke of
himself only with theological purpose and as part of his tactical
argument with his opponents concerning attitudes and conduct" His
point was that a style of life is a reflection of an underlying theology" He
demonstrated to his opponents that his work for the church is
constructi#e and that though he boasted of his ministry he boasted
only Gof the 7ordH of the work &hrist had done through him"
-n his soDcalled fool=s speech in which he blatantly asked the
&orinthians to Gbear with me in a little foolishnessH 6aul adopted the
techni0ue of the mime of the street theatres of his times consciously
drawing on the laughter and mockery of his audience but then he
successfully re#ersed the scene and made his audience reali:e that in
laughing at him they mocked themsel#es thus re#ealing the per#ersion
of their criteria of superiority" 6aul used metaphorical images
identifying the congregation with the bride $esus as the bridegroom
himself as the best man and <atan *the opponents+ as the adulterer" The
plot assumed a successful seduction and the best man who
recommended the bride stands dispro#en" 6aul then pretended to try to
shift this balance by bragging about himself and scolding both seducers
and the seduced" He accepted no inferiority to the opponents%the
seducers *GsuperDapostlesH+%and claimed that they preached another
&hrist than the true &hrist and brought another spirit and that he would
accept no support from the church that was led astray"
-n chapter AA 6aul continued to boast Gas a foolH claiming to ha#e all
the 0ualifications of his opponents but that he was more truly a
representati#e of &hrist" This he e)plained e#er more intensely in an
ironic and almost sarcastic trend in the dialectic of the soDcalled fool=s
speech" He boasted not of strength but of weakness%though he could
boast of ecstatic e)perience as his opponents had%and that he had
learned through bitter e)perience *possibly a chronic illness+ that he
must not e)alt himself but rather that he has been told through a word
of &hrist that his power is made perfect in weakness" -n the enumeration
of his 0ualifications 6aul has (ested Gas a foolH concerning his suffering
#isions miraculous hea#enly tra#els and oracles" Jet it is clear that
through &hrist these modes of e)perience and communication ha#e
been transformed" Thus 6aul establishes that he is a true apostle and
not inferior to the GsuperDapostles"H
6aul e)pressed his intention of #isiting the congregation and told them
that he desired to come not as a (udge but as a father" !either he nor
Titus had or would decei#e or take ad#antage of them" At this the end
of the Gletter of tearsH 6aul announced his possible third #isit and
re#ealed a definite fear that he might be forced to act as a (udge of the
congregation which was increasingly falling away from the apostolic
gospel" 6aul howe#er still hoped that reconciliation might be
accomplished that truth would pre#ail and that his authority could be
used for building up rather than destruction" He e)horted the
community to keep peace and blessed them"
The Gletter of reconciliationH found in chapters A / and . assumed
that Titus had returned with good news of the &orinthians their
eagerness to pro#e that they had amended their ways" 6aul responded
with a report of the consolation this had brought him and of the gra#e
danger he had escaped *in prison in Ephesus+" He e)horted the church
at &orinth to remember the &hristian message in lo#e%of 6aul for them
and of the congregation for him" The shadow between 6aul and the
&orinthians had been dispersed and 6aul reaffirmed his constant and
continuous concern for them and ;od=s lo#e in &hrist manifest in
Baptism and the gift of the <pirit" 6aul interceded for a man who had
offended him and forga#e him" 6aul then told the &orinthians of his
eagerness for Titus= news of them that occasioned his special trip to
5acedonia" This news brought (oy and consolation; therefore 6aul
urged the &orinthians again to forgi#e the man who had offended him"
,ragments of two letters concerning the collection for $erusalem a sign
of unity of the church *chapter 2 especially being close to the Gletter of
reconciliationH and chapter I a fragment probably later than chapter 2+
are signs that 6aul=s relation to the &orinthians again became close and
(oyful" The collection was a bond of mutual and reciprocal relationship
that reached its clima) in thanksgi#ing and praise of ;od" ,or the whole
church he e)claimed: GThanks be to ;od for His ine)pressible giftbH
The 7etter of 6aul to the ;alatians
6aul=s 7etter to the ;alatians is a forceful and passionate letter dealing
with a #ery specific 0uestion: the relation of $ewish &hristians and
;entile &hristians in the church the problem of (ustification through
faith not works of the 7aw and freedom in &hrist" 6aul probably wrote
from Ephesus c. 1?@1E to a church he had founded in the territory of
;alatia in Asia 5inor"
This congregation had been GunsettledH since his last #isit to ;alatia"
;entile &hristians $udai:ers who were fascinated with $ewish customs
and festi#als and who asserted that ;entiles must adhere to the 7aw
the Torah had attempted to undermine 6aul=s message and
effecti#eness" The $udai:ers belie#ed that ;entile &hristians should be
circumcised and keep the $ewish food laws" There were probably some
$ewish &hristians in this church but the ma(ority were ;entile
&hristians" 6aul attacked the $udai:ers #igorously by defending his own
call and the independence of the re#elations of his personal apostolate"
This is supported by reports of agreement between him and the
$erusalem church and by argument from <cripture" -n these he pro#ed
that the 7aw was gi#en only a limited role in the total history of
sal#ation" The letter ends with 6aul pointing out that through the <pirit
the &hristian in faith is admonished to good beha#iour and brotherly
lo#e" He admonishes faith in the cross of &hrist wishes peace upon his
followers and prays for mercy on -srael"
This 6auline letter is the only one without either kindly ingression
thanksgi#ing or personal greetings appended to the final blessing" -t is
#ery specific in dealing with the problems concerned" -n chapter A an
account of 6aul=s call he defended his apostolic office ha#ing recei#ed
it directly from ;od in the re#elation of &hrist" He pro#ided
autobiographical data concerning his former persecution of the church
and :eal in his $ewish tradition" He referred to his call on the model of
that of the Old Testament prophets called by ;od in order that they may
ser#e him and said that his mission had been re#ealed to him to be the
apostle to the ;entiles" 6aul #iewed himself as being chosen to be an
instrument to take the message of ;od and &hrist to the ;entiles a call
rather than a Gcon#ersion e)perience"H Handpicked as ;od=s ser#ant
*sla#e+ he recei#ed a re#elation%not from men but by secret knowledge
from ;od%that the ;entiles will come to the &hristian faith without the
7aw the Torah of the $ews" He himself could bear the 7aw but he was
told that the ;entiles do not need the 7aw in order to be accounted
righteous" The con#iction that the ;entiles stand e0ual before ;od was
reinforced by his #isit to $ames &ephas *6eter+ and $ohn in $erusalem
who confirmed his mission en(oining him only to remember the poor
*probably reference to the $erusalem collection+" ,aith in &hrist has thus
superseded righteousness of works and the 7aw is no longer needed"
The freedom of the gospel is the theme de#eloped in chapters ?@E in a
series of allegoricalDtypological interpretations based on the 7aw" 6aul
first recalled the co#enant promise to Abraham: that he Gbelie#ed ;od
and it was reckoned to him as righteousnessH and that through Abraham
all nations would be blessed"
-n chapter ? there is a comple) line of thought: &hrist has redeemed
men from the curse of the 7aw by becoming a GcurseH for men; &hrist
has taken away this curse by accepting it himself in order that all men
by faith might recei#e the <pirit that was promised" But the promise had
already been made to Abraham and his seed *singular+ the 5essiah
&hrist; the 7aw had come only E?8 years later a sign that it is not
eternal" -n this chapter 6aul constructed arguments against the 7aw"
,irst the 7aw was added because of transgressions committed first by
the people who caused 5oses to shatter the first tablets of the 7aw and
was thus not ultimate but rather timeDbound limited and tainted by the
e#il reality it had to counteract; secondly the 7aw was gi#en only for a
restricted time from 5oses Gtill the offspring should come to whom the
promise had been madeH *i.e., &hrist+; thirdly the 7aw came Gordained
by angels through an intermediaryH who is not ;od and thus is neither
something glorious in itself nor the absolute manifestation of the
sal#ation of ;od" 6aul e)panded on the 7aw in the image of a
pai+agogos *instructor or custodian+" <uch a custodian is now not
needed and ser#ed only as a restraint so that in ;od=s timetable of
sal#ation the ;entiles could be deli#ered after the 7aw has been
Goutgrown"H 6aul then showed the reasoning behind his statement that
the 7aw was obsolete: in &hrist *i.e., in the church+ there are no di#isions
between ;reek and $ew sla#e or free male or female%all di#isions or
partitions are broken down"
6aul=s arguments are bold" He e#en claimed that as heirs through
&hrist men were no longer bound under the elemental powers of the
uni#erse which were apprehended as negati#e as was the 7aw in
6aul=s mind" -n chapter E the $udai:ers are said to keep themsel#es like
many ;reeks under astrological powers%not unlike the $ewish
calendar of feasts%which kept man according to 6aul ensla#ed by
cosmic order" But to those free from the 7aw and possessing the <pirit
sonship and inheritance can come by adoption" Thus 6aul was negati#e
in ;alatians concerning the 7aw and taught that freedom from it brings
unity and the fruits of the <pirit"
-n chapters 1@4 6aul listed catalogs of #irtues and #ices fruits of the
<pirit or the flesh and stressed mutual forgi#eness in the church" This is
an e)hortatory section that leads to the closing of the letter in 6aul=s
own hand and to his stress on seeing his only glory in the cross of
&hrist"
The 7etter of 6aul to the Ephesians
The authenticity of Ephesians as a genuinely 6auline epistle has been
doubted since the time of the 9utch Humanist Erasmus in the A4th
century" -t is most reasonable to consider it as GdeuteroD6aulineH%i.e.,
in the tradition of 6aul but not written by him" The problem of Ephesians
cannot be sol#ed apart from that of &olossians because many
similarities are noted in the style and de#elopment of 6auline thought
into cosmic imagery; yet they treat different problems" -n both the
heritage of 6aul is preser#ed by a G6aulinistH and it is on this basis that
Ephesians and &olossians were accepted into the canon" Both are
Gcapti#ity epistlesH ostensibly written by 6aul from prison" Of the A11
#erses in Ephesians .? ha#e #erbal parallels with &olossians; and when
parallels to genuine 6auline letters are added 21 percent of Ephesians
is duplicated elsewhere" -t would appear that Ephesians is dependent on
an earlier more specifically oriented &olossians and it may be that
Ephesians uses combines and condenses the material of &olossians for
its own needs"
Though &olossians is directed e)plicitly and strongly against a
particular $udai:ing protoD;nostic heresy%i.e., an incipient form of a
religious dualistic system that emerged as a #ery attracti#e heretical
mo#ement in the /nd century%Ephesians is not polemically oriented
and is not clearly connected to a particular congregation its problem or
its indi#iduals" Though Ephesians uses a letter style with an
introduction greeting and closing benediction the only person
mentioned in it is Tychicus already mentioned in the same conte)t in
&olossians" The doctrinal section shows that the whole world%not only
the $ews%is in a cosmic sense sub(ected to &hrist and $ew and ;entile
are reconciled and united through him" This is the mystery of ;od=s plan
re#ealed to the church through 6aul but e)panded in scope" All are
sa#ed and reconciled through &hrist who has made both $ew and
;entile one and has Gbroken down the di#iding wall of hostilityH
bringing peace and unity" The author of Ephesians continues 6auline
language and makes it more 6auline than 6aul himself"
After the address%which according to the best manuscripts lacks a
reference to Ephesus%there is a hymn of praise to ;od in terms of a
cosmic plan of redemption" Through the ascended &hrist sal#ation is for
all and he is the head of the body his church" Because the address and
thanksgi#ing are to the church in general *the place name Ephesus
being an early gloss+ it is possible that Ephesians was meant as an
encyclical to be distributed perhaps as a co#ering letter for the whole
6auline collection" The Gmystery of ;od=s willH *chapter A #erse I+ is
spelled out in chapter / as the reconciling act of &hrist for both ;entile
and $ew" -n chapter ? 6aul=s role in gi#ing knowledge of this mystery in
his ministry leads to a do)ology" After this semiDepistolary form the
general admonitions follow in terms of gifts of grace with stress on
unity: one hope one 7ord one faith one baptism one ;od for all" A
warning against a heathen way of life is gi#en in contrast with the
&hristian=s old nature as opposed to his new being in &hrist" -n chapter
4 #erses A8@/8 the &hristian is en(oined Gto put on the whole armor of
;odH as defense against e#il and Ephesians ends as a letter with a
blessing"
The &hristology and ecclesiology imply a background of a &hristiani:ed
mythological protoD;nosticism or a strongly Helleni:ed $udaism"
6erhaps one of the best clues to the lateness and pseudonymity of
Ephesians in comparison with the genuine 6auline letters howe#er is
the phrase Gre#ealed to his *&hrist=s+ hol1 apostles and prophets by the
<pirit"H <uch an e)pression is certainly later than 6aul and looks back on
the apostolic age as a time in the past"
A possible date is shortly after &olossians in the early /nd century"
Because there are so many similarities to &olossians Asia 5inor might
be the place of composition but this is merely con(ecture" The nonD
6auline use of the term mystery to denote that ;entiles are fellow heirs
with $ews the uniting of all in &hrist and an analogy between marriage
and &hrist=s relation to the church all point to a different and later time
than that of 6aul" The style of Ephesians builds up long almost
unmanageable unpunctuated e)cited and abundant sentences e#en
longer than those of 6aul when he is most pro#oked or perhaps
absentminded and does not finish sentences that he begins" A
comparison of the table of duties of &olossians ? and Ephesians 1 and 4
also shows a strong de#elopment in the direction of making the
relationship of &hrist and his church the basis for all other relationships"
The eschatology of Ephesians is attenuated if not far in the background
and a continuation of the church is implied" -n chapter A #erse A? the
writer sees the <pirit as the guarantee *down payment+ of the &hristian=s
inheritance%a present indication through the <pirit that the &hristian
can li#e in faith in the world looking for the Cingdom but already sure he
can draw on the powers thereof without an imminent e)pectation of the
endDtime" Ephesians gi#es hope for uni#ersal sal#ation grace as a gift of
;od strength in patience and an e)ample of unity for the church as well
as freedom in the <pirit to attain maturity as a &hristian"
The 7etter of 6aul to the 6hilippians
-n its present canonical form 6hilippians is according to se#eral
scholars a later collection of fragments of the correspondence of 6aul
with the congregation in 6hilippi that was founded by 6aul himself" The
first of the two ma(or difficulties leading to this conclusion concerning
redaction of the letter is created by a discrepancy between chapters /
and ?%i"e" an entirely une)pected polemic in chapter ? after a calm
second chapter" Another ma(or difficulty is the relationship of chapter E
#erses A8 and following with 6aul=s (oyful acceptance of his suffering
and the remainder of the present letter that deals with the collection the
6hilippians had made and sent to 6aul in prison" The place of the
e)pression of 6aul=s gratitude at the end of the letter is odd particularly
because Epaphroditus the 6hilippian delegate con#eying the gift is
thanked as though he had (ust arri#ed; yet he has already been
described as ill when he was with 6aul *who apologi:ed in chapter / for
not ha#ing told about Epaphroditus= illness sooner and the delay in
sending him back+" Jet Epaphroditus is ob#iously back and the
se0uence of e#ents is indeed confusing"
The following rearrangement of the parts of the letter is probably
acceptable" &hapter E #erses A8@/8 shows 6aul reacting to the gift of
the 6hilippians and the arri#al of its bearer Epaphroditus and seems to
be the earliest fragment written probably during 6aul=s imprisonment
*c. 1?@1E+" The portions of the letter that treat of the theme of mutual
(oy *A:A@? E:E@. and probably E:/A@/? that refers back to chapter A+
are best taken together as fragments of a second and somewhat later
letter" The third section is ?:/@E:? and possibly E:2@I which addresses
the danger caused by outsiders and opponents who had started to
penetrate the 6hilippian congregation with a theology 6aul considered
heretical and against which he aimed his polemic" Because this is an
entirely new situation it is probably a third letter of which only the
preface is missing" This arrangement also attempts properly to account
for the fact that chapter E actually comprises endings of se#eral letters"
Thus chapter ? #erse A which is itself a summation and ending fits in"
The reference to fre0uent #isits between 6aul and the 6hilippians
referred to in the correspondence makes its origin in >ome unlikely and
points rather toward Ephesus as the place of imprisonment" 6aul=s
reaction to the gift of the 6hilippians is almost rude *although he
accepted gifts from no other congregation but preferred to support
himself during his apostolic mission+" He actually a#oided e)pressing
direct gratitude and attempted to di#ert the significance of the gift from
its material side to its spiritual meaning" He emphasi:ed the sympathy
pro#en by the 6hilippians the importance of the #alue of the gift for
them as a spiritual sacrifice for ;od"
The Gletter of (oyH section describes 6aul=s enthusiasm in his mission
efforts%and their success%and his (oy in the energy and growth of the
mission in 6hilippi which 6aul shared with his congregation" 6aul=s
address to Gbishops and deaconsH terms uni0ue in 6aul=s letters e)cept
here are perhaps circumlocutions for missionaries acti#e in 6hilippi a
congregation that had become a strong and stable &hristian community"
6aul had traditionally remained there about one week and in chapters A
and / encouraged and praised the 6hilippians for continuing in their
faith in his absence" This is part of the thanksgi#ing in 6hilippians%an
emphasis on the participation cooperation collaboration and empathy
of the 6hilippians with respect to the preaching of the gospel" Thus the
terms bishop and deacon may belong to the language of a selfD
supporting mission church with its own o#erseers *bishops+ and workers
*deacons+ and does not carry the connotations of later ecclesiastical
structures" 6aul e)pressed his confidence in the fine beginning of this
young church that sought Gto become pure and blameless for the day of
&hristH the final (udgment"
6aul then turned to his own e)perience of imprisonment which he
#iewed as ad#ancing the gospel" Though he considered that not all
preachers of &hrist preach on the basis of selfless moti#es the fact that
&hrist is proclaimed is a most important cause for re(oicing" 6aul then
e)horted the 6hilippians to work hard for the sake of the gospel not
minding any opposition and to do this in a sense of unity and mutual
support"
This e)hortation toward a strong and acti#e sense of community was
reinforced by 0uoting an early &hristian hymn that described the
humiliation *kenosis+ and e)altation of $esus who is made the 7ord of
the uni#erse and confessed by all cosmic powers" A part of $esus=
humiliation his death on the cross can be taken as part of his manifest
glorification" The #erses following the hymn make clear that the
incorporation of the hymn with its triumphal ending also has a
missionary purpose because 6aul emphasi:ed again the need to
responsibly act out one=s own calling e#en before nonD&hristians" Thus
acti#e responsibility continuously e)ercised in the perspecti#e of the
approaching 6arousia merges with 6aul=s own readiness to sacrifice
himself"
-n chapters ?@E the situation may be totally different" 6aul reacted to
the threat of the appearance of $ewishD&hristian missionaries who are
rather close in theology to the ;alatian $udai:ers" 6aul=s polemic
indicates that in addition to $ewish tradition they must ha#e
emphasi:ed the 7aw in particular" >eference is made to circumcision
and 6aul emphatically claimed that he could compete with heretics
boasting of their $ewish tradition and in elaborating on that
emphasi:ed his former pious righteousness under the 7aw in which he
was blameless" He then stressed categorically that for him the
e)perience of &hrist has terminated his former piety completely and that
he has left it behind as of no #alue" <uch a polemic implies that for his
opponents such was not the case" 6aul also argued against libertinistic
tendencies which indicates that his opponents were not legalists in an
ordinary sense but combined faithfulness to the 7aw with a strong and
fanatical enthusiasm that could lead toward GmysticismH and easily be
misinterpreted as libertinism" 6aul=s emphasis on true &hristian
e)perience as not being completed but rather still being in the state of
e)pectation might be a further polemic against o#erenthusiasm" -n
chapter E #erse 2 6aul reaffirms his own e)ample making it in
imitation of the teaching of popular philosophy the epitome of all
positi#e ethical #alues and #irtues and thus the pattern to be imitated"
This tendency toward the paradigmatic together with warnings and
autobiographical material in chapter ? #erse / to chapter E #erse ?
can be seen as a GtestamentH of 6aul consciously written with an
awareness of impending death or martyrdom" Thus 6aul presents
himself%his life ideas admonitions and an eschatological section%as
his heritage and as an incorporation of the message he preached and its
#alue"
The 7etter of 6aul to the &olossians
&olossians presents the problem of ha#ing on the one hand numerous
*though superficial+ affinities with the circumstances of the 7etter of
6aul to 6hilemon while on the other hand being addressed mainly to a
different situation" -n this new situation he uses ideas and e)pressions
that seem to be rather a de#elopment of 6auline ideas about the cosmic
realm than genuinely 6auline argumentation" -n this latter aspect
&olossians and Ephesians share the heritage of 6aul but a later
G6aulinistH changed details to meet different situations"
&olossians was written ostensibly by 6aul from prison *in Ephesus+ to a
predominantly ;entile &hristian congregation founded by his coDworker
Epaphras at &olossae" The &olossian congregation was endangered by a
heresy in#ol#ing a GphilosophyH that was connected with the elemental
spirits of the uni#erse to which men seemed to be bound with
circumcision feast days and food laws #isions and an asceticism that
was not only false in its piety but foreign to the &hristian faith"
To combat these protoD;nostic syncretistic and $udai:ing tendencies
the 6aulinist appealed to the authority of 6aul=s apostolate and his
thought but accented his theology in a new way enlarging 6aul=s
theological dimensions so that they included the whole uni#erse the
fate of the entire cosmos" This whole world is depicted as sub(ect to
&hrist and has its meaning aim and goal in the church which is &hrist=s
body and o#er which he is the head" This transformation of 6aul=s
theology would appear to be somewhat later than 6aul yet not so much
later than 6hilemon and its import has been forgotten" &olossians
cannot be dated or placed with certainty but the end of the Ast century
or the beginning of the /nd century has been suggested"
-n a first edition before the 6aulinist changed or added to it &olossians
seems close to the situation of 6hilemon" -n both letters 6aul is in
prison" Onesimus appears in &olossians chapter E and the readers of
&olossians are asked to transmit a special in(unction through the church
of the 7aodiceans to Archippus%possibly that the former sla#e
Onesimus now referred to as a Gbelo#ed brotherH be freed for ser#ice
of the gospel" The same fi#e names appear in 6hilemon and &olossians
*&ol" E:A8 ff"; cf. 6hilem" /?+ which is unusual because the church at
&olossae is strange to 6aul" The lost letter to the 7aodiceans may
possibly be the 7etter to 6hilemon and the re0uest to the sla#e owner
would by being read aloud in a neighbouring large church *&olossae+
reinforce 6aul=s re0uest that the sla#e be freed"
7ater substantial redaction has ob#iously taken place howe#er and it is
the heresy at &olossae rather than the situation of 6hilemon that is
mainly addressed in &olossians" Though 6aul asserted that he did not
preach and e)hort where another has founded a church here the
6aulinist using and amplifying 6auline theology taught ga#e thanks
and interceded for a church that he did not found and that was in danger
of accepting heretical $udai:ing teachings thus falling away from &hrist"
The doctrinal section of &olossians sets forth in a hymn &hrist=s
preeminence o#er the whole cosmos all principalities and powers to
bring redemption through the cross and to be the head of the body the
church"
,rom this cosmological beginning the style and imagery differ from the
authentic 6auline letters" &olossians is wider and broader in scope with
long almost breathless sentences" There is a hierarchy in &hrist being
head of the body his church which differs from the 6auline e)pression
of e0uality of all the members although with differing functions *cf. -
&orinthians chapter A/ and >omans chapter A/+"
The &hristology is applied to the situation of the church and 6aul=s role
in behalf of the church%his suffering with &hrist and knowledge of
;od=s mystery &hrist%is used to bolster his defense against heresy"
This polemic is based first on tradition and then proceeds to specific
warnings against false teaching cult or practice" An admonition Gto set
your minds on the things that are abo#eH because in Baptism the
&hristian has died and been raised with &hrist is followed by the
conclusion that the &hristian=s conduct should be ruled by lo#e and be
thus free from all wrongdoing"
Another difference from the genuine 6auline letters can be noted in this
latter section" 'hen 6aul referred to the resurrection of &hristians he
used the future tense in most cases but &olossians chapter / #erse A/
and chapter ? #erse A presuppose that because the &hristian is risen
with &hrist ethical demands can be made"
-n &olossae such &hristian ethics apparently were lacking thus the
inclusion of a table of duties%i.e., a list of household duties and of
relations between members of a household" ;eneral e)hortations to
prayer and right conduct are followed by the conclusion of the letter
with its list of greetings" There are some similarities in &olossians to
6aul=s polemic against $udai:ers in ;alatians but &olossians seems to
reflect a later time and a more de#eloped GcosmicH theology of a later
deuteroD6auline writer"
The ,irst 7etter of 6aul to the Thessalonians
-n all probability - Thessalonians is the earliest of 6aul=s letters
particularly because the memory of the e#ents that led to the founding
of that congregation are still fresh in the mind of the Apostle" The letter
was written from &orinth" According to - Thessalonians chapter ? #erse
/ 6aul had sent Timothy to Thessalonica from Athens during his brief
stay there had (ust e)perienced the delegate=s return and had recei#ed
reports about the congregation to which he is reacting in this letter" -
Thessalonians gi#es e)pression to 6aul=s surprise o#er the rapid growth
of the &hristian mission at Thessalonica which was achie#ed despite
immediate persecutions from pagan contemporaries" 6aul
acknowledged that the successful de#elopment had been wrought in the
Thessalonians by their own acceptance fully recogni:ing the human
frailty of the Apostle their founder */:A@A/+ and not by a mistaken
understanding that he himself was di#ine"
6aul=s surprise results therefore in o#erwhelming gratitude and the
customary 6auline thanksgi#ings here e)ceed the usual limits" A second
reason for this unusually long thanksgi#ing%which actually makes
thanksgi#ing the theme of the letter%is 6aul=s intent to undergird the
encouragement he gi#es in E:A?@1:AA" After ha#ing dwelt so e)tensi#ely
on his being mo#ed by the change in the Thessalonians 6aul continues
to state that therefore they ha#e no reason for gi#ing up faith in the face
of the death of some fellow &hristians who had died between their
con#ersion and the e)pected imminent 6arousia of &hrist" Apparently
they had e)pected the 6arousia and final sal#ation as the promise of the
&hristian message" 6aul encouraged his congregation that he had a
Gword of the 7ordH that the dead and the li#ing in &hrist will rise
together" G'ord of the 7ordH could refer to a word of $esus known to
6aul but could instead be a direct re#elation to 6aul"
-n chapter 1 there is further thanksgi#ing emphasi:ing the present gift
and power of &hristian faith and corporate &hristian life" This emphasis
is linked with ethical applications with stress on brotherhood diligence
in keeping the faith and religious industriousness" The difficulties of
balancing the e)pectation of the &hristian with ;od=s timetable is
outweighed by the hope and (oy in what has already been e)perienced
and what is hoped for" 6aul=s real emphasis is more on the actual
description of &hristian life in the face of coming sal#ation and
#indication than on the preceding discussion of the fate of those who
had died or on the actual circumstances of &hrist=s appearance from
hea#en"
The encouragement of the Thessalonians was introduced in chapter E by
a genuinely ethical e)hortation to proceed properly on the way to
holiness and sanctification already begun" The bre#ity of this rather
traditional e)hortation is most unusual in 6aul=s letters and supports
the obser#ation that it was written in (oy and confidence for a new
congregation well begun in order to support it against attacks and
doubts as it matured in the faith"
The <econd 7etter of 6aul to the Thessalonians
A feature of -- Thessalonians that resembles the otherwise most unusual
feature of - Thessalonians is its e)cessi#ely long thanksgi#ing" 'ithin
this thanksgi#ing there is an e)cursus dealing with the timing of the
6arousia but in -- Thessalonians 6aul aggressi#ely argues against any
e)pectation of an imminent coming of &hrist that might be e)pected
from the things he wrote in - Thessalonians" -- Thessalonians perhaps
presupposes - Thessalonians and intimates that belie#ers had a false
understanding of that communication of 6aul" -n -- Thessalonians much
to the surprise of the reader of both letters the statement is made that a
letter Gpurporting to be from usH is Gto the effect that the day of the
7ord has come"H -- Thessalonians then presents a problem as to whether
it was a selfDcorrection of 6aul or directed to the situation of a later time
and thus the writing of a later author in a G6aulineH tradition" --
Thessalonians does ha#e more apocalyptically catastrophic language
than - Thessalonians" <uch a description not only underestimates the
positi#e work of ;od and &hrist for the belie#er but also says little about
the 6arousia" -- Thessalonians claims that not all the e#ents preceding
the 6arousia ha#e yet occurred" The Gmystery of lawlessnessH opposed
to the Gmystery of godlinessH is still at work in the world and the full
acti#ity of <atan has not yet unfolded itself" Emphasis in --
Thessalonians is on steadfastness as ;od=s gift and promise in the days
of tribulation which makes the apostle ask for support in prayer"
&riticism of people leading disorderly and idle li#es follows" The
perhaps casual admonition to work is thus elaborated into a ma(or
point"
<al#ation seems to be sought almost e)clusi#ely in futuristic terms"
-ncipient or actual ;nosticism in the church could account both for the
assertion that the fulfillment has already come and for the depiction of
disorderly li#es *because in GprotoD;nosticH terms the world is e#il and
pro#okes a response either of total renunciation or libertinism+" --
Thessalonians may thus reflect these problems and fit into the late Ast
century" Berbal agreements between the two letters may be e#idence of
deliberate spurious writing as also the suggestion in -- Thessalonians
that false letters may be circulating" A later author saw 6aul=s heritage
threatened by too enthusiastic an understanding of 6aul in
Thessalonians and composed this letter to preser#e 6aul=s meaning"
The 6astoral 7etters: - and -- Timothy and Titus
The 6astoral 7etters as a unit
The ,irst and <econd 7etters of 6aul to Timothy and the 7etter of 6aul to
Titus three small epistles traditionally part of the 6auline corpus are
written not to churches nor to an indi#idual concerning a special
problem but to two indi#idual addressees in their capacity as pastors or
leaders of their local churches" The purpose of the letters is to instruct
admonish and direct the recipients in their pastoral office" <ince the
A2th century they ha#e been referred to as a unit the 6astoral 7etters
and they contain common in(unctions to guard the faith to appoint
0ualified officials to conduct worship and to maintain discipline both
personally and in the churches" Their similar peculiarities of style and
#ocabulary as well as the similarity of the heresies and other problems
they faced place them in a common time and allow them to be dealt with
as a unit" Their content presents a picture of the postDapostolic church
when pastoral offices and tradition came to the fore and the formerly
high apocalyptic tension appears attenuated"
The 5uratorian &anon *a list of biblical books from c. A28+ includes
references to the 6astoral 7etters and notes that they were written Gfor
the sake of affection and lo#e"H They ha#e a place in the canon because
Gthey ha#e been sanctified by an ordination of the ecclesiastical
discipline"H These letters howe#er do not appear among the 6auline
letters in 6 E4 an earlyD?rdDcentury manuscript and there is no clear
e)ternal attestation in the primiti#e church concerning them until the
end of the /nd century" !ot until the AIth century were doubts
e)pressed about the 6astorals as being authentically 6auline when
;erman scholars and others noted discrepancies in style and
#ocabulary church organi:ation heresies biographical and historical
situations and theology from those found in the 6auline letters" The
problems of authorship authenticity and dating almost paraly:e
in#estigation of the 6astorals unless discussion of these problems is
seen as connected also with the literary character of the material"
Attempts ha#e been made to apply the tools of statistical analysis in
comparing these disputed letters to the rest of the !ew Testament
*particularly to the 6auline corpus+ for the purpose of establishing
authorship" The studies utili:ing computer technology point toward
nonD6auline authorship with affinities to language and style of a later
possibly /ndDcentury date" 5ore refined and comple) analyses
howe#er are still needed"
7inguistic facts%such as short connecti#es particles and other
syntactical peculiarities; use of different words for the same things; and
repeated unusual phrases otherwise not used in 6aul%offer fairly
conclusi#e e#idence against 6auline authorship and authenticity"
&ontent and problems
&hurch offices are more de#eloped in the 6astoral 7etters than in 6aul=s
time" There are presbyters and bishops but these are sometimes used
interchangeably and the monarchical episcopate is not yet depicted
although church offices appear to be heading in that direction"
>e0uirements for office are strict and leaders are chosen and ordained
by laying on of hands" <uch leaders must be able to teach true and
sound doctrine and guard what has been entrusted to them the
paratheke%i.e., the deposit of teaching or the message to be carried on"
They must also be able to stand firm and argue against heresy" <uch
offices and aims suggest an e)pectation of future generations of faithful
witnesses to carry on the traditions perhaps particularly necessary as
some may be killed for the witness they make"
The heresies referred to appear to be ;nostic and the arguments are
rather mild and reasonable unlike 6aul=s urgency in combatting heresy
with strenuous argumentation" The heresies taught by false teachers are
an early partly Encratitic *abstaining+ ;nosticism with Ghigher
knowledgeH that emphasi:es Ggodless and silly mythH or are
statements that the resurrection has already taken place which is a
denial of future resurrection and a glorification and spirituali:ing of
resurrection as a rebirth as for e)ample in Baptism"
Biographical notes about 6aul=s (ourneys and situations contradict his
own letters as well as the accounts in Acts" The 6auline sense of li#ing in
a time close to the end of the age is missing in these descriptions of
churches; they are #iewed as settling down with a succession of
tradition with Helleni:ed e)pressions of sal#ation and a replacement of
enthusiasm with bourgeois ethics" This indicates a period of deD
emphasi:ed eschatology and an e)pectation of a long community life in
which people must li#e out their li#es in &hristian responsibility and
moral beha#iour"
- Timothy and Titus are more similar to each other than to -- Timothy
but all three e)hort to li#es of e)emplary conduct and gi#e rules of
conduct for church order and discipline for the group as a whole and for
indi#idual parts of it%sometimes in terms of catalogs of #irtues and
#ices recalling the $ewish twoDway orders: the way of life being good
the way of death including a list of sins" Each concludes with a final
blessing or salutation" They are all pseudonymous using 6aul as an
epistolary model and using pseudonymous de#ices such as naming
indi#iduals known to be 6aul=s coDworkers" 6aul=s authority is in#oked to
lend credence to the teachings contained in the letters: the a#oidance of
heresy holding to sound doctrine and piety of life" The author is
anonymous the place of writing and the addressees are unknown but
they probably are later spiritual children of 6auline teaching" The date
of the letters is about the turn of the /nd century"
-- Timothy uses the background of 6auline imagery most fully" -t is cast
at least in part in the testament form to Timothy as his spiritual heir
because 6aul is depicted as suffering fettered in prison and awaiting
the martyr=s crown" He e)horts Timothy and through him the church to
share in these sufferings as they will e#entually share in glory" --
Timothy chapter / #erses A@A? is an e)hortation to martyrdom with a
faith that &hrist triumphant o#er death will sa#e his faithful witnesses"
>ecollection of the creed is followed by a direct application to bearing
suffering and its meaning in ;od=s plan of sal#ation" The words Gfaithful
is the wordH occur in /:AA" This GwordH unlike 6aul or any &hristian
cannot be bound" -t both confirms sal#ation described in the preceding
#erses and introduces a hymn that may represent liturgical usage in that
it is poetic and balanced"
,aithful is the word:
-f we ha#e died with him we shall also li#e with him;
if we endure we shall also reign with him;
if we deny him he also will deny us;
if we are faithless he remains faithful%for he cannot deny himself
*-- Tim" /:AA@A?+
The hymn preser#es within itself a reflection of sayings of $esus that
those who endure and perse#ere will reign with the 7ord and that e#en
to those who deny him *as did 6eter+ ;od will remain faithful because
&hrist cannot deny his own faithfulness" E#en in this hymn there is
allusion to a GtestamentH form with 6aul already martyred as a
pseudonymous de#ice to spur the &hristian on to endurance and
faithfulness as a member of the redeemed community"
Another small poetic hymnic section ser#es to demonstrate that the
church of the 6astorals albeit somewhat deDeschatologi:ed retains the
GmysteryH in ;od=s household the church%i.e., the gospel and creed
ali#e in the liturgy in the mystery of piety and worship"
;reat indeed we confess is the mystery of our religion:
He who was manifested in the flesh
#indicated in the <pirit seen by angels;
who was proclaimed among the nations
belie#ed in throughout the world
glorified in high hea#en
*- Tim" ?:A4+
Here in miniature form are creed and gospel that are somewhat
reminiscent of the ;ospel According to 5atthew"
The 7etter of 6aul to 6hilemon
,rom Ephesus where he was imprisoned *c. 1?@1E+ 6aul wrote his
shortest and most personal letter to a 6hrygian &hristian *probably from
&olossae or nearby 7aodicea+ whose sla#e Onesimus had run away after
possibly ha#ing stolen money from his master" The sla#e apparently had
met 6aul in prison was con#erted and was being returned to his master
with a letter from 6aul appealing not on the basis of his apostolic
authority but according to the accepted practices within the system of
sla#ery and the right of an owner o#er a sla#e" He re0uested that
Onesimus be accepted Gas a belo#ed brotherH and that he be released
#oluntarily by his master to return and ser#e 6aul and help in &hristian
work" 6aul appealed to the owner that Onesimus *whose name in ;reek
means GusefulH+ is no longer useless because of his con#ersion and
claimed that the owner owed 6aul a debt *as he probably was also
instrumental in his con#ersion+ and that any debt or penalty incurred by
the sla#e would be paid by 6aul" <uch manumission is part of 6aul=s
concept of being an ambassador to further the mission of &hristianity
rather than a (udgment on the social framework of sla#ery because in
the 7ord such social order is transcended"
6hilemon howe#er is not a purely personal letter because it is
addressed to a house church *a small &hristian community that usually
met in a room of a person=s home+ and it ends with salutations and a
benediction in the plural form of address" The body of the letter
howe#er uses GyouH *singular+ and is addressed to the sla#e=s owner a
man whom 6aul himself has not met" 6hilemon the first name in the
address is called a Gbelo#ed fellow workerH which implies that he knew
6aul and it has been con#incingly argued that the sla#e=s owner was
Archippus *see abo#e The letter of 6aul to the &olossians+ perhaps
6hilemon=s son who was called a Gfellow soldierH a term usual in
business accounts and suitable for a document on the manumission of a
sla#e" The thanksgi#ing contains the main theme of the whole letter:
sharing of faith for the work of promoting knowledge of &hrist"
The letter was written from prison and 6aul apparently e)pected a
release in the near future because he re0uested a guest room a
suggestion that he was not #ery far from &olossae or 7aodicea which
would be true of Ephesus" &olossae would be reached from Ephesus #ia
7aodicea and the letter could be addressed to a house church there"
-n a letter to the Ephesians *c. AA/+ by -gnatius bishop of Antioch the
language is #ery reminiscent of 6hilemon and the name of the bishop of
Ephesus *c. A8.@AA.+ was Onesimus" -t has been suggested that the
sla#e was released to help 6aul that in his later years he might ha#e
become bishop of Ephesus and that his GministryH or Gser#iceH was the
collection of the 6auline corpus" This is based not simply on the identity
of name but on similarities to 6hilemon found in -gnatius= letter to the
Ephesians as well as two possible plays on words in chapter / #erse /
*cf. 6hilemon #erse /8+ and chapter E #erse / *cf. 6hilemon AA+
relating to the bishop and unity of the church" <uch a prominent
position and role for one of 6aul=s followers might shed further light on
why 6hilemon apparently a #ery personal plea became a part of the
canon and 6auline corpus" E#en if this suggestion cannot be pro#ed
6hilemon still shows 6aul in his apostolic ministry furthering the
message of &hrist and seeing beyond the limitations of the social order
of his day in which both sla#es and freemen are ser#ants of ;od"
The 7etter to the Hebrews
Te)tual ambiguities
The writing called the 7etter to the Hebrews which was known and
accepted in the Eastern church by the /nd century was included also by
the 'estern church as the AEth 6auline epistle when the canon of East
and 'est was assimilated and fi)ed in ?4." Hebrews has no salutation
gi#ing the name of either the writer or the addressees although it does
ha#e a do)ology and greeting at the end which suggest that at some
point the writing was sent as a letter to a community known to the
author" There are also numerous admonitions in the te)t that appear to
be directed to a definite circle of addressees and some admonitions to
the church at large" -n chapter 4 #erses E@2 is a se#ere warning against
the sin of apostasy for which there is no second repentance" E#en so
Hebrews is essentially more a theological treatise than a letter" -t is
homiletical in style and calls itself a paraklesis, which has many
meanings: consolation e)hortation sermon ad#ocacy and e#en
intercession"
The thoughts metaphors and ideas of Hebrews are distinct from the
rest of the !ew Testament with closest affinities to <tephen=s speech in
Acts chapter ." -t attempts to pro#e the superiority and ultimacy of the
re#elation in &hrist and the perfection of his offering of himself once and
for all supersedes and makes obsolete any other re#elation" Hebrews
gi#es strength to its readers through the e)ample of &hrist and the hope
and promise of free access to ;od and to eternal rest an access in which
&hrist is High 6riest and mediator fore#er" <uch promise on the basis of
&hristological de#elopments and new co#enant hopes enables
endurance in persecution but its #ocabulary is that of the sacrificial
language of the Old Testament" Another theme is a typological analogy
with the wilderness wanderings of -srael in which despite their
murmurings of unbelief and the hardening of their hearts in their trials
they perse#ered" Thus the church as the pilgrim people of ;od tra#els
toward the future place of <abbath rest with &hrist as their pioneer and
perfector of faith"
A Gword of consolationH is needed to strengthen faith in time of trouble"
Actual persecution leading to martyrdom is seen as not yet come but
the church is sharply warned against apostasy the sin of all sins" Hope
during persecution and trial is e)pressed in the image of &hrist as the
perfect e#erlasting high priest one of whose functions is to stand as
intercessor and protector"
Hebrews was considered a 6auline letter in the early Eastern church"
&lement of Ale)andria a theologian of the late /nd and early ?rd
centuries held that 6aul had written it in Hebrew for the Hebrews and
that 7uke had translated it into ;reek" Origen &lement=s successor as
leader in the catechetical school at Ale)andria commented that its
thoughts reflected 6aul but that it was written at a later time with a
totally different style and phraseology and he stated Gwho wrote the
epistle ;od knows"H 6aul for e)ample uses the term mediator only
once and in a negati#e sense in ;alatians chapter ? #erse AI but
Hebrews uses it se#eral times of &hrist as mediator of the new
co#enant" -n the 'est Tertullian a !orth African theologian of the late
/nd and early ?rd centuries suggested Barnabas as the author because
Hebrews called a Gword of consolationH might ha#e been written by
Barnabas whose name is translated by 7uke as Gson of consolationH in
Acts chapter E #erse ?4" After Hebrews= acceptance into the canon in
the midDEth century it was considered 6auline but doubts persisted;
and because of basically different content and style in contradiction to
6aul #arious authors ha#e been suggested for Hebrews%e.g., Apollos
*a $ewish &hristian Ale)andrian+ or a follower of <tephen and the
Hellenists who had come into conflict with those not sharing his
uni#ersalistic ideas" Hebrews howe#er remains anonymous" The title
GTo the HebrewsH is secondary and may reflect either an idea as to its
addressees or that it was influenced by its e)tensi#e Old Testament
material"
According to internal e#idence Hebrews was written in a second or later
generation of &hristians" 6ersecution references suggest a time after
!ero=s persecution and about the time of the emperor 9omitian but
early enough to be 0uoted or alluded to in the ,irst 7etter of &lement *c.
I4+ thus suggesting a date of c. 28@I8"
The place of the addressees may be -taly because A?:/E is understood
as a greeting sent home from one writing from abroad but this is not
certain" The addressees were probably ;entile &hristians who needed
instruction in Gthe elementary doctrines of &hristH and concerning faith
in ;od"
Hebrews constitutes the first &hristian e)ample of a thoroughly
allegorical typological e)egesis *critical interpretation+ of the Old
Testament" There were precursors of such a methodology in $ewish
Ale)andrian biblical e)egesis *e.g., 6hilo+ and 6latonic tendencies
found in Hebrews can also be found in $ewishDAle)andrian methods of
interpretation of the Old Testament" The language of Hebrews is
e)tremely polished elegant and cultured ;reek the best in the !ew
Testament" 7inguistically and stylistically it shows only a slight
influence of the Coine *common ;reek+" The Attic style is broken only in
passages in which Hebrews 0uotes the <eptuagint" 6lays on words and
synonyms with similar beginnings for emphasis show the author=s
literary craftsmanship"
There are more Old Testament citations in Hebrews than in any other
!ew Testament book" They are drawn mainly from the 6entateuch and
some psalms"
&hristology in Hebrews
The church is #iewed as being in danger of discouragement in the face
of persecution and possible apostasy" -f faithless church members risk
total loss for no second repentance is possible" Through his special
&hristology the author seeks to help the readers by showing that &hrist
is the sa#iour superior to any other and that as <a#iour <on of ;od
High 6riest pioneer guide and forerunner he who has already suffered
and been glorified will lead the wandering people of ;od to their eternal
<abbath rest an eschatological future state of peace and renewal"
This high type of &hristology is combined with much stress on $esus=
humanity" He partook of man=s nature and o#ercame death to destroy
the power of the de#il in order to deli#er man" Thus ha#ing been made
like his brethren he has become a faithful High 6riest to make e)piation
for the sins of the people" Because he himself suffered and was tested
he can help those who are tested and tempted" Through suffering tears
and obedience $esus was made perfect and thus the source of help and
sal#ation being designated by ;od a High 6riest after the order of
5elchi:edek king of <alem and priest of ;od 5ost High in Abraham=s
time"
&hrist and his once for all *ephapa'+ sacrifice has superseded and made
all Old Testament sacrifices and cultic practices obsolete" &hrist is
superior to the prophets because he is a son superior to the angels
because they worship him and *in the light of his cosmic role as apostle
and High 6riest+ superior to 5oses who brought ;od=s 7aw to -srael
because 5oses was a ser#ant in ;od=s house and &hrist a son" &hrist is
also superior to 5oses= successor $oshua because $oshua did not bring
the wandering people into a perfect rest; superior to the Old Testament
priesthood of Aaron because &hrist the true High 6riest has sacrificed
himself once for all and is without sin; and superior to the patriarch
Abraham because Abraham paid tithes to the priest of <alem
5elchi:edek who as the prototype of &hrist had no human antecedents"
&hrist High 6riest fore#er by obedient suffering and perfection in that
he li#es up to the demand has become the source of sal#ation" He is
High 6riest in the hea#enly tabernacle and mediator for the new
co#enant" On the basis of this &hristology and ecclesiology the rest of
Hebrews is composed of in(unctions to faithful life in all situations
spiritual or temporal" -n chapter AA #erse A Hebrews gi#es a
programmatic statement that should be translated: G,aith is the >eality
erather than GassuranceH as in the usual translationf of what is hoped
for and the 6roof concerning what is in#isible"H -n Hebrews $esus is that
>eality and that 6roof and e#erything else is unreal or at best an earthly
copy or a shadow" The heroes and martyrs of old were looking toward
his coming *chapter AA+ and those now under persecution look toward
him and find strength *chapter A/+ as they lea#e the ultimately unreal
structures of this world seeking the Gcoming cityH and going out to him
who was e)ecuted outside the walls of the city made with hands" Thus
the message of Hebrews is: >eality #ersus sham and shadow &hrist=s
sacrifice *priest and #ictim in one+ #ersus the cult of temples and the
real hea#enly rest and hea#enly city #ersus the sabbath and $erusalem"
The &atholic 7etters
As the history of the !ew Testament canon shows the se#en soDcalled
&atholic 7etters *i.e., $ames - and -- 6eter - -- and --- $ohn and $ude+
were among the last of the literature to be settled on before the
agreement of East and 'est in ?4." 9uring the /nd and ?rd centuries
only - $ohn and - 6eter were uni#ersally recogni:ed and e#en after
acceptance of all se#en their #arying positions in ;reek manuscripts
and early #ersions re#ealed some conflict concerning their inclusion"
The designation &atholic 7etters was already known and used by the
church historian Eusebius in the Eth century for a group of se#en letters
among which he especially mentions $ames and $ude" The word catholic
meant general%i.e., addressed to the whole uni#ersal church as
distinguished for e)ample from 6auline letters addressed to particular
communities or indi#iduals" The earliest known occurrence of the
ad(ecti#e GcatholicH referring to a letter is in the account of an antiD
5ontanist Apollonius *c. AI.+ in his rebuke of a 5ontanist writer who
Gdared in imitation of the Apostle eprobably $ohnf to compose a catholic
epistleH for general instruction" -n the time of Origen *c. /?8+ the term
catholic was also applied to the etter of Barnabas as well as to - $ohn -
6eter and $ude"
-n the 'est howe#er GcatholicH took on the meaning in &hristian usage
as implying a #alue (udgment as to orthodo)y or general acceptance"
Thus the 'est used it for all the !ew Testament letters that were in the
canon along with the four gospels and Acts" All letters considered
authoritati#e and of e0ual standing with those of 6aul were therefore
termed canonical in the 'est" !ot until the 5iddle Ages did both East
and 'est designate the se#en as Gcatholic epistlesH in the sense of
being addressed to the whole &hristian &hurch in order to distinguish
them from letters with more particular addresses" Had not the main
tradition placed Hebrews in the 6auline corpus it would perhaps rather
ha#e been counted among the &atholic 7etters" Hebrews howe#er
looked G6aulineH rather than G&atholicH in that it presented an e)tensi#e
theological argument to which the parenesis *ad#ice or counsel+ was
applied at the end"
These se#en letters are grouped together despite their disparate
authorship and dates because of a number of characteristics common to
all of them" Though the three $ohannine letters and especially - $ohn
are distinctly $ohannine in character the four other &atholic 7etters are
of special interest precisely because they lack strong personal or
peculiar traits both in their theological and in their ethical statements"
This characteristic makes them a good source for understanding the
piety and lifeDstyle of the ma(ority of early &hristians" These letters
differ from the 6auline letters in that they seem to ha#e been written for
general circulation throughout the church rather than for specific
congregations" Though 6aul wrote as a missionary responsible for his
recent ;entile con#erts these letters address established congregations
in more general terms" -t is interesting to note for e)ample that in -
6et" /:A/ the word ;entiles refers to GnonD&hristiansH without any
awareness of its older and 6auline meaning of GnonD$ews"H
The purpose of the &atholic 7etters is to meet ordinary problems
encountered by the whole church: refuting false doctrines
strengthening the ethical implications of the ;ospel message sharing in
the common catechetical and moral materials and gi#ing
encouragement in the face of the delay of the 6arousia and strength in
the face of possible martyrdom under >oman persecution" They guide
the ordinary &hristian in his dayDtoDday life in the church"
The &atholic 7etters preser#e a considerable common legacy of ethical
themes and 0uotations" <uch themes and 0uotations *from the Old
Testament+ were handed down traditionally though the writers
interpreted them independently for their situations" ,or e)ample
6ro#erbs chapter ? #erse ?E showing ;od=s scorn to scorners and
fa#our to the humble is used in $ames chapter E #erse 4 as a warning
against in#ol#ement in the world and an e)hortation to submission and
humility but in - 6eter chapter 1 #erse 1 it e)horts &hristians to
humility and submission in relation to one another in the church and
brotherhood" Because the &atholic 7etters represent a common pool of
&hristian teaching there are o#erlapping points but these come from
shared tradition rather than literary dependency" The #irtues e)tolled in
the early church are not particularly &hristian but often coincide with
those culti#ated in Hellenistic culture sometimes with a $ewish
Hellenistic emphasis" An act of mercy and #irtue #alued in both $ewish
and Hellenistic tradition is epitomi:ed in hospitality *e.g., - 6eter E:I+"
<imilarly Hellenistic lists of #irtues and #ices occur as needed from the
general body of early ;entile Hellenistic tradition applied to the
&hristian communities" -n these epistles theological and credal
statements are wo#en in and used for immediate ethical application"
Thus they differ from the 6auline style of e)tensi#e theological sections
coupled with ethical applications that follow at the end of the epistle"
-n the &atholic 7etters to be a &hristian was to be in opposition to the
world a member of a minority church and thus at any time liable to be
called as witness to the faith and perhaps to suffer and die for it"
Eschatological trials are coming *e.g., - 6et" A:4f" E:A/@AI; -- 6et" ?:/@
A8; - $ohn /:A2 ff" E:A@E; $ude A. ff"+ and the &hristian #iews false
prophecy and heresy as well as hostile encounter with the world as part
of the trials" The theme of (oy in persecution suffering and the final
trial or ultimate GtestingH is based on &hrist=s #ictory o#er these e#ents
and the sense of being a member of his community" Thus the &hristian
should show submission nonretaliation humility and patience good
conduct and obedience to authorities because his witness must be
blameless when his faith is tested in the world in the courtroom and in
martyrdom"
The 7etter of $ames
The 7etter of $ames though often critici:ed as ha#ing nothing
specifically &hristian in its content apart from its use of the phrase the
G7ord $esus &hristH and its salutation to a general audience depicted as
the twel#e tribes in the dispersion *the 9iaspora+ is actually a letter
most representati#e of early &hristian piety" -t depicts the teachings of
the early church not in a missionary #ein but to a church li#ing
dispersed in the world knowing the essentials of the faith but needing
instruction in e#eryday ethical and communal matters with traditional
criti0ues on wealth and status" -n matters of church discipline and the
practice of healing there is stress on prayer anointing and confession
of sin in order that the healing of the sick may be effected"
<teadfastness e#en (oy in persecution is based on pure religion with
strong ethical demands as noted in chapter A #erses /@E and AI@/."
A debate as to how $ames= statement that Gfaith apart from works is
deadH compares with 6aul=s G(ustification by faith without worksH in
>omans has a long history" The debate central to the history of
&hristianity has usually o#erlooked the simple fact that 6aul speaks
about Gworks of the 7awH and does so with reference to those GworksH
that di#ide $ews and ;entiles%e.g., circumcision and food laws" $ames
on the other hand refers to works of mercy" Thus the two statements
are not only reconcilable but address themsel#es to 0uite distinct and
different issues" E#en 6aul referred to mutual support of the brethren by
the glorious phrase Gthe law of &hristH *;al" 4:/+ and this is the same as
$ames= Groyal lawH *$ames /:2+" The 6auline language presumably was
not in $ames= mind" -n $ames chapter / the e)ample of Abraham=s faith
is used to show (ustification by works" -t is to be noted that 6aul also
used Abraham as the paradigm of righteousness to demonstrate
(ustification by faith in >omans chapter E again showing the difference
in purpose and setting of the two epistles"
-n #iew of the postDapostolic situation depicted $ames the son of
Febedee who died as a martyr before A9 EE could not ha#e been the
author" ,rom the content neither could $ames a brother of the 7ord and
the leader of the $erusalem church; his martyrdom is reported as c. A9
4/" Thus $ames is pseudepigraphical with the purpose of gaining
apostolic authority for its needed message" The date of writing is
probably at the turn of the Ast century and its addressees are the whole
church"
Of $ames= A82 #erses 1E contain imperati#es%an ob#ious proof that
ad#ice is stressed" <uch admonitions are e)pressed in the form of
general ethical wisdom sayings Hellenistic $ewish lists of #irtues and
#ices and &hristian as well as pagan aphorisms sometimes related to
popular preaching of the <toic &ynic style"
-n chapter 1 the community is en(oined to patience steadfastness and
good beha#iour" The Old Testament prophets who spoke in the name of
the 7ord are used as e)amples of suffering and endurance as they
awaited the $udge" Thus reference to the 6arousia of &hrist may ha#e
been conflated by the &hristian writer to the coming of the 7ord in
(udgment an interpretation with Gthe day of the 7ordH in mind" GBehold
the $udge is standing at the doorsH is accompanied by the admonition
GJou also be patient" Establish your hearts for the coming of the 7ord is
at handH *chapter 1 #erses 2 and I+"
The ,irst 7etter of 6eter
The purpose of the ,irst 7etter of 6eter is e)hortation directed to Gthe
e)iles of the 9ispersionH in Asia 5inor in order that they Gstand fastH in
;od=s grace in the face of persecution" On the one hand such
persecution is #iewed as part of the trials of the endDtime that the
community must undergo before the coming of the new age" On the
other persecution is #iewed as a simple fact of &hristian community life
in the world" -n imitation of &hrist tribulations and testing can be a
basis for (oy"
-n the address the author calls himself G6eter an apostle of $esus
&hristH and in chapter 1 #erse A a GfellowDelder and witness of the
suffering of &hrist"H Any &hristian not (ust a fellow eyewitness
howe#er might be such a witness and hope to partake in the future
Gglory that is to be re#ealed"H The writer or the redactor of - 6eter used
6auline and gospel theology and terminology both in 0uotations and in
allusions and if literary dependency cannot always be demonstrated
there is dependence on the catechetical traditions known in the postD
apostolic church"
The milieu of the letter seems to reflect the time and temper of the
correspondence of the emperor Tra(an with 6liny the Jounger go#ernor
of Bithynia *c. AA.+" 6liny re0uested clarification as to the punishment of
&hristians Gfor the name itselfH or for crimes supposedly associated with
being a &hristian" - 6eter chapter E #erse A1 appears to reflect this
situation: that a &hristian be blameless of all crime and if punished be
persecuted only Gas a &hristian"H 6liny continued that denounced
&hristians are e)ecuted if they perse#ere in their belief but that
whate#er their creed Gcontumacy and infle)ible obstinacy deser#ed
punishmentH; Tra(an=s response was that those denounced as &hristians
be punished" The warning in - 6eter chapter ? on a &hristian=s manner
of defense and submissi#eness to authorities points to a date in the first
0uarter of the /nd century" <uch a date does not preclude reflection on
earlier persecutions such as those under 9omitian"
The ;reek style is hardly in keeping with a ;alilean 6eter%described as
illiterate or uneducated in Acts chapter E #erse A?" The ;reek is fluid
and the Old Testament citations are from the <eptuagint" The
addressees appear to be ;entile &hristians portrayed as the new -srael
dispersed among the *heathen+ ;entiles based on the analogy of the old
-srael a diaspora among the nations"
The work is thus pseudonymous attributed to 6eter through <il#anus
whose name constitutes a part of the pseudepigraphic de#ice that
strengthens the authority of the epistle" - 6eter is an e)cellent e)ample
of the testament form modelled on the traditions of an Apostle and the
message of his martyrdom" 6eter whose death and traditions
concerning him were known to the readers of the time of - 6eter gi#es
weight and authority to the letter that is formed in many ways as a
farewell and admonition to those who follow in order that they may
stand firm"
'arnings are gi#en from the Apostle=s own e)ample along with counterD
#irtues for #ices" <uch testament forms ha#e a mi)ture of wisdom
material ad#ice e)hortation hymns for ethical admonition and
apocalyptic elements with accounts of trials to come" This mi)ture is
found in strange arrangements but is perhaps sol#ed if read as a
testament form" 6eter had denied that &hrist must suffer and in - 6eter
suffering is the way of discipleship and e#en of (oy" -n 7uke chapter //
6eter=s denial was prophesied and $esus interceded for him in order
that he might repent and strengthen his brethren *cf. - 6eter chapter 1
#erses A8 and A/+" -n 5ark and 5atthew the defection of the Apostles
was foretold in terms of the scattering of the sheep when the shepherd
was stricken and 6eter does deny his 7ord" -n $ohn chapter /A the
risen 7ord paralleled 6eter=s threefold denial with a threefold 0uestion
as to 6eter=s lo#e" At each affirmation the 7ord responds with the
forgi#ing command to feed the sheep%to care for the community" This
is a central motif in - 6eter" -mmediately following the charge to 6eter in
$ohn is the prediction of his own martyr death and in - 6eter the church
is urgently admonished to accept trials as nothing strange because they
are a sharing in the sufferings of &hrist" -n the ;arden of ;ethsemane
6eter in particular was rebuked because he did not watch and in - 6eter
the church is admonished to watch and be #igilant against the 9e#il"
6rayer against temptation is also stressed"
-n the 5atthean account 6eter is delegated to build the church and in -
6eter it is the chief Apostle *6eter+ who points to &hrist as <hepherd and
Bishop who through his suffering collected the wandering sheep to
himself" -n like manner%on the model of &hrist or perhaps 6eter%the
elders are e)horted to feed their flocks humbly and faithfully" Thus
there is a typical testament form: 6eter has failed and repented; and the
church is warned admonished and strengthened as by the Apostle
who on the analogy of $esus= 6assion and death in innocence e)horts
the church to share in the #ocation of innocent suffering and to do good
in innocence" ,inally - 6eter #iewed as a GtestamentH is in itself an
apocalyptic GwitnessH and with its admi)ture of ad#ice e)ample and
general address to the faithful li#ing in the 9iaspora as so(ourners with
the authority of its martyred GauthorH it constitutes authority and
strength for the church that faces the persecution of the world"
>eferences in chapter 1 to >ome *called Babylon+ and to 5ark are then
also part of the pseudepigraphic testament form as they presuppose
the common tradition of 6eter=s martyrdom in >ome and his connection
with 5ark"
There are three &hristological hymnic fragments in - 6eter: A:A2@/A
ransom by &hrist; /:/A@/1 with reference to the Book of -saiah chapter
1? used as ethical admonition; and ?:A2@/8 &hrist=s descent into hell"
The last is in the conte)t of &hrist=s going and preaching to the spirits in
prison *a reference to the apocryphal 0irst Book of 4noch with <atan
chained under the earth but his descendants at work in the world until
the endDtime+ in order to show that &hrist through his descent has
o#ercome the powers that underlie and engender persecution of the
&hristians" This is reaffirmed in chapter 1 by encouraging &hristians in
their fight against the 9e#il for though suffering will be a part of this
resistance there will be #ictory at the end" -mitation of &hrist is a basis
for (oy e#en in suffering" The end is #iewed as near and final sal#ation
can thus be anticipated"
The $ohannine 7etters: - -- and --- $ohn
The three epistles gathered under the name of $ohn were written to
guide and strengthen the postDapostolic church as it faced both attacks
from heresies and an e#er increasing need for community solidarity%
along with the concomitant lo#e and ethics necessary to such unity"
- $ohn though lacking any formal epistolary salutation or ending
directs itself to a circle of readers with whom the writer is ac0uainted"
Taking the form of an anonymous GhomilyH for admonition against
heresy and instruction in faith and lo#e it was directed to a wide
audience or was to be circulated beyond a particular congregation" --
and --- $ohn are brief letters from an author described only as Gthe
elderH implying a position of some authority" -- $ohn chapter A is
addressed to an Gelect lady and her childrenH probably a designation of
a church with difficulties similar to those found in - $ohn" --- $ohn is the
most personal being addressed by the elder Gto the belo#ed ;aiusH
who has been praised particularly for his hospitality *probably to
missionaries+ and his brotherly lo#e" The presbyter *elder+ probably the
author of -- and --- $ohn apparently was a man who was authoritati#e
enough to influence and direct mission acti#ities" All three letters
despite their differences of address appear to ha#e been accepted
among the &atholic 7etters as ha#ing been circulated for the church at
large"
- -- and --- $ohn share much common terminology style and general
situation" They are all called $ohannine because they are loosely related
to the ;ospel According to $ohn in style and terminology and could be
the outcome of its theology"
The early church attributed - -- and --- $ohn to $ohn the Apostle the
son of Febedee" Although -- and --- $ohn may possibly ha#e been written
by the same presbyter this GelderH is not necessarily the author of -
$ohn although it is commonly accepted that the three $ohannine letters
came from a G$ohannineH inner circle" The earliest reference to the
$ohannine letters is in the etter to the )hilippians by 6olycarp of
<myrna *.:A+" 6apias who was a /ndDcentury bishop of Hierapolis
mentions - $ohn and 0uotes it se#eral times but he distinguishes
between $ohn the Apostle and $ohn the presbyter" 6olycarp 6apias
and internal e#idence point to the region of Asia 5inor as the probable
sources of the $ohannine literature" These references and the
organi:ation of the churches indicated in the letters as well as the lack
of signs of persecution suggest a date for the letters at around the
beginning of the /nd century"
The ,irst 7etter of $ohn
- $ohn assumes a knowledge of the $ohannine ;ospel *the author of -
$ohn may be the ecclesiastical redactor of the ;ospel According to $ohn+
and adds ethical admonition and instruction regarding the wellDbeing of
the church as it confronts heresy and stresses the lack of moral concern
that springs from it" There is strong defense against the threat of a type
of ;nosticism called 9ocetism that denied the reality of $esus= earthly
life and thus the meaning of the cross" 6ossessing special spiritual
knowledge the 9ocetic ;nostics had no need of the earthly $esus and
the humanity of &hrist" This 9ocetic heresy led them to re(ect the 7ord=s
<upper but not Baptism" Their special possession of the <pirit had led
them erroneously to consider themsel#es sinless and to deny the
fellowship that has the cleansing of sins" Because the heresy may ha#e
led to libertinism the ethics of &hristians must accord with their faith
and find e)pression in the lo#e of the brethren in the church" GHe who
hears my word and " " " belie#es has passed from death to lifeH *$ohn
1:/E+ is continued in - $ohn ?:AE G'e ha#e passed out of death into life
because we lo#e the brethren"H The ;nostics separated themsel#es from
the church in schism and ha#e thereby committed the Gsin unto death"H
They are false prophets and decei#ers described by the term Antichrist"
The true &hristians the Gchildren of ;odH hold the true faith e#idenced
by their loyalty to the church and their charity toward its members"
A constant theme in - $ohn is that of ;od=s lo#e which makes &hristians
the children of ;od" As children of ;od they keep the new
commandment of lo#e which is of light%that of brotherly lo#e%and
resist the world e#il and false teaching" Because &hrist ga#e his life for
man the &hristian=s response is also to be selfDgi#ing" Through
obedience and faith ;od forgi#es e#en when man=s heart condemns
him Gfor ;od is greater than his heart"H -t is of interest to note that in -
$ohn /:A@/ $esus is referred to as paraclete *ad#ocate+ but in the
;ospel According to $ohn such references are to the <pirit" $ohn AE:A4
howe#er refers to Ganother &ounselor"H This discrepancy can be
resol#ed by interpreting $esus with his disciples as their ad#ocate with
another to come *the <pirit+ and in - $ohn /:A@/ the risen 7ord
becomes the ad#ocate for the e)piation of all sin" >ighteousness and
faith are emphasi:ed in chapters E@1 and again these characteristics
are those of the children of ;od who will finally in the endDtime be like
him who ga#e the promise the commandment and the (oy of lo#e"
The <econd 7etter of $ohn
-- $ohn warns a specific church *or perhaps churches+ designated as
Gthe elect lady and her childrenH against the influence of the 9ocetic
heresy combatted in - $ohn whose proponents lured &hristians from
Gfollowing the truth (ust as we ha#e been commanded by the ,ather"H -n
-- $ohn as in the ;ospel According to $ohn and - $ohn the light@
darkness images are similar to those of the 9ead <ea <crolls" To Gwalk
in the truthH in -- $ohn is to re(ect heresy and follow the doctrine of
&hrist"
The Third 7etter of $ohn
--- $ohn addressed to ;aius shows that the writer is concerned about
and has responsibility as presbyter for the missionaries of the church" -t
is somewhat of a short note concerned with church discipline
encouraging hospitality to true missionaries and thus not unconnected
with true doctrine and the command of lo#e"
The 7etter of $ude
The 7etter of $ude after a salutation that attributes it to $ude the
brother of $ames and addresses itself to the church as a whole de#elops
the theme of the short letter%a polemic against heretics who ha#e
abandoned the transmitted traditional faith and who will thus be (udged
by the 7ord" They deny &hrist and punishment similar to that of <odom
and ;omorrah in the Old Testament for such a denial is threatened"
Heretical beliefs ha#e led to #arious sins and libertinism and the
(udgment that will come upon them is cited from 4noch A:I
demonstrating that this short letter reflects the postbiblical $ewish
apocalyptic train of thought in the early &hristian era"
G$ude a ser#ant of $esus &hrist and brother of $amesH is probably meant
pseudepigraphically to relate this $ude to $ames the brother of the 7ord
so that this $ude is also a brother of the 7ord" This howe#er is
impossible because the letter reflects a later time" Berse A. refers to
Gthe predictions of the apostles of our 7ord $esus &hristH concerning
mockers and sinners" Thus the author is recalling a former time that
was prophesied regarding the heresies and trials of the endDtime" <uch a
bearer of apostolic tradition is #iolently attacking heresy in the interest
of transmitted traditional faith" Again it would appear that the letter is
pseudepigraphic and may ha#e originated in <yria or Asia 5inor"
The author struggles forcefully against heretics who deny ;od and
&hrist and attempts to strengthen his readers in their fight against such
heresy that leads to wickedness and disorder" 7ibertinism is a
characteristic of such heresy and the punishment of the heretics will be
similar to that which befell the unfaithful in the Old Testament
patriarchal times" Only steadfastness in faith true doctrine and prayer
can lead to mercy forgi#eness restoration and final sal#ation" An
attempt to bring the erring to repentance may sa#e them" The letter
concludes with a typical do)ology"
The form is less a catholic letter than a declared position that lays down
general rules" The date is probably near the end of the Ast century and
before -- 6eter which draws upon it"
The >e#elation to $ohn
6urpose and theme
The >e#elation *i.e., Apocalypse+ to $ohn is an answer in apocalyptic
terms to the needs of the church in time of persecution as it awaits the
endDtime e)pected in the near future" The purpose of the book is to
encourage and admonish the church to be steadfast and endure" The
form of an apocalypse shows affinities with contemporary $ewish
Oriental and Hellenistic writings in which problems of the end of the
world and of history are linked both with prophecy of an eschatological
nature and with GsealedH secret mysteries" <uch re#elations are
traditionally recei#ed in trances characteri:ed by strange symbols
numbers images and parables or allegories that represent people and
historical situations" Apocalypticism is essentially dualistic presenting
the present eon as e#il and the future as good with an ultimate battle
between the di#ine and the demonic to be won only after one or more
cosmic catastrophes" The aim of apocalyptic literature is to depict in the
age of present tribulation a knowledge of a future glorious #ictory and
#indication thus gi#ing hope and assurance"
-n >e#elation it is ;od who gi#es the re#elation to $esus &hrist to be
shown by &hrist through an angel to his ser#ant $ohn in e)ile on the
island of 6atmos in order that $ohn become his seer and prophet to the
church" $ohn is to write down what he has seen what is and what is to
come" -n contradistinction to most $ewish apocalyptic works >e#elation
is not pseudonymous and $ohn is to gi#e finally unsealed clear
prophecy related to the present and to the endDtime"
As in the rest of the !ew Testament the starting point of eschatological
hope is the sa#ing act of ;od in $esus a historical centre pointing
toward historical de#elopments that will bring about the establishment
of ;od=s kingdom and #indication of his people ransomed by the blood
of &hrist the 7amb who was slain" -t pro#ides certainty and
encouragement with the e)ample of the faithfulness of those who ha#e
already witnessed unto death *martyrs+ and their reward%special
inheritance in the eternal kingdom"
After the introduction >e#elation continues first as a series of se#en
letters to se#en churches in the pro#ince of Asia thence to the whole
church with an epistolary introduction and after the apocalypse proper
an epistolary blessing as the last #erse" The letters sent from the
hea#enly &hrist through $ohn *chapters / and ?+ e)hort comfort or
censure the churches according to their condition under persecution or
danger of heresy" ,rom chapters E@// there are series of #isions in three
main cycles each recapitulating but e)panding the former in greater
and clearer detail with groups of se#en symbols predominating in each
*seals chapters 4@.; trumpets chapters 2@A8; and bowls chapters A1@
A4+" This material is interspersed with #isions of ;od in his hea#enly
council #arious #isions of catastrophe and of <atan the destroyer the
appearance of two witnesses and other martyr e)amples to spur the
church to endurance the #ictory of the archangel 5ichael o#er the
dragon *<atan+ by the blood of the 7amb *&hrist+ and the representation
of the powers of emperor cult and false prophecy as beasts who bring
destruction to the unfaithful in ;od=s (udgment" A hea#enly woman who
bears a messianic son is threatened by a dragon" Her child is carried up
to hea#en by ;od and she escapes by hiding in a place prepared for her
by ;od" The beasts who appear persecute the &hristians and the
GnumberH signifying the first beast is that of a man G444H *or in a
#ariant reading G4A4H+ probably indicating the emperor !ero" ;od=s
triumph in history is depicted in his (udgment on the harlot Babylon
*>ome+ and the final consummation portrays the #ictory of &hrist o#er
the Antichrist and his followers" -n chapter /8 the thousandDyear reign
of &hrist with those who witnessed unto death is depicted" <atan again
loosed is #an0uished by fire from hea#en with the beasts *imperial
power and false prophet+ and the last (udgment leads to a new hea#en
and a new earth the new $erusalem" This writing is thus a propheticD
apocalyptic work"
-n summary the seer reminds the reader that the words because they
are of ;od are trustworthy and true" The motif that the 7ord is coming
soon is again repeated" This reflection of the early &hristian watchword
suggests a sacred liturgical style" The last #erse is the closing
benediction%perhaps not only of the letters in the beginning of
>e#elation but of the whole of >e#elation which was to be read aloud in
a worship setting"
Authorship and style
Apocalypticism was introduced into Asia 5inor after A9 .8 *the fall of
$erusalem+ and c. 28@I8 a prophetic circle was formed near Ephesus"
-ts leader was $ohn a prophet who might well ha#e been the author of
>e#elation which is deeply steeped in apocalyptic traditions" The
G$ohannine circleH bearing the tradition of $ohn the Apostle of the 7ord
and from which emerged the ;ospel and letters bearing his name might
ha#e been a continuation of the prophetic con#enticle of Ephesus in
which $ohn was prominent" The #arious writings do not ha#e to be
consistent e)cept in their basic faith in $esus &hrist; and as the
situations to which they addressed themsel#es were different different
styles and content were re0uired" The seer was probably in#ol#ed in an
actual historical situation in the late 28s under 9omitian a time when
there was open conflict between the church and the >oman state" There
is a tradition supported by -renaeus a /ndDcentury bishop of 7yons that
in this persecution punishment was death or banishment" $ohn=s
prominence might ha#e led to banishment to 6atmos an isle off the
coast of Asia 5inor from his homeland in or around Ephesus" ,rom
6atmos he wrote a circular letter to the churches in Asia"
Though the style of >e#elation is certainly eclectic in form and content
containing elements of a hea#enly epistle and with more than threeD
fourths of the rest made up of propheticDapocalyptic forms from #aried
sources it reflects a systematic and careful plan" E#en the apocalyptic
howe#er is GantiDapocalypticH in that the seer=s message is open and
the mysteries ser#e not to conceal but to heighten what is seen and to
be e)pected" Apocalyptic schemata and motifs are howe#er used
toward this purpose and allegorical incorporation of sources is more a
demonstration of the true ultimate message than a literary de#ice"
Blurred images *e.g., ;od &hrist and angels; chiliastic eA888Dyearf eras
and temporal duplications; as well as interpretations+ are part of the
apocalyptic style but a current concrete historical situation is the
foundation" >e#elation is written in fantastic imagery blending $ewish
apocalypticism Babylonian mythology and astrological speculation" -t
is pictorial dramatic and poetic"
>e#elation contains long sections characteri:ed by ;reek that is
grammatically and stylistically crude strangely Hebrai:ed to gi#e a
uni0ue almost Oriental colour" This may ha#e been deliberate"
Although >e#elation is replete with Old Testament allusions there are
no direct 0uotations and this may reflect the seer=s con#iction that the
work is a direct re#elation from ;od" -n other sections the poetry of
>e#elation might stem from the seer=s e)perience in the hea#enly throne
room of ;od from hearing the hymns of the angelic host or from his
recollection on 6atmos of the liturgical practice of the church" The
image of the Bride and wedding feast together with the G&ome 7ord
$esusbH ha#e associations with the eucharistic liturgy of the early
church"
The recapitulations of the se#en seals trumpets and bowls may be
deliberate schemati:ation" The purpose of such repetition and
increasing re#elation can be a way of heightening enthusiasm to
encourage the church"
5ysterious numbers and di#isions *such as . ? A/+ recur and are part
of the theme of assurance because ;od has numbers in their order as a
sign of his plan of sal#ation turning chaos to orderly cosmos" The
mysterious name of the first beast 444 in A?:A2 can be calculated by
GgematriaH assigning their numerical #alues to letters of the word and
summing them up" The most ade0uate solution is !ero *the numerical
#alue of the Hebrew letters for 9aesar 2eron e0uals 444+ a demonic
!ero re+i(i(us *re#i#ed+ who returns from the dead as Antichrist"
Astronomy and astrology ha#e also been applied to >e#elation in terms
of the signs of the :odiac or a calendar of feasts and seasons as keys to
understanding its structure because it is ;od who orders the times and
seasons"
Two witnesses described in chapter AA ha#e been assumed to be Eli(ah
and 5oses 6eter and 6aul or simply two e)amples of martyrs through
whom ;od shows his punishment of the wicked and #indication of the
righteous to his glory" There are strong martyrological themes
throughout >e#elation and it seems to stand on the border line of the
point at which the word witness *mart1s+ became a technical term for a
witness unto death or martyr" The cosmic battle in hea#en is fought by
those willing to gi#e their li#es who mi) their blood with the blood of
the 7amb whose blood Gransomed men for ;od"H The writer of
>e#elation based his hope for the church on perse#erance on endurance
e#en to death and on what the future will bring when the church will
li#e with the glorified &hrist slain as a lamb" The harlot of Babylon will
be destroyed and the church will endure; Babylon falls and the new
$erusalem the city of ;od that is to come is depicted in all its glory"
These are the hopes to strengthen the persecuted church assurance
that ;od will soon triumph" 'ith trumpet call and hea#enly #oices there
is the (oyful promise that GThe kingdom of the world has become the
kingdom of our 7ord and of his &hrist and he shall reign for e#er and
e#er"H
The >e#" Crister <tendahl
Emilie T" <ander
!ew Testament Apocrypha
!ature and significance
The title !ew Testament Apocrypha may suggest that the books thus
classified ha#e or had a status comparable to that of the Old Testament
Apocrypha and ha#e been recogni:ed as canonical" -n a few instances
such has been the case but generally these books were accepted only by
indi#idual &hristian writers or by minority heretical groups" The word
apocryphal *secret+ is applied to ;nostic traditions and writings both by
;nostics and by their critics; from the /nd century for e)ample comes
the !pocr1phon :secret book; of 6ohn" -n the Eth century the word
referred to books not publicly read in churches" -t meant apocryphal in
the modern sense *i"e" fictitious+ only by implication as when the
church historian Eusebius speaks of some of Gthe soDcalled secret
booksH as forgeries composed by heretics"
7ike the !ew Testament books themsel#es the !ew Testament
apocryphal books consist of gospels acts letters and apocalypses" The
apocryphal writings howe#er are almost e)clusi#ely pseudepigraphical
%i.e., written in the name of the apostles or disciples or concerning
indi#idual apostles" -n general they were created after and in imitation
of the !ew Testament books but before the time when a relati#ely
restricted canon or list of appro#ed books was being formulated" They
arose chiefly during the /nd century when the lines between orthodo)y
and heresy were not absolutely fi)ed and when popular piety seems to
ha#e been rather freely e)pressed" 'hat these works tell about $esus
and his disciples resembles the imaginati#e 5idrashic *didactic
commentarial+ retelling of Old Testament stories among $ewish
teachers"
As the !ew Testament canon was gradually gi#en definite shape these
apocryphal books came to be e)cluded first from public reading in
churches then from pri#ate reading as well" 'ith the de#elopment of
creeds and of systematic theologies based on the nascent canon the
apocryphal books were neglected and suppressed" 5ost of them ha#e
sur#i#ed only in fragments although a few ha#e been found in ;reek
and &optic papyri from Egypt" They are #aluable to the historian
primarily because of the light they cast on popular semiDorthodo)
beliefs and on ;nostic re#isions of &hristianity; occasionally they may
contain fairly early traditions about $esus and his disciples" -n the ?rd
century !eoplatonists *followers of the philosopher 6lotinus who
ad#ocated a system of le#els of reality+ (oined &hristians in attacking
such books as GspuriousH GmodernH and Gforged"H
The difficulties the !ew Testament apocryphal books caused at the end
of the /nd century are well illustrated in a letter by <erapion bishop of
Antioch" He stated that he accepts 6eter and the other apostles Gas
&hristH but re(ects what is falsely written in their name" 'hen some
&hristians showed him the Gospel of )eter, he allowed them to read it
but after further in#estigation he disco#ered that its teaching about
&hrist was false and he had to withdraw his permission"
-n the early Eth century Eusebius himself found it difficult to create
categories for the #arious books then in circulation or used by earlier
authors" He seems to ha#e concluded that the books could be called
GacknowledgedH GdisputedH GspuriousH and absolutely re(ected" Thus
the !cts of )aul, the !pocal1pse of )eter, and the Gospel !ccor+ing to
the $ebre8s were rather well attested and he called them spurious but
disputed" He definitely re(ected books used by heretics but not by
church writers: the gospels ascribed to 6eter Thomas and 5atthias
and the !cts of !n+re8, $ohn and other apostles" About a century
earlier the !orth African theologian Tertullian had written about how a
presbyter who wrote the !cts of )aul had been deposed"
'ithout reference to the standards of canonicity and orthodo)y
gradually being worked out by the churches of the /nd through Eth
centuries it is e#ident that many of these books reflect the kinds of
rather incoherent &hristian thought that church leaders were trying to
prune and shape from the Ast century onward" Often such works
represented what was later #iewed as inade0uate orthodo)y because
the #iews presented had become obsolete" All the apocrypha taken
together show the #ariety of e)pression from which the canon was a
critical selection"
The !ew Testament Apocryphal writings
This section will classify these documents in relation to their literary
forms: gospels acts letters and apocalypses"
;ospels
A few papyrus fragments come from gospels not known by name *e.g.,
Egerton 6apyrus / O)yrhynchus 6apyrus 2E8 <trasbourg 6apyrus 1@
4+" There are also the Gospel produced in the /nd century by 5arcion *a
GsemiD;nosticH heretic from Asia 5inor+ who remo#ed what he
regarded as interpolations from the ;ospel According to 7uke; the lost
;nostic Gospel of )erfection3 and the Gospel of ,ruth, published in AI14
and perhaps identical with the book that -renaeus *c. A21+ bishop of
7yon said was used by the followers of Balentinus a midD/ndDcentury
;nostic teacher" The Gospel of ,ruth is a mystical@homiletical treatise
that is $ewish@&hristian and possibly ;nostic in origin" -n addition
there were gospels ascribed to the Twel#e *Apostles+ and to indi#idual
apostles including the )rote(angelium of 6ames, with legends about the
birth and infancy of $esus; the ;nostic Gospel of 6u+as *-scariot+ a
&optic #ersion of which was disco#ered in the AI.8s and published in
/884; the Gospel of )eter, with a legendary account of the resurrection;
the Gospel of )hilip, a Balentinian ;nostic treatise; the Gospel of
,homas, published in AI1I and containing Gthe secret sayings of $esusH
*;reek fragments in O)yrhynchus papyri A 41E and 411+; and an
Ginfancy gospelH also ascribed to Thomas" Beyond these lie gospels
ascribed to famous women namely E#e and 5ary *5agdalene+ or
named after the groups that used them: Ebionites *a $ewish &hristian
sect+ Egyptians Hebrews and !a:arenes *an Ebionite sect+"
Acts
The #arious acts close in form and content to the contemporary
Hellenistic romances turned the apostolic drama into melodrama and
satisfied the popular taste for stories of tra#el and ad#enture as well as
for a kind of asceticism that was generally re(ected by &hristian leaders:
Andrew *including the !cts of !n+re8 an+ Matthias !mong the
9annibals+ Barnabas *a companion of <t" 6aul+ Bartholomew $ohn
*with semiD;nostic traits+ 6aul *including the !cts of )aul an+ ,hecla,
with a &hristian #ersion of the story of Androcles and the lion+ 6eter%
with the apostle=s 0uestion to the risen 7ord G7ord where are you
goingUH *G9omine 0uo #adisUH+ and 6eter=s crucifi)ion upside down
6hilip Thaddaeus *his con#ersion of a king of Edessa+ and Thomas
*with the ;nostic GHymn of the 6earlH+"
7etters
Among the apocryphal letters are: a /ndDcentury 4pistula !postolorum
*GEpistle of the ApostlesH; actually apocalyptic and antiheretical+ the
etter of Barnabas, a lost etter of )aul to the !le'an+rians *said to
ha#e been forged by followers of 5arcion+ the lateD/ndDcentury letter
called G--- &orinthiansH *part of the !cts of )aul and composed largely
out of the genuine letters of 6aul+ along with a letter from the
&orinthians to 6aul and a &optic #ersion of a letter from 6eter to 6hilip"
There is also a famous forgery purporting to ha#e been written by $esus
to Abgar king of Edessa *noted in Eusebius 9hurch $istor1 -" A?+"
Apocalypses
Other than the >e#elation to $ohn which some early &hristian writers
re(ected there are apocalypses ascribed to two $ameses the Birgin
5ary 6aul 6eter 6hilip <tephen and Thomas" Only the !pocal1pse of
)eter won any significant acceptance and is important for its #i#id
description of the punishment of the wicked"
-n addition it should be noted that there were apocryphal books with
titles not so closely related to the !ew Testament" Among these are: the
Di+ache, or ,eaching of the ,8el(e !postles *and its later re#isions such
as the Di+ascalia !postolorum, or the GTeaching of the ApostlesH and
the !postolic 9onstitutions+ and the "er1gma of )eter, a fa#ourite at
Ale)andria as well as #arious ;nostic works such as ,he Dialogue of
the Re+eemer, )istis %ophia *G,aithD'isdomH+ and the %ophia 6esu
9hristi *G'isdom of $esus &hristH+" ,rom the 1th century there is e#en a
,estamentum Domini *GTestament of the 7ordH+ an e)pansion of the
/nd@?rdDcentury >oman &hurch leader and theologian Hippolytus=
!postolic ,ra+ition.
>obert 5" ;rant
Biblical literature in liturgy
Biblical literature in the liturgy of $udaism
The liturgy of $udaism is that of the synagogue which arose during and
after the Babylonian E)ile of 124@1?2 B&E and gradually replaced the
Temple cult as the spiritual centre of $ewish life" The Hebrew biblical
canon and the liturgy of the synagogue to a great e)tent grew up
together"
Because the synagogue arose in a land separated from the $erusalem
Temple with its sacrificial emphasis and its priestly class worship in the
synagogue differed from what went before it in se#eral respects" A local
congregation worshipped together on a certain day of the week in a
place set apart for that purpose rather than primarily on special festi#al
days and periods" The people worshipped without priest or cultic
sacrifice yet consciously as a community within a larger co#enant
fellowship and in response to a di#ine word that was written down in a
holy scripture" Bible reading and interpretation the singing of psalms
and prayers both corporate and indi#idual were the staple content of
the liturgy" The ancient synagogue liturgy has come down to the present
in two books: the %i++ur, or daily prayer book and the Mah-or, or
festi#al prayer book"
The biblically prescribed rhythm of days weeks months and years ga#e
order to the li#es of the people" The Bible became familiar to old and
young by being read aloud in the synagogue and no part of worship was
esteemed more highly than the reading of scripture" The Torah the first
fi#e books of the Bible is handwritten on a scroll" Biewed as the holiest
ob(ect in the synagogue it is kept in a sacred cabinet called the ark"
<pecial prayers and ceremonies accompany its being taken out and
replaced in the ark and during the course of the year it is read in its
entirety at the sabbath ser#ices" Torah portions are also read on the
religious holidays"
A reading from the 6rophets called the Haftarah follows each Torah
reading" One of the fi#e 5egillot *<crolls+ is read on certain holidays:
the <ong of <olomon at 6esah *6asso#er+ the Book of >uth at <ha#uot
*'eeks+ 7amentations of $eremiah at Tisha beDA# *A# I+ Ecclesiastes at
<ukkot *Tabernacles+ and the Book of Esther at 6urim *7ots+" The Book
of $onah is read on the afternoon of Jom Cippur *9ay of Atonement+"
6salms are said or sung in e#ery ser#ice" ,rom the chanting of biblical
te)ts especially the 6salms the music of the synagogue=s cantor has
de#eloped into an incomparable art form *see also $udaism+"
Biblical literature in the liturgy of &hristianity
Eastern Orthodo)y
The first &hristians were $ews and they worshipped along with other
$ews in the synagogue" The earliest ;entile con#erts also attended the
synagogue" 'hen &hristians met outside the synagogue they still used
its liturgy read its Bible and preser#ed the main characteristics of
synagogue worship" E#ery historic liturgy is di#ided into *A+ a &hristian
re#ision of the sabbath ser#ice in the synagogue and */+ a celebration of
$esus= 7ast <upper with his disciples as a fulfillment of the 6asso#er and
a new co#enant with a newly redeemed people of ;od" Thus the church
was ne#er without traditional forms of worship"
,or more than A88 years &hristians had no authori:ed !ew Testament
the Old Testament being read as had been done pre#iously in the
worship ser#ice" By the middle of the /nd century howe#er &hristian
writings also were in the <unday ser#ice" The Old Testament the
#ersion used most generally in its ;reek translation *the <eptuagint+
was the Bible from which the ;ospel was preached" -ts reading preceded
that of the &hristian writings and the reading was far more e)tensi#e
than it is in modern &hristian churches"
As the liturgies grew longer and more elaborate the biblical readings
were reduced and the !ew Testament gradually displaced the Old
Testament" !o Old Testament lesson remained in the ;reek or >ussian
liturgy or in the >oman mass though it has been reintroduced in the
/8th century in most liturgies" All liturgies ha#e at least two readings
from the !ew Testament: one from a letter or other *nonD;ospel+ !ew
Testament writing and one from a ;ospel in that order" The Eastern
liturgies all honour the ;ospel with a procession called the 7ittle
Entrance" This action is accompanied by hymns and prayers that
interpret the ;ospel as the coming of &hrist to redeem the world"
The Eastern liturgies especially after the great theological
contro#ersies of the first four centuries ha#e fa#oured composed te)ts
of prayers hymns and choral anthems that summari:e the thought of
many biblical passages thus becoming short sermons or confessions of
faith" The !icene &reed *Eth century+ itself is one such te)t in contrast
with the <hema *GHear O -sraelH%a type of creed+ in $udaism which
consists of #erbatim passages from 9euteronomy and !umbers"
The 9i#ine 7iturgy of the Eastern Orthodo) churches contains many
such composed te)ts such as prayers that proclaim Orthodo) theology
*e.g., the GOnly begotten <on and 'ord of ;odH following the second
antiphon+" -saiah chapter 4 #erse ? *GHoly holy holy is the 7ord of
hosts; the whole earth is full of his gloryH+ used in the $ewish Cedusha
*;lorification of ;od+ generates two separate te)ts in the Eastern
liturgy: the Trisagion *a solemn threefold acclamation to ;od+ at the
7ittle Entrance and the ;reek original of the GHoly holy holyH in the
eucharistic liturgy"
6salms are sung e)tensi#ely at the daily hours of prayer in the East as in
the 'est" At the beginning of the <unday ser#ice entire psalms or more
than one psalm are sometimes sung" 5ore often howe#er a psalm
#erse or two are combined with other material into a composite te)t of a
hymn or anthem" A mosaic of selected psalm #erses may be used either
as a te)t for music or a spoken prayer" 5ost characteristic of all
especially in the ;reek &hurch=s tradition howe#er is the freely
composed and imaginati#e hymn te)t based on a biblical incident or
person or an e)tended paraphrase of a passage of scripture" -n addition
to such biblically based psalms and other hymns there are the famous
&herubic Hymn of the ;reek and >ussian liturgies and the original te)ts
of hymns that ha#e become well known in the 'estern churches%e.g.,
GO gladsome light of the ,ather immortalH and G7et all mortal flesh
keep silent"H
>oman &atholicism
7iturgical worship in both $udaism and &hristianity is an action that
mo#es within the framework of biblical ideas and e)plains itself in
biblical language" 6reoccupied with really different #iews from opposite
windows $ews and &hristians ha#e often o#erlooked the common
heritage that they share" This has likewise been true of the differences
between Eastern and 'estern &hristians"
At >ome the liturgy was sung and said in ;reek until the Eth century
and was probably more like the liturgy of <yria at that time than that of
>ome after the A4th century" The 7atin rite de#eloped many distincti#e
features but what happened in >ome happened also to some e)tent in
the East" The biblical readings at mass were reduced to two: the first
reading formally called the Epistle was usually from an apostolic letter
but sometimes from the Acts of the Apostles or e#en the Old Testament
and the second was a ;ospel passage selected as appropriate for that
particular day in the &hurch Jear" The 'est like the East retained the
$ewish week and de#eloped a yearly cycle of Easter@6entecost and
&hristmas@Epiphany celebrations with appropriate biblical selections"
The de#elopment of the &hurch Jear became so elaborate in the 'est
howe#er that the >oman calendar pro#ided for e#ery day in the year"
-n the 'est as in the East monastic and other religious communities
obser#ed the daily hours of prayer in which there was little Bible
reading as such but a great deal of corporate praying as well as the
reading or singing of psalms" The >oman canonical hours were further
enriched with homilies and legends from many sources with 7atin
metrical hymns and with biblical canticles including a daily singing of
the early &hristian songs that are 0uoted in the ;ospel According to
7uke: the GBenedictusH *G<ong of FechariahH+ in chapter A #erses 42@
.I at 7auds *morning prayer+ the G5agnificatH *G<ong of 5aryH+ in
chapter A #erses E4@11 at Bespers *e#ening prayer+ and the G!unc
9imittisH *G<ong of <imeonH+ in chapter / #erses /I@?/ at &ompline
*prayer at the end of the day+" The great anonymous canticle called the
GTe 9eumH a #ast array of biblical images ascribing praise and glory to
;od is sung e#ery day at 5atins *an early morning prayer+"
The mass is an abbre#iation of a much longer liturgy" 5any items are
mere #estiges of more elaborate actions or te)ts" The psalms once sung
at the entrance for e)ample ha#e been reduced to a traditional form of
a sung te)t: an antiphon of one or two #erses from a psalm the first
#erse of the psalm the G;lory be to the ,atherH and the antiphon
repeated" The same has occurred in other parts of the mass" 6salms
were once interspersed among the readings of scripture" The traditional
gradual was a formali:ed te)t sung between the Epistle and ;ospel but
in the reformed mass it becomes a responsorial psalm between the first
and second readings" The short te)ts at the Offertory *offering of the
bread and wine+ and &ommunion are fragments in biblical language but
they are also masterpieces of the 7atin genius for bre#ity clarity and
order%as are the inimitable 7atin collects *prayers+ each basing its
definite petition on an e0ually definite biblical re#elation"
,or centuries the mass was heard only in 7atin and repeated the same
readings on the same days e#ery year with the result that only a limited
number of unconnected passages were heard in church" The second
Batican &ouncil *AI4/@41+ appro#ed the plan of ha#ing a threeDyear
cycle of biblical readings pro#iding an Old Testament lesson for e#ery
mass a more nearly continuous reading from one of the ;ospels each
year and a reading from one of the letters or other !ew Testament
books o#er a period of weeks"
6rotestantism
The term 6rotestant co#ers so wide a #ariety of theological #iews and
religious and cultural groups and so many different ways of worshipping
and using the Bible in worship that it is #irtually impossible to say
anything about the liturgy or the Bible=s place in worship that would be
true of all 6rotestants" Among Anglicans what was said of the Bible in
the >oman &atholic liturgy would generally apply" -t would also apply to
most 7utherans in the /8th century but not to all 7utherans" On the
other hand there ha#e been and are 6rotestants who claim or tacitly
assume that nothing but the Bible should be used in worship" The use of
the Bible in 6rotestant liturgy lies between these e)tremes"
-n the A4th century the !ew Testament was appealed to as a guide for
reforming the worship as well as the doctrine of the time" Because the
worship reflected in the !ew Testament is synagogue worship
6rotestant worship of the less liturgical kind became in many respects
a return to synagogue worship" 6rotestants separated the two ser#ices
*instructional and Eucharistic+ that had been (oined together in the
historic liturgy of &hristendom" The 6rotestant <unday ser#ice is the
7iturgy of the 7earners a new re#ision of the synagogue liturgy" -t
centres in the biblical word read and preached" The congregation
worships in anticipation of and response to the scriptural word" 6raise
becomes corporate only in hymns sung by the congregation and prayer
#oices human need and misery as re#ealed in the Bible and claims the
promises heard there"
The absence of a de#eloped liturgy generally limits the amount and
#ariety of scripture read in the course of a year as well as the forms of
congregational participation" On the one hand it limits worship to the
resources and skill of local ministers but on the other hand it also
lea#es a freedom to choose what is useful from any source%this has
become an increasing practice in almost e#ery 6rotestant church in the
/8th century" <uch freedom has been welcomed by many in the latter
part of the /8th century%when all 6rotestant and &atholic liturgies
seem likely to change without much ad#ance notice *see also
&hristianity+"
H" ;rady 9a#is
The critical study of biblical literature: e)egesis and hermeneutics
E)egesis or critical interpretation and hermeneutics or the science of
interpreti#e principles of the Bible ha#e been used by both $ews and
&hristians throughout their histories for #arious purposes" The most
common purpose has been that of disco#ering the truths and #alues of
the Old and !ew Testaments by means of #arious techni0ues and
principles though #ery often due to the e)igencies of certain historical
conditions polemical or apologetical situations anticipate the truth or
#alue to be disco#ered and thus dictate the type of e)egesis or
hermeneutic to be used" The primary goal howe#er is to arri#e at
biblical truths and #alues by an unbiassed use of e)egesis and
hermeneutics"
!ature and significance
Biblical e)egesis is the actual interpretation of the sacred book the
bringing out of its meaning; hermeneutics is the study and
establishment of the principles by which it is to be interpreted" 'here
the biblical writings are interpreted on a historical perspecti#e (ust as
with philological and other ancient documents there is little call for a
special discipline of biblical hermeneutics" But it has been widely held
that the factors of di#ine re#elation and inspiration in the Bible which
according to $ewish and &hristian belief set it apart from other
literature impose their appropriate hermeneutical principles although
there has been di#ergence of opinion on what these principles are"
Again because of the place that the biblical writings ha#e occupied in
synagogue and church their e)ploitation for apologetical or polemical
ends their employment as a source for dogma or as a means of grace
fostering indi#idual and community de#otion and the use of certain
parts *especially the psalms+ in the congregational liturgy the science
of hermeneutics has been studiously culti#ated as a theological
discipline" To treat the Bible like any other book *e#en in order to
disco#er that it is not like any other book+ has been condemned by
belie#ers as an unworthy not to say impious attitude"
At times the languages in which the biblical te)ts were originally
composed ha#e for that reason been treated as sacred languages"
Hebrew may be to the philologist a &anaanite dialect not substantially
different from 6hoenician or 5oabite or other <emitic languages but
for some people e#en today this language is in#ested with an aura of
sacredness" As for the language of the !ew Testament in the days
before its place within the general de#elopment of Hellenistic ;reek was
properly appreciated it could be called a Glanguage of the Holy ;hostH
as it was by the ;erman 7utheran theologian >ichard >othe *A.II@
A24.+" And e#en scholars who know #ery well the true character of the
biblical languages are tempted at times to make the Old and !ew
Testament #ocabularies down to the #ery prepositions bear a greater
weight of theological significance than sound linguistic practice
permits" 'here in other ;reek literature the conte)t would be allowed
to determine the precise force of this or that synonym there is a
tendency to approach the !ew Testament with definitions ready made
and to impose them on the te)t: to gi#e one e)ample of two common
;reek words meaning GnewH it is sometimes laid down in ad#ance that
kainos denotes new in character and neos new in time *GyoungH+" Often
such distinctions are #alid but their #alidity must be established by the
conte)t; where the conte)t discourages such precise differentiations
they must not be forced upon it"
Again it is a truism in linguistic study that the meaning of a word
depends on its usage not on its deri#ation" -t may be of interest to know
that the Hebrew word for Gburnt offeringH *'ola+ etymologically means
GascendingH *cf. the #erb 'ala, GascendH+ and to trace the stages by
which it attained its biblical meaning but this knowledge is almost
wholly irrele#ant to the understanding of the word in the Old Testament
ritual #ocabulary and any attempt to link it say with the ascension of
$esus in the !ew Testament as has been done can lead only to
confusion"
<imilarly there has been a tendency to place the history contained in the
biblical writings on a different le#el from GordinaryH history" Here the
increasing knowledge of the historical setting of the biblical narrati#e
especially in the Old Testament has helped to remo#e the impression
that the persons and peoples portrayed in this narrati#e are not 0uite
GrealH; it has integrated them with contemporary life and promoted a
better understanding of what they had in common with their neighbours
and what their distincti#e 0ualities were"
Biblical criticism
A prere0uisite for the e)egetical study of the biblical writings and e#en
for the establishment of hermeneutical principles is their critical
e)amination" 5ost forms of biblical criticism are rele#ant to many other
bodies of literature"
Te)tual criticism
Te)tual criticism is concerned with the basic task of establishing as far
as possible the original te)t of the documents on the basis of the
a#ailable materials" ,or the Old Testament until AIE. these materials
consisted principally of: *A+ Hebrew manuscripts dated from the Ith
century A9 onward the 5asoretic te)t the traditional $ewish te)t with
its #ocali:ation and punctuation marks as recorded by the editors called
5asoretes *Hebrew masora, GtraditionH+ from the 4th century to the end
of the A8th; */+ Hebrew manuscripts of medie#al date preser#ing the
<amaritan edition of the 6entateuch *first fi#e books of the Bible+; *?+
;reek manuscripts mainly from the ?rd and Eth centuries A9 onward
preser#ing the te)t of the preD&hristian ;reek #ersion of the Hebrew
Bible together with most of the apocryphal books *the <eptuagint+; *E+
manuscripts of the <yriac *6eshitta+ and 7atin *Bulgate+ #ersions both
of which were based directly on the Hebrew" <ince AIE. the disco#ery of
Hebrew biblical te)ts at Kumran *then $ordan+ and other places west of
the 9ead <ea has made it possible to trace the history of the Hebrew
Bible back to the /nd century B& and to recogni:e among the
manuscripts circulating in the closing generations of the <econd $ewish
&ommonwealth *c. E18 B&@c. A9 A?1+ at least three types of Hebrew
te)t: *A+ the ancestor of the 5asoretic te)t */+ the Hebrew basis of the
<eptuagint #ersion and *?+ a popular te)t of the 6entateuch akin to the
<amaritan edition" A comparati#e e)amination of these three indicates
that the ancestor of the 5asoretic te)t is in the main the most reliable;
the translators of the >e#ised <tandard Bersion *AI1/+ and !ew English
Bible *AI.8+ ha#e continued to use the 5asoretic te)t as their Old
Testament basis"
,or the !ew Testament the chief te)tDcritical materials are *A+
manuscripts of the ;reek te)t from the /nd to the A1th centuries of
which some 1888 are known e)hibiting the !ew Testament te)t in
whole or in part; */+ ancient #ersions in <yriac &optic 7atin Armenian
;eorgian Ethiopic and other languages; and *?+ citations in early
&hristian writers" A comparati#e study of this material enables scholars
to get behind the By:antine type of te)t *the type that first diffused from
&onstantinople from the Eth century onward gained currency
throughout ;reekDspeaking &hristendom and formed the basis of the
earliest printed editions of the ;reek Testament+ to a #ariety of types
current in #arious localities in the generations immediately preceding;
but the more recent disco#ery of manuscripts *mainly on papyrus+ of the
?rd and e#en /nd centuries which cannot be neatly assigned to one or
another of these types makes the earlier history of the te)t more
problematic and the >e#ised <tandard Bersion and !ew English Bible
are both based on an eclectic te)t *in which where the witnesses show
#ariant readings the reading preferred is that which best suits the
conte)t and the author=s known style+"
6hilological criticism
6hilological criticism consists mainly in the study of the biblical
languages in their widest scope so that the #ocabulary grammar and
style of the biblical writings can be understood as accurately as possible
with the aid not only of other biblical writings but of other writings in
the same or cognate languages" !ew Testament ;reek for e)ample is a
representati#e of Hellenistic ;reek written in the Ast century A9
ranging from the literary Hellenistic of Hebrews - 6eter and portions of
7uke@Acts to the collo0uial or #ernacular idiom of some other books
*e.g., the con#ersations in the ;ospels+" <ome Aramaic influences ha#e
been discerned in parts of the !ew Testament that ha#e a 6alestinian
setting but not to a point where scholars are obliged to conclude that
some books or parts of books were originally composed in Aramaic"
5oreo#er the <eptuagint #ersion e)ercised on some !ew Testament
writers the kind of influence that the Cing $ames Bersion has e)ercised
on many English writers especially in the pro#ision of a theological
#ocabulary in areas such as law ethics atonement and sacrifice" The
study of Old Testament Hebrew has been enriched by the study of other
<emitic languages%Akkadian and Ngaritic among the ancient
languages and Arabic which preser#es many archaic features" <uch
comparati#e study has led to the suggestion of new meanings for a
considerable number of biblical Hebrew words%a tendency that is
amply illustrated by the !ew English Bible%but this department of
philological criticism re0uires much more carefully defined guiding
lines than ha#e hitherto been laid down"
7iterary criticism
7iterary criticism endea#ours to establish the literary genres *types or
categories+ of the #arious documents and to reach conclusions about
their structure date and authorship" These conclusions are based as far
as possible on internal e#idence but e)ternal e#idence is also #ery
helpful especially where date is concerned" -f the document under
consideration is unmistakably 0uoted in another composition for
e)ample that 0uotation forms a terminus ante quem *later limiting
point in time+ for dating purposes" -f on the other hand the document is
clearly dependent on another document that can be dated on
independent grounds the date of the earlier document pro#ides a
terminus post quem *earlier limiting point in time+"
6ro#ed dependence on such an earlier document may also throw light
on the structure of the work being studied" But much of the e#idence for
the history of its structure is internal" The e#aluation of such e#idence is
the pro#ince of what used to be called the higher criticism a term first
employed with a biblical reference by the ;erman biblical scholar and
orientalist $ohann ;ottfried Eichhorn *A.1/@A2/.+:
- ha#e been obliged to bestow the greatest amount of labour on a
hitherto entirely unworked field the in#estigation of the inner
constitution of the separate books of the Old Testament by the aid of the
higher criticism *a new name to no humanist+"
Eichhorn paid special attention to the 6entateuch; his work marks an
important step forward in 6entateuchal criticism" The chronological
arrangement of the successi#e law codes contained in the 6entateuch
or of the successi#e editions of one fundamental law code has been
related to the history of -sraelite culture and religion recorded in the
other Old Testament books%histories prophecies and psalms%with
the mounting aid supplied by contemporary nonD-sraelite documents"
The de#elopment of some Old Testament books is indicated e)pressly in
their contents: one can note the composition of the first and second
editions of the Book of $eremiah in $er" ?4:E ?/; and scholars can reach
some conclusions about later editions by a comparison of the longer
edition in the 5asoretic te)t with the shorter edition in the <eptuagint
*now also attested in a fragmentary Hebrew te)t from Kumran+" -n the
absence of such e)plicit e#idence conclusions about the structure of
other prophetic books such as -saiah and E:ekiel must be more
tentati#e"
-n the !ew Testament literary criticism has centred principally on the
;ospels" -n the <ynoptic ;ospels *that is those ha#ing a common
source; i.e., 5atthew 5ark and 7uke+ indicators as to source and
composition are pro#ided by the presence of so much material common
to two or to all three of them" The ma(ority opinion for well o#er a
century has been that 5ark ser#ed as a source for 5atthew and 7uke
and that the two latter had a further common source generally labelled
K *for Quelle, the ;erman term for GsourceH+ comprising mainly sayings
of $esus" Aspects of the ;ospel problem that literary criticism lea#es
unsol#ed are more likely to be illuminated by other critical approaches"
The ,ourth ;ospel *$ohn+ ha#ing much less in common with the
<ynoptic ;ospels than the latter three ha#e among themsel#es presents
an independent line of transmission and a comparati#e study of those
areas where the $ohannine and <ynoptic traditions touch each other
yields #aluable conclusions for the beginnings of the gospel story"
Tradition criticism
Tradition criticism takes up where literary criticism lea#es off; it goes
behind the written sources to trace the de#elopment of oral tradition
where there is reason to belie#e that this preceded the earliest
documentary stages and attempts to trace the de#elopment of the
tradition phase by phase from its primary life setting to its literary
presentation" The de#elopment of the tradition might co#er a lengthy
period as in the Old Testament narrati#es of the patriarchs%Abraham
-saac and $acob%and the (udges such as 9eborah and <amuel many of
which were originally attached to particular sanctuaries" The
recognition of the life setting of each successi#e phase is necessary to
the interpretation of the material recei#ed and deli#ered by one
generation after another"
-n the !ew Testament too special attention has been paid to the oral
stage of the ;ospel tradition though here the preliterary period is
measured in decades not *as in the Old Testament+ in generations and
centuries" !ot only the record of the ministry of $esus but the
de#elopment of &hristian theology in the short preliterary stage has
formed the sub(ect matter of this study"
,orm criticism
,orm criticism has become one of the most #aluable tools for the
reconstruction of the preliterary tradition" This discipline classifies the
literary material according to the principal GformsH%such as legal
poetic and other forms%represented in its contents and e)amines
these in order to disco#er how they were handed down and what their
successi#e life settings were until they assumed their present shape and
position" -n their #arious ways laws narrati#es psalms and prophecies
are amenable to this approach" By this means some scholars ha#e
undertaken to reco#er the ipsissima (erba *G#ery own wordsH+ of $esus
by remo#ing the accretions attached to them in the course of
transmission" The e)egetical task assumes a threefold shape as scholars
work back from *A+ interpretation of the present ;ospels through */+
interpretation of the tradition lying behind them to *?+ reconstruction of
the proclamation of $esus"
<cholars are not left completely to speculation as they attempt to
reconstruct the stages by which the ;ospel tradition attained its final
form: here and there in the !ew Testament letters and in some of the
speeches included in Acts *which con#ey the general sense of what was
said and should not be regarded as the author=s free creations+ there
are fragments and outlines of the story of $esus and of his teaching"
<ometimes the characteristic terminology of tradition *G- recei#ed " " " -
deli#eredH+ is used when such fragments are introduced a decade or so
before the composition of the earliest ;ospel *cf. - &or" AA:/?; A1:?+"
Other types of e)egetical critical techni0ues
>edaction criticism
>edaction criticism concentrates on the end product studying the way
in which the final authors or editors used the traditional material that
they recei#ed and the special purpose that each had in #iew in
incorporating this material into his literary composition" -t has led of
late to important conclusions about the respecti#e outlooks and aims of
5atthew 5ark 7uke and $ohn"
Historical criticism
Historical criticism places the documents in their historical setting and
promotes their interpretation in the light of their contemporary
en#ironment" This is necessary for their understanding whether they
are historical in character or belong to another literary genre" -f they are
historical in character it is important to establish how faithfully they
reflect their dramatic date%the date of the e#ents they record *as
distinct from the date of final composition+" This test has been applied
with singularly positi#e results to 7uke@Acts especially in relation to
>oman law and institutions; and in general the biblical outline of e#ents
from the middle Bron:e Age *c. /Ast@c. midDA4th centuries B&+ to the
Ast century A9 fits remarkably well into its !ear Eastern conte)t as
reco#ered by archaeological research"
GHistory of religionsH criticism
GHistory of religionsH criticism to use an ungainly e)pression relates
Old and !ew Testament religion to the religious situation of the
contemporary world of the writings and tries to e)plain biblical religion
as far as possible in terms of current religious attitudes and practices"
This is helpful to a point insofar as it throws into relief those features of
Hebrew and &hristian faith that are distincti#e; it is carried to e)cess
when it attempts to depri#e those features of their uni0ue 0ualities and
to account completely for them in religious@historical terms" 'hen the
cult of -srael was practically indistinguishable from that of the
&anaanites the protests of the 2thDcenturyDB& Hebrew prophets Amos
or Hosea stand out o#er against popular Jahweh worship *Hebrew+ and
Baal worship *&anaanite+ alike" Another attempt has been made by
historians of religion to recreate for the Ast century A9 a preD&hristian
;nostic myth%referring to an esoteric dualism in which matter is
#iewed as e#il and spirit good%of the primal or hea#enly man who
comes from the realm of light to liberate particles of a hea#enly essence
that are imprisoned on earth in material bodies and to impart the true
knowledge" By men=s acceptance of this secret sal#atory knowledge
*gnosis+ the hea#enly essence within man is released from its thraldom
and reascends to its nati#e abode" ,ragments of this myth ha#e been
recogni:ed in se#eral books of the !ew Testament" But the attempt has
not been successful: according to many recent *latter half of the /8th
century+ !ew Testament scholars and historians of the early church it is
probable that the concepts of primal man and redeemerDre#ealer were
not brought together in ;nosticism e'cept under the influence of the
&hristian apostolic teaching in which $esus fills the role of <on of man
*or <econd Adam+ together with that of <a#iour and >e#ealer"
On the other hand the -ranian religious influence primarily that of
Foroastrianism on the angelology and eschatology *concepts of the last
times+ of $udaism in the last two centuries B& is unmistakable
especially among the 6harisees *a liberal $ewish sect emphasi:ing piety+
and the Kumran community *presumably the Essenes+ near the 9ead
<ea" -n the latter indeed Foroastrian dualism finds clear e)pression
such as in the concept of a war between the sons of light and the sons of
darkness although it is subordinated to the so#ereignty of the one ;od
of -srael"
The #alue of these critical methods of Bible study lies in their enabling
the reader to interpret the writings as accurately as possible" By their
aid he can better ascertain what the writers meant by the language that
they used at the time they wrote and how their first readers would ha#e
understood their language" -f the understanding of readers today is to
ha#e any #alidity it must bear a close relationship to what the original
readers were intended to understand"
,or additional information about the #arious forms of biblical criticism
see abo#e: Old Testament canon te)ts and #ersions; and !ew
Testament canon te)ts and #ersions"
Types of biblical hermeneutics
As has been said the importance of biblical hermeneutics has lain in the
Bible=s status as a sacred book in $udaism and &hristianity recording a
di#ine re#elation or reproducing di#ine oracles" The GoraclesH are
primarily prophetic utterances but often their narrati#e setting has also
come to ac0uire oracular status" Kuite different hermeneutical
principles howe#er ha#e been inferred from this a)iom of biblical
inspiration: whereas some ha#e argued that the interpretation must
always be literal or as literal as possible *since G;od always means
what he saysH+ others ha#e treated it as selfDe#ident that words of
di#ine origin must always ha#e some profounder GspiritualH meaning
than that which lies on the surface and this meaning will yield itself up
only to those who apply the appropriate rules of figurati#e e)egesis" Or
again it may be insisted that certain parts must be treated literally and
others figurati#ely; thus some e)positors who regard the allegorical
*symbolic+ interpretation of the Old Testament histories as the only
interpretation that has any religious #alue maintain that in the
apocalyptic writings that interpretation which is most literal is most
reliable"
7iteral interpretation
7iteral interpretation is often but not necessarily associated with the
belief in #erbal or plenary inspiration according to which not only the
biblical message but also the indi#idual words in which that message
was deli#ered or written down were di#inely chosen" -n an e)treme form
this would imply that ;od dictated the message to the speakers or
writers word by word but most proponents of #erbal inspiration
repudiate such a #iew on the reasonable ground that this would lea#e no
room for the e#ident indi#iduality of style and #ocabulary found in the
#arious authors" Berbal inspiration recei#ed classic e)pression by the
AIthDcentury English biblical scholar $ohn 'illiam Burgon:
The Bible is none other than the (oice of $im that sitteth upon the
,hrone= E#ery Book of it e#ery &hapter of it e#ery Berse of it e#ery
word of it e#ery syllable of it *8here are we to stop>+ e#ery letter of it
is the direct utterance of the 5ost Highb *,rom /nspiration an+
/nterpretation, A24A+"
This e)plains Burgon=s se#ere (udgment that the re#isers of the English
!ew Testament *A22A+ in e)cluding what they belie#ed to be scribal or
editorial additions to the original te)t Gstand con#icted of ha#ing
deliberately re(ected the words of -nspiration in e#ery pageH *,he
Re(ision Re(ise+, p" #ii 7ondon A22?+" <uch a high #iew of inspiration
has commonly been based on the statement in -- Tim" ?:A4 that Gall eOld
Testamentf scripture is ;odDbreathedH *;reek theopneustos, which
means Ginspired by ;odH+ or 6aul=s claim in - &or" /:A? to impart the
gospel Gin words not taught by human wisdom but taught by the <pirit
interpreting spiritual truths in spiritual language"H On this latter
passage the English bishop and biblical scholar $oseph Barber 7ightfoot
*A2/2@2I+ remarked:
The notion of a #erbal inspiration in a certain sense is in#ol#ed in the
#ery conception of an inspiration at all because words are at once the
instruments of carrying on and the means of e)pressing ideas so that
the words must both lead and follow the thought" But the passage gi#es
no countenance to the popular doctrine of #erbal inspiration whether
right or wrong *,rom 2otes on 4pistles of %t. )aul from ?npublishe+
9ommentaries A2I1+"
The detailed attention that 7ightfoot and his &ambridge Nni#ersity
colleagues Brooke ,oss 'estcott *A2/1@AI8A+ successor of 7ightfoot
as bishop of 9urham and ,enton $ohn Anthony Hort *A2/2@I/+ paid in
their e)egesis to the #ocabulary and grammatical construction of the
biblical documents together with their concern for the historical
conte)t sprang from no dogmatic attachment to any theory of
inspiration but rather represented the literal method of interpretation
at its best" <uch grammaticoDhistorical e)egesis can be practiced by
anyone with the necessary linguistic tools and accuracy of mind
irrespecti#e of confessional commitment and is likely to ha#e more
permanent #alue than e)egesis that reflects passing fashions of
philosophical thought" Biblical theology itself is more securely based
when it rests upon such e)egesis than when it forms a hermeneutical
presupposition"
5oral interpretation
5oral interpretation is necessitated by the belief that the Bible is the
rule not only of faith but also of conduct" The $ewish teachers of the late
preD&hristian and early &hristian Era who found Gin the law the
embodiment of knowledge and truthH *>om" /:/8+ were faced with the
necessity of adapting the re0uirements of the 6entateuchal codes to the
changed social conditions of the Hellenistic Age *?rd century B&@?rd
century A9+" This they did by means of a body of oral interpretation
which enabled the conscientious $ew to know his duty in the manifold
circumstances of daily life" -f for e)ample he wished to know whether
this or that acti#ity constituted GworkH that was forbidden on the
sabbath the influential school of legal interpretation headed by the
rabbi Hillel *late Ast century B& to early Ast century A9+ supplied a list
of ?I categories of acti#ity that fell under the ban"
The &hristian &hurch re(ected the $ewish Gtradition of the eldersH but for
the most part continued to regard the Ten &ommandments as ethically
binding and de#ised new codes of practice largely forgetting 6aul=s
appeal to the liberty of the <pirit or #iewing it as an in#itation to
indulge in allegory" -n order to deduce moral lessons from the Bible
allegori:ation was resorted to as when the etter of Barnabas *c. A9
A88+ interprets the 7e#itical food laws prescribed in the book of
7e#iticus as forbidding not the flesh of certain animals but the #ices
imaginati#ely associated with the animals" To set up principles of
e)egesis by which ethical lessons may be drawn from all parts of the
Bible is not easy since many of the commandments en(oined upon the
-sraelites in the 6entateuch no longer ha#e any ob#ious rele#ance such
as the ban on boiling a kid in its mother=s milk *E)" /?:AIb etc"+ or on
wearing a mi)ed woollen and linen garment *9eut" //:AA+; and much of
the teaching of $esus in the <ermon on the 5ount is widely regarded as
a counsel of perfection impracticable for the a#erage man e#en when
he professes the &hristian faith" E#en summaries of the biblical ethic
such as the golden rule *5att" .:A/; cf. Tob" E:A1+ or the twofold law of
lo#e to ;od and lo#e to one=s neighbour *9eut" 4:1; 7e#" AI:A2+ in which
the 9ecalogue *Ten &ommandments+ is comprehended *5ark A/:/I@?A;
cf. >om" A?:2@A8+ in#ol#e casuistic interpretation *fitting general
principles to particular cases+ when they are applied to the complicated
relations of presentDday life" The difficulties of applying biblical ethics
to modern situations do not mean that the task of application should be
abandoned but that it should not be undertaken as though it pro#ided
an easy shortcut to moral solutions"
Allegorical interpretation
Allegorical interpretation places on biblical literature a meaning that
with rare e)ceptions it was ne#er intended to con#ey" Jet at times this
interpretation seemed imperati#e" -f the literal sense on which heretics
such as the /ndDcentury biblical critic 5arcion and antiD&hristian
polemicists such as the /ndDcentury philosopher &elsus insisted was
unacceptable then allegori:ation was the only procedure compatible
with a belief in the Bible as a di#ine oracle" 7aw history prophecy
poetry and e#en $esus= parables yielded new meanings when
allegori:ed" The surface sensuous meaning of the &anticles *the <ong of
<olomon+ was gladly forgotten when its mutual endearments were
understood to e)press the communion between ;od and the soul or
between &hrist and the church" There are still readers who can reconcile
themsel#es to the presence of a book such as $oshua in the canon only if
its battles can be understood as pointing to the warfare of &hristians
Gagainst the spiritual hosts of wickedness in the hea#enly placesH *Eph"
4:A/+" As for the ;ospel parables when in the story of the good
<amaritan *7uke A8:?8@?.+ an allegorical meaning is sought for the
thie#es the <amaritan=s beast the inn the innkeeper and the two
pence the result too often is that the e)plicit point of the story G;o and
do likewiseH is blunted"
&losely allied to allegorical interpretation if not indeed a species of it is
typological interpretation in which certain persons ob(ects or e#ents in
the Old Testament are seen to set forth at a deeper le#el persons
ob(ects or e#ents in the !ew" -n such interpretations !oah=s ark *;en"
4:AE@//+ is interpreted to typify the church outside which there is no
sal#ation; -saac carrying the wood for the sacrifice *;en" //:4+ typifies
$esus carrying the cross; >ahab=s scarlet cord in the window *$os" /:A2@
/A+ prefigures the blood of &hrist; and so on" These are not merely
sermon illustrations but rather aspects of a hermeneutical theory that
maintains that this further significance was designed *by ;od+ from the
beginning" Traces of typology appear in the !ew Testament as when
6aul in >om" 1:AE calls Adam a GtypeH of the coming &hrist *as the head
of the old creation in#ol#ed its members in the results of his
disobedience so the head of the new creation shares with its members
the fruit of his obedience+ or when in - &or" A8:AA he says that the
-sraelites= e)periences in the wilderness wanderings befell them
GtypicallyH so as to warn his own con#erts of the peril of rebelling
against ;od" The fourth e#angelist stresses the analogy between the
sacrificial 6asso#er lamb of the Hebrews and &hrist in his death *$ohn
AI+" The writer of the Hebrews treats the priestDking of <alem
5elchi:edek who was in#ol#ed with Abraham as a type of &hrist *Heb"
.+%without using the word GtypeH%and the 7e#itical ritual of the 9ay
of Atonement as a model *though an imperfect one+ of &hrist=s sacrificial
ministry *Heb" I+"
Other hermeneutical principles
Anagogical interpretation
Anagogical *mystical or spiritual+ interpretation seeks to e)plain biblical
e#ents or matters of this world so that they relate to the life to come"
$ordan is thus interpreted as the ri#er of death; by crossing it one enters
into the hea#enly &anaan the better land the Grest that remains for the
people of ;od"H GThe $erusalem that now isH points to the new
$erusalem that is abo#e" -n $udaism of the closing centuries B& the
Eden of ;enesis the earthly paradise lent its name to the hea#enly
paradise mentioned occasionally in the !ew Testament *7uke /?:E?; --
&or" A/:?; >e#" /:.+"
Another form of mystical interpretation is the 5ariological *referring to
5ary the mother of $esus+ application of scriptures that ha#e another
conte)tual sense" Thus 5ary is the second E#e whose offspring bruises
the serpent=s head *;en" ?:A1+; 5ary is the starDcrowned woman of >e#"
A/ whose son is caught up to the throne of ;od and in more popular
piety the darkDfaced 5adonna of the monastery at 5ontserrat near
Barcelona <pain can be identified with the Gblack but comelyH bride of
the <ong of <olomon"
6arallelism
6arallelism the interpretation of <cripture by means of <cripture is a
corollary of the belief in the unity of <cripture" But as a hermeneutical
principle it must be employed sparingly since the unity of <cripture
should be based on comprehensi#e e)egetical study rather than itself
pro#ide a basis" 'here one or two biblical documents *e.g., the letters to
the >omans and to the ;alatians+ are treated as the norm of biblical
doctrine there is a danger that other parts of the #olume *e.g., the 7etter
to the Hebrews+ will be forced to yield the same sense as the
Gnormati#eH documents; the distincti#eness of certain biblical authors
will then be blurred" One nai#e form of parallelism is the GconcordantH
method in which it is a)iomatic that a Hebrew or ;reek word will
always *or nearly always+ ha#e the same force where#er it occurs in the
Bible no matter who uses it" There is again a harmonistic tradition that
smooths out disparities in the biblical te)t *e.g., as between the gospel
narrati#es or the parallel records of Cings and &hronicles+ in a manner
that imposes a greater strain on faith than do the disparities
themsel#es"
One e)egetical de#ice of the $ewish rabbis *teachers biblical
commentators and religious leaders+ was that of ge-era sha8a, Ge0ual
categoryH according to which an obscure passage might be illuminated
by reference to another containing the same key term" There are se#eral
e)amples in 6aul=s Old Testament e)egesis one of the best known being
in ;al" ?:A8@AE where the mystery of &hrist=s dying the death that
incurred the di#ine curse *9eut" /A:/?+ is e)plained by his bearing
#icariously the curse incurred by the lawbreaker *9eut" /.:/4+" One may
compare the e)planation in Heb" E:?@I of ;od=s GrestH mentioned in 6s"
I1:AA by reference to his resting on the se#enth day after creation=s
work *;en" /:?+%an e)planation dependent on the <eptuagint not the
Hebrew"
Analogical interpretation
Analogical interpretation traditionally includes not only interpretation
according to the analogy of <cripture *parallelism in other words+ but
also interpretation according to the Ganalogy of faithH%an e)pression
that misapplies the language of >om" A/:4 in the Cing $ames Bersion of
A4AA" -t has at times been pressed to mean that no biblical
interpretation is #alid unless it conforms to the established teaching of a
religious community to the #erdict of tradition or to the Gunanimous
consensus of the fathers"H 'here the established teaching is based in
intention on <cripture then an interpretation of <cripture that conflicts
with it naturally calls for further scrutiny but such conflict does not rule
out the interpretation beforehand; if the conflict is confirmed it is the
established teaching that re0uires re#ision"
Other types
There is an unconscious tendency to conform hermeneutical principles
to the climate of opinion in and around the community concerned and
to change the hermeneutic pattern as the climate of opinion changes" -t
is not surprising that in the circles where 6seudoD9ionysius *earlyD4thD
century writings attributed to 9ionysius a con#ert of <t" 6aul+ was
re#ered as a teacher <cripture was interpreted in !eoplatonic
*idealistic and mystical+ categories and if in the latter half of the /8th
century there is an influential and persuasi#e school of e)istential
hermeneutics this may be as much due to a widespread contemporary
outlook on life as was the liberal hermeneutic of the preceding
generations"
At a far different le#el contemporary mo#ements continue to influence
biblical interpretation" The interpretation of prophecy and apocalyptic in
terms of e#ents of the interpreter=s day which has ancient precedent is
still a#idly pursued" $ust as in the A4th century the apocalyptic beast of
>e#elation was interpreted to be the papacy or 5artin 7uther *in
accordance with the interpreter=s #iewpoint+ so also today in some
nonacademic circles the ten kings denoted by the beast=s horns in
>e#elation are identified with the European Economic &ommunity in its
ultimate de#elopment or the threat to Gdestroy the tongue of the sea of
EgyptH *-sa" AA:A1+ is belie#ed to be fulfilled in the condition of the <ue:
&anal in the years following AI4." 'hate#er critical e)egetes think of
such aberrations historians of e)egesis will take note of them and
recogni:e the doctrine of <cripture that underlies them"
The de#elopment of biblical e)egesis and hermeneutics in $udaism
Early stages
The beginnings of biblical e)egesis are found in the Old Testament
itself where earlier documents are interpreted in later documents as in
the recasting of earlier laws in later codes or the &hronicler=s reworking
of material in <amuel and Cings" -n addition e#en before the Babylonian
E)ile *124 B&+ there is e#idence of the kind of midrashic e)position
*nonliteral interpretations+ familiar in the rabbinical period *c. ?88 B&@
c. A9 188+ and after"
-n -sa" E8 and following the restoration of -srael after the return from
e)ile is portrayed as a new creation: the characteristic #erbs of the
;enesis creation narrati#e%GcreateH *bara+ GmakeH *=asa+ and GformH
*1at-ar+%are used of this new act of ;od *e.g., -sa" E?:.+" E#en more
clearly are the same e#ents portrayed as a new E)odus: on their (ourney
back from Babylon as earlier through the wilderness the ;od of -srael
makes a way for his people; he protects them before and behind; he
champions them Gwith a mighty hand and an outstretched armH he
brings water from the rock for their sustenance *-sa" E?:/ A4 AI; E2:/A;
1/:A/; E:ek" /8:??+"
A pattern of di#ine action in mercy and (udgment is discernible as one
mo#es from the earlier prophets to the later prophets and apocalyptists
*those concerned with the inter#ention of ;od in history+" Jahweh=s
Gstrange workH in bringing the Assyrians against -srael in the 2th
century B& *-sa" /2:/A; /I:AE+ is repeated a century later when he raises
up the &haldaeans *Babylonians+ to e)ecute his (udgment *Hab" A:1
fol"+" E:ekiel=s #isionary figure ;og is the in#ader whose aggression was
foretold in earlier days by Jahweh through his Gser#ants the prophetsH
*E:ek" ?2:A.+ and one may recogni:e in him a re#i#al not only of
-saiah=s Assyrian *-sa" A8:E fol"+ but also of $eremiah=s destroyer from
the north *$er" A:AE fol"; E:4 fol"+" The same figure reappears in the last
Gking of the northH in 9an" AA:E8 fol"; he too is di#erted from his path by
Gtidings from the east and the northH *cf. -sa" ?.:.+ and Gshall come to
his end with none to help himH *cf. -sa" ?A:2+"
-n some degree these later predictions are interpretations or
reinterpretations of the earlier ones as when the nonD-sraelite prophet
Balaam=s Gships " " " from CittimH *!um" /E:/E+ are interpreted in 9an"
AA:?8 as the >oman #essels off Ale)andria in A42 B& that frustrated the
<yrian king Antiochus -B Epiphanes *c. /A1@A4E3A4? B&+ in his attempt
to anne) Egypt"
E:ra *c. E88 B&+ whose role as the archetypal GscribeH is magnified by
tradition is said in the canonical literature to ha#e brought the law of
;od from Babylonia to $erusalem *E:ra .:AE+ where it was read aloud to
a large assembly by relays of readers Gwith interpretationH%and Gthey
ga#e the sense so that the people understood the readingH *!eh" 2:2+"
This may be the first recorded use of an Aramaic Targum%a paraphrase
of the Hebrew that included interpretation as well as translation"
-n the scribal and rabbinic tradition two forms of e)position were early
distinguished%peshat, Gplain meaningH and +erash, GinterpretationH
by which religious or social morals were deri#ed often artificially from
the te)t" There was howe#er no sense of conflict between the two"
The Hellenistic period
The translation of the Hebrew Bible into ;reek by Ale)andrian $ews in
the /nd and ?rd centuries B& pro#ided opportunities for recording
interpretations that were probably current in Hellenistic $udaism" 7iteral
translations might be misleading to ;reek readers; metaphors natural in
Hebrew were rendered into less figurati#e ;reek" G'alking with ;odH or
Gwalking before ;odH was rendered as Gpleasing ;od"H <uch renderings
are scarcely to be called antiDanthropomorphisms *that is against
depicting ;od in human terms or forms+" -n certain books there are
some renderings that might be so described: in E)" /E:A8 for e)ample
Gthey saw the ;od of -sraelH becomes Gthey saw the place where the
;od of -srael stoodH; but an e)amination of the Hebrew conte)t
suggests that this is precisely what was seen"
There was a tendency to uni#ersali:e certain particularist statements of
the Hebrew: in Amos I:AA fol" the prophecy that 9a#id=s dynasty will
repossess the residue of Edom becomes a promise that the residue of
men *the ;entiles+ will seek the true ;od%a promise that is 0uoted in
the !ew Testament as a GtestimonyH to the &hristian ;entile mission"
The other main contribution to biblical e)egesis in Ale)andria was made
by the $ewish philosopher 6hilo *c. ?83c. /8 B&@after A9 E8+ whose
interpretation of the 6entateuch in terms of 6latonic idealism and <toic
ethics had more influence on &hristian than on $ewish hermeneutics"
-n 6alestinian $udaism the most distincti#e e)egetical work in the
Hellenistic period belonged to the Kumran community *c. A?8 B&@A9
.8+ which belie#ing itself raised up to prepare for the new age of
e#erlasting righteousness found in <cripture the di#ine purpose about
on the point of fulfillment together with its own duty in the impending
crisis" Biblical prophecies in the Kumran commentaries refer to persons
and e#ents of the recent past the present or the imminent future" The
time of their fulfillment was concealed from the prophets; only when
this was re#ealed to the Teacher of >ighteousness the organi:er of the
community could their intent be grasped"
>abbinic e)egesis was present in all the #arieties of rabbinic literature
but is found especially in the Targumim and 5idrashim *plural of
Targum and 5idrash+" Among the former special interest attaches to
the early 6alestinian 6entateuch Targum; it preser#es for e)ample
messianic *referring to the e)pected anointed deli#erer+ e)egesis of
certain passages to which later rabbis ga#e a different interpretation
because of the &hristians= appeal to them" The earlier 5idrashim%those
whose contents are not later than A9 /88%e)pound E)odus 7e#iticus
!umbers and 9euteronomy and are almost entirely Halakhic%i.e.,
recording legal interpretations from #arious schools" The later
5idrashim are more homiletic and include a considerable element of
Haggada; i.e., illustrati#e material drawn from all sources"
>abbinic e)egesis obser#ed rules which were #ariously formulated in
the schools" The name of the famous interpreter Hillel is linked with
se#en mi++ot or norms; *A+ inference from less important to more
important and #ice #ersa */+ inference by analogy *?+ the grouping of
related passages under an interpretati#e principle that primarily applies
to one of them *E+ similar grouping where the principle primarily
applies to two passages *1+ inference from particular to general and
#ice #ersa *4+ e)position by means of a similar passage *.+ inference
from the conte)t" By the time of >abbi -shmael *c. A9 A88+ these rules
were e)panded to A? and Elie:er ben Jose the ;alilaean *c. A9 A18+
formulated ?/ rules reflecting rational principles of e)egesis which
remained normati#e into the 5iddle Ages"
The medie#al period
By the beginning of the 5iddle Ages the 5asoretes of Babylonia and
6alestine *4th@A8th century+ had fi)ed in writing by points and
annotation the traditional pronunciation punctuation and *to some
e)tent+ interpretation of the biblical te)t" The rise of the Caraites who
re(ected rabbinic tradition and appealed to <cripture alone *2th century
onward+ stimulated e)egetical study in their own sect and in $udaism
generally: in reaction against them <a=adia ben $oseph *22/@IE/+ who
was the gaon or head of the <ura academy in Babylonia did some of his
most important work" He adopted as one basic principle that biblical
interpretation must not contradict reason" He translated most of the
Bible into Arabic and composed an Arabic commentary on the te)t"
The ,rench $ewish biblical and Talmudic scholar >ashi *>abbi <hlomo
Jit:ha0i of Troyes A8E8@AA81+ the most popular of all $ewish
commentators paid careful heed to the language and re(ected those
midrashic traditions that were inconsistent with the plain meaning of
the te)t" Abraham ibn E:ra of <panish birth *A8I/3I?@AA4.+ in some
respects anticipated the 6entateuchal literary criticism of later
centuries" Other important names are $oseph Kimhi of !arbonne and his
sons 5oses and 9a#id the last of whom *c. AA48@A/?1+ commented on
the prophets and psalms; his psalms commentary took issue especially
with &hristian e)egesis"
The great philosopher and codifier 5aimonides *5oses ben 5aimon
AA?1@A/8E+ composed among many other works his Gui+e of the
)erple'e+ to help readers who were bewildered by apparent
contradictions between the biblical te)t and the findings of reason" 7ike
his younger contemporary 9a#id Kimhi he classified some biblical
narrati#es as #isionary accounts"
,ar remo#ed from the rational e)egesis of these scholars was the
mystical tradition or Cabbala which combined with an earlier
mysticism%in#ol#ing reflection on E:ekiel=s inaugural chariot #ision%
the !eoplatonic doctrine of emanations" Adherents of this mystical
e)egesis found encouragement in the 6entateuch commentary of the
<panish Talmudist Cabbalist and biblical commentator 5oses ben
!ahman *c. AAI1@A/.8+" The tracing of mystical significance in the
numerical #alues of Hebrew letters and words *gematria+ made a
distincti#e contribution to mystical e)egesis" The chief monument of
mystical e)egesis is the A?thDcentury <panish %efer ha#-ohar *GBook of
<plendourH+ in form a midrashic commentary on the 6entateuch" -n the
@ohar the peshat *literal+ and +erash *nonliteral meanings+ types of
interpretation are accompanied by those called reme- *GallusionH+
including typology and allegory and so+ *GsecretH+ the mystical sense"
The initials of the four were so arranged as to yield the word 6a>9e<
*G6aradiseH+ a designation for the fourfold meaning" The highest
meaning led by knowledge through lo#e to ecstasy and the beatific
#ision"
The modern period
,ollowing a line marked out earlier by the <panish philosopher and poet
5oses ibn E:ra *A848@AA?I+ Benedict de <pino:a *A4?/@..+ put
forward a thoroughgoing reappraisal of the traditional account of the
origin of the 6entateuch in his ,ractatus ,heologico#)oliticus *A4.I+" -n
the following century the $ewish Enlightenment *Haskala+ brought a
fresh appreciation of the Bible as literature" The pioneer of the
Enlightenment 5oses 5endelssohn *A./I@24+ prepared a ;erman
translation of the 6entateuch which he furnished *along with <olomon
9ubno and others+ with a commentary; he also translated the psalms
and the <ong of <olomon"
The tradition of orthodo) $ewish e)egesis has persisted" -n the AIth
century the >ussian rabbi 5eir ben Jehiel 5ichael G5albinH *A28I@.I+
wrote commentaries on the prophets and the writings emphasi:ing the
differences between synonyms" -n the /8th century the traditional
#alues of $udaism were popularly e)pounded in $oseph Herman Hert:=s
commentary on ,he )entateuch an+ $aftorahs *AI/I@?4+ and in the
<oncino Books of the Bible *AIE4@1A+" 5artin Buber *A2.2@AI41+ the
great modern $ewish philosopher imparted to his many studies in
biblical literature and religion%including his re#olutionary ;erman
translation of the Bible *AI/4 and following+ partly e)ecuted in
association with the religious philosopher ,ran: >osen:weig *A224@
AI/4+%the 0ualities of his personal genius that was influenced by
Hasidic *A2thDcentury mystical+ piety and an e)istential interpretation
of life"
-n recent decades the most #aluable $ewish e)egesis has been in
association with the wider world of biblical scholarship" $ournals such as
the 6e8ish Quarterl1 Re(ie8 and the $ebre8 ?nion 9ollege !nnual
welcome contributions from nonD$ewish scholars; in interconfessional
pro(ects such as the Anchor Bible $ewish scholars cooperate in the Old
and !ew Testament alike"
The whole field of biblical study including e)egesis is culti#ated most
intensi#ely in -srael" Jehe:kel Caufmann *A2I8@AI4?+ produced the
encyclopaedic $istor1 of /sraelite Religion from /ts Beginnings to the
4n+ of the %econ+ ,emple *2 #ol" AI?.@14+ in Hebrew that pursues a
path in#ol#ing a radical re#ision of current biblical criticism and
interpretation" 5osheh Fe#i Hirsh <egal *died AI42+ dealt with a wide
area of biblical and related literature maintaining the essential 5osaic
authorship of the 6entateuch *supplemented by later editors who
worked in 5oses= spirit+" The most ambitious enterprise in this field is
the GBible 6ro(ectH of the Hebrew Nni#ersity of $erusalem which aims to
produce a critical edition of the Hebrew Bible but also fosters a number
of ancillary studies in biblical te)t and interpretation mostly published
in its annual report ,e'tus, in which nonD$ewish as well as $ewish
scholars participate"
The de#elopment of biblical e)egesis and hermeneutics in &hristianity
Early stages
The earliest &hristian e)egesis of the Old Testament is found in the !ew
Testament not in the written te)ts only but in the oral tradition lying
behind them" <ome lines of e)egesis are present in so many separate
strands of primiti#e &hristian teaching that they are most reasonably
assigned to $esus who began his ;alilaean ministry with the
announcement that the time appointed for the fulfillment of prophecy
and the Cingdom of ;od that was its main theme had arri#ed" -f the
accomplishment of his ministry in#ol#ed his death that was accepted in
the same spirit; he submitted to his captors with the words: G" " " 7et the
scriptures be fulfilledH *5ark AE:EI+" The church began with the
con#iction that $esus crucified and risen was the one of whom the
prophets spoke" He was the prophet like 5oses prince of the house of
9a#id priest of the order of 5elchi:edek ser#ant of the 7ord <on of
man and e)alted 7ord" -f the prophets themsel#es were uncertain about
the person or time indicated by their oracles the early &hristians were
certain: the person was $esus the time was now" The !ew Testament
writers shared a creati#e and fle)ible principle of e)egesis that has
regard for the literary and historical conte)t and traces a consistent
pattern of di#ine action in (udgment and mercy reproduced repeatedly
in the history of -srael and manifested definiti#ely in &hrist" This
e)egesis is elaborated at times by means of typology and allegory as
when 6aul illustrates the relationship between law and gospel by the
story of Hagar and <arah the concubine and wife of Abraham
respecti#ely *;al" E:/A@?A+ or when -srael=s tabernacle in the
wilderness becomes the material counterpart to the hea#enly sanctuary
in which belie#ers of the new age offer spiritual worship to ;od *Heb"
2:/ fol"+" The writer to the Hebrews indeed occasionally relates the old
order to the new order platonically in terms of the earthly copy of an
eternal archetype"
At an early date &hristians de#eloped a line of Old Testament e)egesis
designed to show that they not the $ews stand in the true succession of
the original people of ;od" This line is seen in the etter of Barnabas,
the apologist $ustin=s *c. A88@c. A41+ Dialogue 8ith ,r1pho, and the ?rdD
century !gainst the 6e8s ascribed to the !orth African bishop &yprian
*c. /88@/12+"
The patristic period
Ale)andria had long boasted a school of classical study that practiced
the allegorical interpretation of the Homeric epics and the ;reek myths"
This method of e)egesis was taken o#er by 6hilo and from him by
&hristian scholars of Ale)andria in the /nd and ?rd centuries" &lement
of Ale)andria *c. A18@c. /A1+ and Origen *c. A21@c. /1E+ did not
completely rule out the literal sense of <cripture%Origen=s $e'apla, a
si) column edition of #arious biblical #ersions was a monument to his
painstaking study of the te)t%but claimed that the most meaningful
aspects of di#ine re#elation could be e)tracted only by allegori:ation"
&lement stated that the ,ourth ;ospel was a Gspiritual gospelH because
it unfolds the deeper truth concealed in the matterDofDfact narrati#es of
the other three" Origen treated literal statements as Gearthen #esselsH
preser#ing di#ine treasure; their literal sense is the body as compared
with the moral sense *the soul+ and the spiritual sense *the spirit+" The
true e)egete he claimed pursues the threefold sense and recogni:es
the spiritual *allegorical+ as the highest" 7ater the Antiochene fathers
represented especially by Theodore of 5opsuestia *c. ?18@E/23E/I+
and $ohn &hrysostom *c. ?E.@E8.+ patriarch of &onstantinople
de#eloped an e)egesis that took more account of literal meaning and
historical conte)t" But the allegori:ers could claim that their method
yielded lessons that *while arbitrary+ were more rele#ant and interesting
to ordinary &hristians"
-n the 'est the Ale)andrian methods were adopted by Ambrose *c.
??I@?I.+ bishop of 5ilan and Augustine *?1E@E?8+ bishop of Hippo
especially as formulated in the se#en GrulesH of Tyconius *c. ?28+ a
9onatist heretic *one who denied the efficacy of sacraments
administered by an allegedly unworthy priest+ which classified
allegorical interpretation in relation to: *A+ the 7ord and his church */+
true and false belie#ers *?+ promise and law *E+ genus and species *1+
numerical significance *4+ GrecapitulationH and *.+ the de#il and his
followers" There were other 7atin e)egetes like Ambrosiaster
*commentaries ascribed to Ambrose+ and supremely $erome *c. ?E.@
EAI3E/8+ the learned 7atin ,ather who paid close attention to the
grammatical sense" -n the Old Testament $erome appealed from the
;reek #ersion to the GHebraic #erityH and in such a work as his
commentary on 9aniel pro#ided some fine e)amples of historical
e)egesis" Augustine though not primarily an e)egete composed both
literal and allegorical commentaries and e)pository homilies on many
parts of <cripture and his grasp of di#ine lo#e as the essential element
in re#elation supplied a unifying hermeneutical principle that
compensates for technical deficiencies"
The medie#al period
As the patristic age ga#e way to the scholastic age the English monk
Bede of $arrow *died .?1+ wrote commentaries designed to perpetuate
patristic e)egesis mainly allegorical: thus Elkanah with his two wi#es *A
<am" A:/+ is interpreted as referring to &hrist with the synagogue and
the church"
-n the early 5iddle Ages the fourfold sense of <cripture%de#eloped
from Origen=s threefold sense by subdi#iding the spiritual sense into the
allegorical *setting forth the doctrine+ and the anagogical *relating to
the coming world+%was increasingly e)pounded and recei#ed its final
authority from Thomas A0uinas *A//13/4@.E+" ,or Thomas the literal
sense e)pressing the author=s intention was a fit ob(ect of scientific
study; the figurati#e senses unfolded the di#ine intention"
5edie#al e)egesis was greatly influenced by the Glossa &r+inaria, a
digest of the #iews of the leading fathers and early medie#al doctors
*teachers+ on biblical interpretation" This compilation owed much in its
initial stages to Anselm of 7aon *died AAA.+; it had reached its definiti#e
form by the middle of the A/th century and pro#ided the e)egetical
norm of the %umma theologiae *G<ummation of TheologyH+ of Thomas
A0uinas and others"
,or all the interest in allegory literal interpretation was culti#ated in
many centres in the 'est often with the aid of Hebrew knowledge of
which was obtainable from $ewish rabbis" One such centre was the
Abbey of <aintDBictor at 6aris where Hugh *died AAEA+ compiled
biblical commentaries that fill three #olumes of $"D6" 5igne=s *A288@.1+
)atrologiae 9ursus 9ompletus *<eries 7atina+ and indicate the
commentator=s dependence on >ashi as well as on his &hristian
predecessors" Of Hugh=s disciples Andrew abbot of 'igmore *died
AA.1+ carried on his master=s tradition of literal scholarship and
>ichard the <cottishDborn prior of <aintDBictor *died AA.?+ pursued a
line more congenial to his mystical temperament" Herbert of Bosham *c.
AA28+ produced a commentary on $erome=s Hebrew 6salter" >obert
;rosseteste bishop of 7incoln *died A/1?+ wrote commentaries on the
days of creation and the 6salter that both drew on the ;reek fathers and
profited by his direct study of the Hebrew te)t" !icholas of 7yra *c.
A/41@c. A?EI+ the greatest &hristian Hebraist and e)positor of the later
5iddle Ages compiled postillae, or commentaries both literal and
figurati#e on the whole Bible; he insisted that only the literal sense
could establish proof" 7uther ranked him among the best e)egetes: Ga
fine soul a good Hebraist and a true &hristian"H
The >eformation period
The English theologian $ohn &olet *c. AE44@A1AI+ broke with medie#al
scholasticism when he returned from the &ontinent to O)ford in AEI4
and lectured on the 6auline letters e)pounding the te)t in terms of its
plain meaning as seen in its historical conte)t" The humanist Erasmus
*c. AE44@A1?4+ owed to him much of his insight into biblical e)egesis"
By the successi#e printed editions of his ;reek !ew Testament *A1A4
and following+ Erasmus made his principal but not his only
contribution to biblical studies"
5artin 7uther *AE2?@A1E4+ was a #oluminous e)positor insisting on
the primacy of the literal sense and dismissing allegory as so much
rubbish%although he indulged in it himself on occasion" The core of
<cripture was to him its proclamation of &hrist as the one in whom alone
lay man=s (ustification before ;od" $ohn &al#in *A18I@4E+ a more
systematic e)positor ser#ed his apprenticeship by writing a youthful
commentary on the >oman statesman and philosopher <eneca the
Jounger=s *c. E B&@A9 41+ De clementia *G&oncerning 5ercyH+;
systematic theologian though he was he did not allow his theological
system to distort the plain meaning of <cripture and his philological@
historical interpretation is consulted with profit e#en today"
<cientific e)egesis was pursued on the &atholic side by scholars such as
," de >ibera *A1IA+ and 7" Alcasar *A4AE+ who showed the way to a
more satisfactory understanding of the >e#elation" On the >eformed
side the !nnotationes in ibros 4(angeliorum *A4EA@18+ by the (urist
Hugo ;rotius *A12?@A4E1+ were so ob(ecti#e that some critici:ed them
for rationalism"
The modern period
The modern period is marked by ad#ances in te)tual criticism and in the
study of biblical languages and history all of which contribute to the
interpretation of the Bible" The ;erman theologian $"A" Bengel=s *A42.@
A.1/+ edition of the ;reek te)t of the !ew Testament with critical
apparatus *A.?E+ in which he framed the canon that Gthe more difficult
reading is to be preferredH was followed by his e)egetical Gnomon 2o(i
,estamenti *G-ntroduction to the !ew TestamentH A.E/+: Gapply thyself
wholly to the te)tH he directed; Gapply the te)t wholly to thyself"H The
English bishop >obert 7owth=s *A.A8@2.+ O)ford lectures on ,he %acre+
)oetr1 of the $ebre8s, published in 7atin in A.1? greatly promoted the
understanding of the poetry of the Old Testament by e)pounding the
laws of its parallelistic structure" The ;erman philologist Carl 7achmann
*A.I?@A21A+ applied his e)pertise in classical criticism to editing the
te)t of the !ew Testament; to him also belongs the credit of arguing
that 5ark was the earliest of the ;ospels and a main source of 5atthew
and 7uke *A2?1+" The problem of the source analysis of the 6entateuch
was gi#en what for long appeared to be its final solution by $ulius
'ellhausen *A2EE@AIA2+ who related the successi#e law codes to the
de#elopment of the -sraelite cultus" ,or the period preceding the Ith
century B& howe#er he operated in a historical #acuum that !ear
Eastern archaeology was in his day only beginning to fill; its subse0uent
findings ha#e dictated radical modifications in his reconstruction of
-srael=s religious history" -n the middle half of the AIth century !ew
Testament e)egesis was o#ershadowed by the school of ,erdinand
&hristian Baur *A.I/@A248+ which en#isaged a sharply opposed 6etrine
*6eter+ and 6auline *6aul+ antithesis in the primiti#e church followed in
the /nd century by a synthesis that is reflected in most of the !ew
Testament writings" -n ,rance Ernest >enan=s *A2/?@I/+ works on early
&hristianity were helpful philological and historical studies; the most
popular #olume his 5ie +e 6Asus *A24?+ was the least #aluable" -n
England where the poet and educator 5atthew Arnold *A2//@22+
endea#oured to find an impregnable moral foundation for biblical
authority !ew Testament e)egesis recei#ed contributions of
unsurpassed worth between A241 and the end of the century from $"B"
7ightfoot B"," 'estcott and ,"$"A" Hort"
At the beginning of the /8th century a new direction was gi#en to
;ospel interpretation by the ;erman scholar 'illiam 'rede *Das
Messiasgeheimnis in +en 4(angelien, AI8A+ and the medical missionary
theologian Albert <chweit:er *,he Quest of the $istorical 6esus, Eng"
trans" AIA8+ who so emphasi:ed the eschatological orientation of
$esus= mind and message that !ew Testament scholarship can ne#er be
the same again" The writings of the biblical scholar &"H" 9odd *,he
)arables of the "ing+om, AI?1; ,he !postolic )reaching an+ /ts
De(elopments, AI?4+ stressed reali:ed eschatology%that the standards
of the last times were reali:ed by $esus and his disciples%in the
preaching of $esus and of the primiti#e church; he has been a leading
pioneer of the Gbiblical theologyH mo#ement" Carl Barth=s *A224@AI42+
commentary on >omans *AIAI+ launched an e)istential interpretation of
the !ew Testament which has been pursued more radically by >udolf
Bultmann *A22E@AI.4+ under the influence of 'ilhelm 9ilthey *A2??@
AIAA+ according to whom the interpreter must pro(ect himself into the
author=s e)perience so as to reli#e it and of 5artin Heidegger *A22I@
AI.4+ whose conception of the truly authentic man as capable of
freedom because he has faced reality pro#ides the GpreDunderstandingH
for Bultmann=s e)istential theology" Bultmann=s disciple Ernst ,uchs
considers the hermeneutical task to be the creation of a Glanguage
e#entH in which the authentic language of <cripture encounters one
now challenging decision awakening faith and accomplishing
sal#ation" The chief ri#al to e)istential e)egesis is the Gsal#ationD
historyH hermeneutic espoused by Oscar &ullmann"
>udolf Bultmann and 5artin 9ibelius *A22?@AIE.+ pioneered the
modern formDcritical study of the ;ospels" The formDcritical method was
fruitfully applied to the Old Testament by Hermann ;unkel *A24/@
AI?/+ and <igmund 5owinckel *A22E@AI41+" Among &atholic scholars
e)egetical studies are #igorously promoted by $ean 9aniMlou *with his
researches into early $ewish &hristianity+ the 9ominicans of the Wcole
Bibli0ue et ArchMologi0ue *The <chool of the Bible and Archeology+ in
$erusalem *to whom one must credit the $erusalem Bible+ and the
$esuits of the 6ontifical Biblical -nstitute and others"
The encouragement gi#en by the second Batican &ouncil *AI4/@41+ of
the >oman &atholic &hurch to biblical scholarship to be culti#ated in
association with Gseparated brethrenH and with consideration for the
re0uirements of nonD&hristians is one indication of a new direction in
biblical e)egesis in which this study will no longer be pursued as a
#indication of sectional traditions but rather as a cooperati#e enterprise
aiming at making widely a#ailable the permanent #alue of the Bible"
,rederick ,y#ie Bruce
Additional >eading
Biblical literature
!ature and significance
;eneral articles and notes in ,he &'for+ !nnotate+ Bible *AI4/+ ,he
6erusalem Bible *AI44+ and the Genesis #olume of ,he !nchor Bible by
E"A" <peiser *AI4E+; E" H" ;ombrich ,he %tor1 of !rt A/th re#" ed"
*AI./+; Abraham $" Heschel Man /s 2ot !lone *AI1A+ a classic
statement of modern $udaism; Erich Auerbach Mimesis7 Dargestellte
Wirklichkeit in +er aben+lBn+ischen iteratur *AIE4; Eng" trans"
Mimesis7 ,he Representation of Realit1 in Western iterature AI1?+ a
classic work; 'illiam >" 5ueller ,he )rophetic 5oice in Mo+ern
0iction *AI1I+ religious themes interpreting $oyce &amus Cafka
,aulkner ;reene and <ilone; !athan A" <cott $r" *ed"+ ,he ,ragic
5ision an+ the 9hristian 0aith *AI1.+ essays by A/ writers on faith and
the tragic dimension of e)istence; $ames Barr ,he %cope an+ !uthorit1
of the Bible *AI2A+ 0uestions the di#ine inspiration of biblical te)ts"
Old Testament canon te)ts and #ersions
Otto Eissfeldt 4inleitung in +as !lte ,estament ?rd ed" *AI4E; Eng"
trans" ,he &l+ ,estament7 !n /ntro+uction AI41+; ,he 9ambri+ge
$istor1 of the Bible *chb+ ? #ol" *AI4?@.8+" *,he 9anon+: ,rants Buhl
"anon un+ ,e't +es !lten ,estaments *A2IA; Eng" trans" 9anon an+
,e't of the &l+ ,estament A2I/+; 5a) 7" 5argolis ,he $ebre8
%criptures in the Making *AI//+; Herbert E" >yle ,he 9anon of the &l+
,estament /nd ed" *A2I1+; <olomon Feitlin GAn Historical <tudy of
the &anoni:ation of the Hebrew <cripturesH )rocee+ings of the
!merican !ca+em1 for 6e8ish Research pp" A/A@A12 *AI?/+" *,e'tual
criticism, te'ts an+ manuscripts, an+ earl1 (ersions+: ,rank 5oore
&ross ,he !ncient ibrar1 of QumrCn an+ Mo+ern Biblical %tu+ies /nd
ed" *AI4A+; GThe History of the Biblical Te)t in the 7ight of 9isco#eries
in the $udaean 9esertH $ar(ar+ ,heological Re(ie8 1.:/2A@/II
*AI4E+; and GThe &ontribution of the KumrXn 9isco#eries to the <tudy
of the Biblical Te)tH /srael 4'ploration 6ournal A4:2A@I1 *AI44+;
&hristian 9" ;insburg /ntro+uction to the Massoretico7 9ritical
4+ition of the $ebre8 Bible *A2I. reprinted AI44+; 5oshe H" ;oshenD
gottstein inguistic %tructure an+ ,ra+ition in the Qumran Documents
*AI12+; GTheory and 6ractice of Te)tual &riticismH ,e'tus ?:A?8@A12
*AI4?+; and ,he Book of /saiah7 %ample 4+ition 8ith /ntro+uction
*AI41+; 5oshe ;reenberg GThe <tabili:ation of the Te)t of the Hebrew
BibleH 6ournal of the !merican &riental %ociet1 .4:A1.@A4. *AI14+"
6aul Cahle ,he 9airo Geni-ah /nd ed" *AI1I+; ,rederick ;" Cenyon
,he Bible an+ the !ncient Manuscripts 1th ed" re#" *AI12+; Harry 5"
Orlinsky GThe Te)tual &riticism of the Old TestamentH in ;eorge E"
'right *ed"+ ,he Bible an+ the !ncient 2ear 4ast pp" AA?@A?/ *AI4A+;
Bleddyn $" >oberts ,he &l+ ,estament ,e't an+ 5ersions *AI1A+; and
GThe Old Testament: 5anuscripts Te)t and BersionsH 9$B #ol" / pp"
A@/4 *AI4I+; 6"'" <kehan GKumran and the 6resent <tate of Old
Testament Te)t <tudiesH 6ournal of Biblical iterature .2:/A@/1
*AI1I+; <" Talmon GAspects of the Te)tual Transmission of the Bible in
the 7ight of Kumran 5anuscriptsH ,e'tus E:I1@A?/ *AI4E+; Ernst
'urthwein Der ,e't +es !lten ,estaments *AI1/; Eng" trans" ,he ,e't
of the &l+ ,estament AI1.+" *ater an+ mo+ern (ersionsD4nglish
(ersions+: 9a#id 9aiches ,he "ing 6ames 5ersion of the 4nglish Bible
*AIEA reprinted AI42+; 5argaret 9eanesly ,he ollar+ Bible an+
&ther Me+ie(al Biblical 5ersions *AI/8 reprinted AI44+; Herman
Hailperin Rashi an+ the 9hristian %cholars *AI4?+; 'illiam ,"
5oulton ,he $istor1 of the 4nglish Bible 1th ed" *AIAA+; Alfred '"
6ollard Recor+s of the 4nglish Bible *AIAA+; and with ;">" >edgra#e
! %hort#,itle 9atalogue of Books )rinte+ in 4nglan+, %cotlan+, an+
/relan+ an+ of 4nglish Books )rinte+ !broa+ EFGHDEIFJ *AI/4
reprinted AI4I+; B"," 'estcott ! General 5ie8 of the $istor1 of the
4nglish Bible ?rd ed" re#" by '"A" 'right *AI81+" *9ontinental (ersions
an+ non#4uropean (ersions+: Thomas H" 9arlow and Horace ," 5oule
$istorical 9atalogue of the )rinte+ 4+itions of the $ol1 %cripture in the
ibrar1 of the British an+ 0oreign Bible %ociet1 / #ol" *AI8?@AA+; $osef
<chmid *ed"+ G5oderne BibelTberset:ungenH @eitschrift fKr
katholische ,heologie 2/:/I8@??/ *AI48+"
Old Testament history
Two current histories of -srael e)hibit the full range of historiographical
problems and methods relating to the sub(ect: $ohn Bright ! $istor1 of
/srael *AI1I+; and 5artin !oth Geschichte /sraels ?rd ed" *AI14; Eng"
trans" ,he $istor1 of /srael AI12+" They differ mainly in where they
begin; Bright begins with Abraham !oth with the federation of tribes
that calls itself -srael in the land of &anaan" They disagree about the
demonstrability of such a community in the preD&anaanite times
because of their respecti#e assessment of the character of the
6entateuch" Bright assumes that it was intended as a history concerned
to record the early past while !oth assumes that its thematic traditions
were intended to define and celebrate the identity of the later -srael and
hence do not constitute a usable historical resource about its earliest
beginnings" This whole methodological problem in -sraelite
historiography is lucidly discussed and illustrated in a little book by
$ohn Bright%4arl1 /srael in Recent $istor1 Writing7 ! %tu+1 in Metho+
*AI14+" ,or the use of archaeology geography and history of religion in
the study of the history of -srael see ;eorge Ernest 'right" Biblical
!rchaeolog1 re#" ed" *AI4/+; 7uc H" ;rollenberg !tlas (an +e Bi*bel
?rd ed" *AI1E; Eng" trans" !tlas of the Bible AI14+; Jehe:kel
Caufmann ,he Religion of /srael, from /ts Beginnings to the Bab1lonian
4'ile *AI48+; and Helmer >inggren /sraelitische Religion *AI4?; Eng"
trans" AI44+"
Old Testament literature
,or #arious modern critical methods of studying the formation of the
Old Testament see the GOld Testament <eriesH of Gui+es to Biblical
%cholarship: !orman &" Habel iterar1 9riticism of the &l+ ,estament
;ene 5" Tucker 0orm 9riticism of the &l+ ,estament and 'alter E"
>ast ,ra+ition $istor1 an+ the &l+ ,estament *AI.A@./+" Among
general introductions the most e)hausti#e is Otto Eissfeldt *op. cit.+
based mainly on literary criticism" The other methods are reflected to a
somewhat greater e)tent in Aage Bent:en /ntro+uction to the &l+
,estament ?rd ed" *AI1.+; and in the briefer less original but #ery
readable work of Artur 'eiser 4inleitung in +as !lte ,estament Eth
ed" *AI1.; Eng" trans" ,he &l+ ,estament7 /ts 0ormation an+
De(elopment AI4A+" ,or pioneering research in tradition analysis of the
6entateuch and the ,ormer 6rophets see 5artin !oth
Lberlieferungsgeschichte +es )entateuch ?rd ed" *AI44; Eng" trans" !
$istor1 of )entateuchal ,ra+itions AI./+ and
Lberlieferungsgeschichtliche %tu+ien *AI1.+; the latter deals with what
its author calls GThe 9euteronomic HistoryH an en#isioned work
containing the books of 9euteronomy $oshua $udges <amuel and
Cings" The contribution of form criticism to the understanding of the
history of the Book of 6salms may best be approached through
Hermann ;unkel ,he )salms7 ! 0orm#9ritical /ntro+uction *AI4.+ a
translation of his article in Die Religion in Geschichte un+ Gegen8art
*/nd ed"+ summari:ing his seminal work in Die )salmen *AI/4+ and
4inleitung in +ie )salmen *AI/2+" Elmer A" 7eslie ,he )salms,
,ranslate+ an+ /nterprete+ in the ight of $ebre8 ife an+ Worship
*AIEI+ is hea#ily dependent on ;unkel and illustrates his use of form
criticism" The celebrated work of <igmund 5owinckel on the 6salter
culminating in his masterful &ffersang ob %angoffer *AI1A; Eng" trans"
,he )salms in /srael's Worship / #ol" AI4/+ combines the methods of
;unkel with those of the comparati#e historian of religion and locates
the setting for the production of most of the psalms in the cult of the
<olomonic temple" The application of the newer methods to the study of
the 7atter 6rophets is e#ident in the essays in Harold H" >owley *ed"+
%tu+ies in &l+ ,estament )rophec1 *AI18+" The new approaches were
deeply under the impact of Henrik <" !yberg %tu+ien -um
$oseabuche *AI?1+" Other books that amplify the implications of his
assumptions include: $ohannes 7indblom )rophec1 in !ncient /srael
*AI4/+; &urt Cuhl /sraels )ropheten *AI14; Eng" trans" ,he )rophets of
/srael AI48+; and <igmund 5owinckel )rophec1 an+ ,ra+ition7 ,he
)rophetic Books in the ight of the %tu+1 of the Gro8th an+ $istor1 of
the ,ra+ition *AIE4+" Abraham $" Heschel ,he )rophets *AI4/+ though
of independent origin ne#ertheless belongs with those new
interpretations of the prophetic materials" An old classic in a new
edition Oli#er <" >ankin /srael's Wis+om iterature7 /ts Bearing on
,heolog1 an+ the $istor1 of Religion *AI?4 reprinted AI4I+ presents
-srael=s wisdom literature in relation both to its e)traD-sraelite cultural
connections and to the rest of -srael=s heritage in the Old Testament"
Two new approaches to the legacy of wisdom literature one through
literary form and the other through theology are presented
respecti#ely in >"B"J" <cott ,he Wa1 of Wis+om in the &l+ ,estament
*AI.A+; and ;erhard #on >ad Weisheit in /srael *AI.8+" <ee also
!orthrop ,rye ,he Great 9o+e7 ,he Bible an+ iterature *AI2/+ and
Elsa Tame: Bible of the &ppresse+ *AI2/+ an interpretation from a
7atin female theologian=s perspecti#e"
-ntertestamental literature
<tandard translations of the $ewish intertestamental literature are
>obert H" &harles *ed"+ ,he !pocr1pha an+ )seu+epigrapha of the &l+
,estament in 4nglish *AIA?+; and Emil Caut:sch *ed"+ Die !pocr1phen
un+ )seu+epigraphen +es !lten ,estaments *AI88+" 6aul >iessler
!lt*K+isches %chrifttum ausserhalb +er Bibel *AI/2+ is indispensable
because it contains translations of the fullest number of writings" The
best translations of the 9ead <ea <crolls are ;e:a Bermes ,he Dea+
%ea %crolls in 4nglish *AI4/+; $ohann 5aier Die ,e'te (om ,oten Meer
*AI48+; and Andre 9upontD<ommer es Mcrits essAniens +Acou(erts
prNs +e la Mer Morte ?rd ed" *AI4E+" AlbertD5arie 9enis /ntro+uction
au' )seu+Apigraphes grecs +'!ncien ,estament *AI.8+ does not treat
the Apocrypha and is important mainly for its bibliography" Basic books
dealing with intertestamental literature are >"H" 6feiffer $istor1 of
2e8 ,estament ,imes, 8ith an /ntro+uction to the !pocr1pha *AIEI+;
Emil <churer Geschichte +es *K+ischen 5olkes im @eitalter 6esu 9hristi
?rd@Eth ed" ? #ol" *A2I2@AI8A; Eng" trans" ! $istor1 of the 6e8ish
)eople in the ,ime of 6esus 9hrist /nd and re#" ed" 1 #ol" A221@IA+;
and >obert H" &harles Religious De(elopment Bet8een the &l+ an+ the
2e8 ,estaments *AIAE+" <till interesting is >obert Tra#ers Herford
,almu+ an+ !pocr1pha *AI?? reprinted AI.A+" -nformation about the
library of the 9ead <ea <crolls is in two books: $o:ef T" 5ilik Di' !ns
+e +Acou(ertes +ans le +Asert +e 6u+a *AI1.; Eng" trans" ,en Years of
Disco(er1 in the Wil+erness of 6u+aea AI1I+; and ,rank 5oore &ross
,he !ncient ibrar1 of QumrCn an+ Mo+ern Biblical %tu+ies /nd ed"
*AI4A+" A fragment of Ben <ira from anti0uity was published by Jigael
Jadin ,he Ben %ira %croll from Masa+a, 8ith /ntro+uction,
4men+ations an+ 9ommentar1 *AI41+" The best book about $ewish
eschatology is 6aul Bol: Die 4schatologie +er *K+ischen Gemein+e im
neutestamentlichen @eitalter *AI?E+" On Apocalyptic and 5essianism
see Harold H" >owley ,he Rele(ance of !pocal1ptic ?rd ed" *AI4?+;
9a#id <" >ussell ,he Metho+ an+ Message of 6e8ish !pocal1ptic, OJJ
B9D!D EJJ *AI4E+; <igmund 5owinckel $an som kommer *AI1A;
Eng" trans" $e ,hat 9ometh AI1E+; Erik <(oberg Der Menschensohn
im Bthiopischen $enochbuch *AIE4+; and A"<" Ban 9er 'oude Die
messianischen 5orstellungen +er Gemein+e (on QumrCn *AI1.+"
!ew Testament canon te)ts and #ersions
*9anon+: ,or the rele#ant primary te)ts on the history of the canon see
9aniel $" Theron *ed"+ 4(i+ence of ,ra+ition *AI1.+ with selected
source material in ;reek or 7atin with English translation; and $ames
<te#enson *ed"+ ! 2e8 4usebius *AI1.+" ,or introductions see
Ale)ander <outer and &"<"&" 'illiams ,he ,e't an+ 9anon of the 2e8
,estament /nd ed" re#" *AI1E+; and >obert 5" ;rant ,he 0ormation of
the 2e8 ,estament *AI41+" ,or a phenomenological approach see
;erardus #an der 7eeuw )hBnomenologie +er Religion /nd ed" / #ol"
*AI14; Eng" trans" Religion in 4ssence an+ Manifestation /nd ed" /
#ol" AI4?+ ch" 4E" *,e'ts+: The ma(or te)t for further study is Bruce H"
5et:ger ,he ,e't of the 2e8 ,estament *AI4E+" *,ranslations+: On
translation in general see >euben A" Brower *ed"+ &n ,ranslation
*AI1I+" ,or translation of the Bible into English see ,rederick ," Bruce
,he 4nglish Bible7 ! $istor1 of ,ranslations from the 4arliest 4nglish
5ersions to the 2e8 4nglish Bible /nd ed" *AI.8+"
!ew Testament history
*6e8ish culture an+ histor1+: <tandard works are >"H" 6feiffer *op. cit.+;
and ;eorge ," 5oore 6u+aism in the 0irst 9enturies of the 9hristian
4ra ? #ol" *AI/.@?8+" *Qumran, Dea+ %ea %crolls+: ,rank 5oore &ross"
$r" *op. cit.+; on Kumran and !ew Testament problems see Crister
<tendahl *ed"+ ,he %crolls an+ the 2e8 ,estament *AI12+" *Greco#
Roman culture an+ histor1+: 'illiam '" Tarn $ellenistic 9i(ilisation
?rd ed" re#" *AI1/+" ,or a broad cultural comparison see Eric >" 9odds
)agan an+ 9hristian in an !ge of !n'iet1 *AI41+" *)auline chronolog1+:
The debate can be best assessed by comparing $ohn Cno) 9hapters in
a ife of )aul *AI18+ with 9ieter ;eorgi Die Geschichte +er "ollekte
+es )aulus fKr 6erusalem *AI41+"
!ew Testament literature
The following works are useful for commentary sur#ey articles and
bibliographic material: ;eorge A" Buttrick *ed"+ ,he /nterpreter's Bible
especially #ol" A . and A/ *AI1/@1.+; 5atthew Black *ed"+ )eake's
9ommentar1 on the Bible /nd ed" *AI4/+; and >aymond E" Brown
$oseph A" ,it:myer and >oland E" 5urphy *eds"+ ,he 6erome Biblical
9ommentar1 *AI42+" 'erner ;" Cuemmel ,he 2e8 ,estament7 ,he
$istor1 of the /n(estigations of /ts )roblems *AI./+ co#ers the whole
history of !ew Testament studies with ample e)cerpts from the ma(or
scholars since the A2th century" ,or a rich introduction to the /. books
of the !ew Testament with full and balanced reporting on all ma(or
issues of contemporary discussion and e)tensi#e bibliographies see
6aul ,eine $ohannes Behm and 'erner ;" Cuemmel 4inleitung in
+as 2eue ,estament AEth re#" ed" *AI41; Eng" trans" /ntro+uction to
the 2e8 ,estament AI44+" ,or a general dictionary to the Bible see
;eorge A" Buttrick *ed"+ ,he /nterpreter's Dictionar1 of the Bible E #ol"
*AI4/+" The most e)tensi#e tool for the study of !ew Testament
theological terms is ;erhard Cittel *ed"+ ,heological Dictionar1 of the
2e8 ,estament #ol" A@2 *AI4E@./ in progress+" ,or !ew Testament
theologies see >udolf Bultmann ,heologie +es 2euen ,estaments ?rd
ed" *AI12; Eng" trans" ,heolog1 of the 2e8 ,estament / #ol" AI1A@11+;
Hans &on:elmann Grun+riss +er ,heologie +es 2euen ,estaments /nd
ed" *AI4.; Eng" trans" !n &utline of the ,heolog1 of the 2e8 ,estament
AI4I+" ,or general commentary see ,he /nternational 9ritical
9ommentar1 on the $ol1 %criptures of the &l+ an+ 2e8 ,estaments EA
#ol" *A2I1@AI/8+; for the ma(or ;erman commentary see "ritisch
e'egetischer "ommentar Kber +as 2euen ,estament *G5eyer <eriesH
fre0uently updated+; $an+buch -um 2euen ,estament *7iet:mannD
Bornkamm+; and Das 2eue ,estament Deutsch :GPttinger Bibel8erk;"
,or a ma(or ,rench 6rotestant commentary see 9ommentaire +u
2ou(eau ,estament and for ma(or ,rench and ;erman >oman &atholic
commentaries see 4tu+es bibliques and Das 2eue ,estament Kberset-t
un+ erklBrt *the Regensburger 2e8 ,estament+" *Gospels<te'ts+: Curt
Aland *ed"+ %1nopsis Quattuor 4(angeliorum *AI4E+ a ;reek synopsis
includes the ;ospel of $ohn and translations *Eng" trans" AI./+ of the
&optic Gospel of ,homas" ,or a synopsis see Burton H" Throckmorton
$r" *ed"+ Gospel )arallels7 ! %1nopsis of the 0irst ,hree Gospels ?rd ed"
*AI4.+" ,or a general study of the ;ospels and the <ynoptic problem
see ,rederick &" ;rant ,he Gospels7 ,heir &rigin an+ ,heir Gro8th
*AI1.+" ,or arguments against the priority of 5ark see 'illiam >"
,armer ,he %1noptic )roblem *AI4E+" <ignificant new approaches to
gospel study are found in $ames 5" >obinson and Helmut Coester
,ra*ectories ,hrough 4arl1 9hristianit1 *AI.A+" ,or form criticism see
>udolf Bultmann Die Geschichte +er s1noptischen ,ra+ition ?rd ed"
*AI12; Eng" trans" ,he $istor1 of the %1noptic ,ra+ition AI4?+" Amos
!" 'ilder 4arl1 9hristian Rhetoric *AI.A+ goes beyond form criticism
by fuller attention to modern literary criticism" *Mark+: >obert H"
7ightfoot ,he Gospel Message of %t. Mark *AI18+; and 'illi 5ar)sen
Der 4(angelist Markus *AI1I; Eng" trans" Mark the 4(angelist AI4I+
are two outstanding works representing different periods and methods
of scholarship" *Matthe8+: ,or discussion of the arrangement Old
Testament citations and theology of 5atthew see ;uenther
Bornkamm ;erhard Barth and Hein: $" Held !uslegung im
MattBus#e(angelium *AI48; Eng" trans" ,ra+ition an+ /nterpretation in
Matthe8 AI4?+" 9a#id Hill 2e8 ,estament )rophes1 *AI28+ a
discussion of prophesy both in the Bible and in the church today"
Crister <tendahl G6rayer and ,orgi#enessH in %(ensk 4'egetisk
Qrsbok //@/?:.1@24 *AI1.@12+ in English; and ,he %chool of %t.
Matthe8 an+ /ts ?se of the &l+ ,estament /nd ed" *AI42+" *uke+:
Henry $" &adbury ,he Making of uke#!cts /nd ed" *AI12+; and Hans
&on:elmann Die Mitte +er @eit7 %tu+ien -ur ,heologie +es ukas ?rd
ed" *AI48; Eng" trans" ,he ,heolog1 of %t. uke AI48+ represent a
classic treatment of 7ukeDActs" *6ohn+: Among the most important recent
studies on $ohn are &harles H" 9odd $istorical ,ra+ition in the 0ourth
Gospel *AI4?+ and ,he /nterpretation of the 0ourth Gospel *AI1?+;
Ernst Caesemann 6esu let-ter Wille nach 6ohannes EG. *AI44; Eng"
trans" ,he ,estament of 6esus7 ! %tu+1 of the Gospel of 6ohn in the ight
of 9hapter EG AI42+; and $ames 7" 5artyn $istor1 an+ ,heolog1 in the
0ourth Gospel *AI42+" *!cts+: <ee also uke abo#e" ,or Acts #iewed in its
own time see Henry $" &adbury ,he Book of !cts in $istor1 *AI11+"
7iterary style and methods of composition are discussed in 5artin
9ibelius !ufsBt-e -ur !postelgeschichte *AI1A; Eng" trans" %tu+ies in
the !cts of the !postles AI14+" The scope and purpose of Acts are
treated in 6"5" 5enoud G7e 6lan des Actes des ApgtresH 2e8
,estament %tu+ies A:EE@18 *AI1E@11+; and '"&" #an Nnnik GThe
dBook of Acts= the &onfirmation of the ;ospelH 2o(um ,estamentum
E:/4@1I *AI48+" *)aul+: ,or general works on 6aul and the epistles see
;uenther Bornkamm 4arl1 9hristian 4'perience *AI.8+ and )aulus
*AI4I; Eng" trans" AI.A+; 'illiam 9" 9a#ies )aul an+ Rabbinic
6u+aism /nd ed" *AI11+; 5artin 9ibelius and 'erner ;" Cuemmel
)aulus *AI1A; Eng" trans" AI1?+; $ohannes 5unck )aulus un+ +ie
$eilsgeschichte *AI1E; Eng" trans" )aul an+ the %al(ation of Mankin+
AI1I+; Arthur 9" !ock %t. )aul *AI?2+; and Hans $" <choeps )aulus7
Die ,heologie +es !postels h *AI1I; Eng" trans" )aul7 ,he ,heolog1 of
the !postle h AI4A+" <ee also Crister <tendahl GThe Apostle 6aul and
the -ntrospecti#e &onscience of the 'estH $ar(ar+ ,heological Re(ie8
1A: AII@/A1 *AI4?+" ,or a sur#ey of 6auline studies see Edward E"
Ellis )aul an+ $is Recent /nterpreters *AI4A+; 'ayne A" 5eeks *ed"+
,he Writings of %t. )aul *AI./+; and Ernst Caesemann )aulinische
)erspekti(en *AI4I; Eng" trans" )erspecti(es on )aul AI.A+" *Romans+:
$ohn Cno) GA !ote on the Te)t of >omansH 2e8 ,estament %tu+ies /:
AIA@AI/ *AI11@14+; Crister <tendahl GHate !onD>etaliation and
7o#e: AK< ) A.@/8 and >omans A/:AI@/AH $ar(ar+ ,heological
Re(ie8 18:?E?@?11 *AI4/+" */ 9orinthians+: ,or a discussion of the
heresies met in - &orinthians see 'alter <chmithals Die Gnosis in
"orinth ?rd ed" *AI4I; Eng" trans" Gnosticism in 9orinth AI.A+" *//
9orinthians+: ,or the arrangement of the fragments of -- &orinthians and
their redaction see ;uenther Bornkamm GThe History of the Origin of
the <oD&alled /nd 7etter to the &orinthiansH 2e8 ,estament %tu+ies
2:/12@/4E *AI4A@4/+" ,or a discussion of 6aul=s opponents in --
&orinthians see 9ieter ;eorgi Die Gegner +es )aulus im O.
"orintherbrief7 %tu+ien -ur religiPsen )ropagan+a in +er %pBtantike
*AI4E+; and his shorter article on this sub(ect G,orms of >eligious
6ropagandaH in Hans $" <chult: *ed"+ Die @eit 6esu *AI44; Eng" trans"
6esus in $is ,ime AI.A+" *Galatians+: ,or a discussion of the heretics in
;alatia see 'alter <chmithals G9ie Haretiker in ;alatienH @eitschrift
fKr +ie 2eutestamentliche Wissenschaft un+ +ie "un+e +er !elteren
"irche *@2W+ pp" /1@4. *AI14+" *4phesians+: ,or the meaning and goal
of Ephesians see Edgar $" ;oodspeed ,he Meaning of 4phesians
*AI??+ and ,he "e1 to 4phesians *AI14+" <ee also &" 7eslie 5itton ,he
4pistle to the 4phesians *AI1A+" *)hilippians+: ,or the place of
6hilippians in the 6auline collection and the meaning of its #arious
sections see Helmut Coester GThe 6urpose of the 6olemic of a 6auline
,ragment *6hilippians ---+H 2e8 ,estament %tu+ies 2:?A.@??/ *AI4A@
4/+" ,or the concept of 6hilippians as a testament see 9ieter ;eorgi
GEin Testament des 6aulus *6hil" ? /ff"+H @2W *AI./+" *)hilemon+:
$ohn Cno) )hilemon !mong the etters of )aul /nd ed" *AI1I+"
*)astoral 4pistles+: ,or e#idence against 6auline authorship see 6ercy
!" Harrison ,he )roblem of the )astoral 4pistles *AI/A+" <ee also
Eduard <chwei:er 9hurch &r+er in the 2e8 ,estament *AI4A+"
*$ebre8s+: &oncerning the &hristology of Hebrews and the idea of the
Gwandering people of ;odH see Ernst Caesemann Das 8an+ern+e
Gottes(olk ?rd ed" *AI1I+" An approach to the eschatology of Hebrews
and an origin connected with followers of <tephen is found in 'illiam
5anson ,he 4pistle to the $ebre8s *AI1A+" *9atholic 4pistles+: ,or the
typical admi)ture of parenesis apocalyptic and the general address of
the &atholic Epistles see &arl Andresen GFum ,ormular
frThchristlicher ;emeindebriefeH @2W 14:/??@/1I *AI41+" The
similarity of style of the &atholic Epistles to later &hristian ;reek
literature is treated in A" 'ifstrand G<tylistic 6roblems in the Epistles
of $ames and 6eterH %tu+ia ,heologica AA:?1@48 *AIE2+" *6ames+: ,or a
solution to the apparent contradiction of 6aul and $ames concerning
GworksH see $oachim $eremias G6aul and $amesH 4'positor1 ,imes
44:?42@?.A *AI1E@11+; for clarification of special passages with a
modern techni0ue similar to rabbinic methodology see >oy B" 'ard
GThe 'orks of Abraham: $ames /:AE@/4H $ar(ar+ ,heological Re(ie8
4A:/2?@/I8 *AI42+ and G6artiality in the Assembly: $ames /:/@EH ibi+.,
4/:2.@I. *AI4I+" */ )eter+: ,or a date in Tra(an=s time see $ohn Cno)
G6liny and - 6eter: A !ote on - 6et" E:AE@A4 and ?:A1H 6ournal of
Biblical iterature ./:A2.@A2I *AI1?+; an interpretation of the 9escent
into Hell is found in B" >eicke ,he Disobe+ient %pirits an+ 9hristian
Baptism7 ! %tu+1 of / )eter iii, ER an+ /ts 9onte't *AIE4+" *// )eter an+
6u+e+: ,or moti#ation for the writing of -- 6eter see Ernst Caesemann
GAn Apologia for 6rimiti#e &hristian EschatologyH in 4ssa1s on 2e8
,estament ,hemes *AI4E+" *6ohannine 4pistles+: ,or speculations as to
authorship date and nature of the situation of the $ohannine Epistles
see '"," Howard GThe &ommon Authorship of the $ohannine ;ospel
and EpistlesH 6ournal of ,heological %tu+ies *AIE.+" *Re(elation+:
&oncerning liturgical style and content in >e#elations see ;uenther
Bornkamm GOn the Nnderstanding of 'orship; BH in 4arl1 9hristian
4'perience *AI4I+" ,or a study of >e#elation as a creati#e re#elatory
poem with unity throughout drawing upon apocalyptic imagery of its
time see Austin 5" ,arrer ! Rebirth of /mages *AIEI reprinted AI4?+"
A general sur#ey of apocalypticism and apocalypses from /88 B& into
the early &hristian era is found in 9a#id <" >ussell *op. cit.+"
Apocrypha
Edgar Hennecke 2eutestamentliche !pokr1phen in +eutscher
Lberset-ung *AI1I; Eng" trans" 2e8 ,estament !pocr1pha / #ol"
AI4?@41+ a standard work; 5ontague >" $ames ,he !pocr1phal 2e8
,estament *AI/E reprinted AI11+ con#enient but obsolete; >"5"
;rant 9"!" ,reedman and '">" <choedel ,he %ecret %a1ings of
6esus *AI48+; B" 6ick ,he !pocr1phal !cts of )aul, )eter, 6ohn, !n+re8
an+ ,homas *AI8I+; for ;reek te)ts see >"A" 7ipsius and 5" Bonnet
!cta !postolorum !pocr1phe" A ;reek papyrus *late ?rd century+ of the
Acts of 6aul was edited by &" <chmidt in )ra'eis )aulou *AI?4+; he
notes other papyrus fragments" The <eneca letters were edited by &"'"
Barlow 4pistolae %eneca a+ )aulum et )auli a+ %enecam *quae
(ocantur+ *AI?2+"
Biblical literature in liturgy
Abraham F" -delsohn ,he 6e8ish iturg1 an+ /ts De(elopment *AI?/
reprinted AI4.+; $oseph H" Hert: ,he !uthori-e+ Dail1 )ra1er Book
re#" ed" *AIE2+ Hebrew and English with historical notes and
commentary; ,an <" !oli ,hree iturgies of the 4astern &rtho+o'
9hurch *AI11+; 9onald Attwater 4astern 9atholic Worship *AIE1+
eight Nniate liturgies in English; $osef A" $ungmann Missarum
%ollemnia7 4ine Genetische 4rklBrung +er rPmischen Messe / #ol" *AI12;
Eng" trans" ,he Mass of ,he Roman Rite7 /ts &rigins an+ De(elopment
abridged ed" AI1I+; &lement $" 5c!aspy &ur 9hanging iturg1
*AI44+ reforms following Batican --; ;regory 9i) ,he %hape of the
iturg1 *AIE1+; Bard Thompson iturgies of the Western 9hurch
*AI4A+ includes the main 6rotestant traditions"
Biblical e)egesis and hermeneutics
,he 9ambri+ge $istor1 of the Bible ? #ol" *AI4?@.8+ includes
contributions by specialists on biblical interpretation from preD&hristian
times to the present day" $" Barr &l+ an+ 2e8 in /nterpretation *AI44+
discusses the relation between the Old and !ew Testaments and
e)amines critically some of the interpretati#e principles fa#oured by
e)egetes and theologians; another work on this sub(ect is E"&"
Blackman Biblical /nterpretation *AI1.+" &"E" Braaten $istor1 an+
$ermeneutics *AI44+ discusses the rele#ance of the historicalDcritical
method to theological study and the idea of re#elation through history;
,"," Bruce Biblical 4'egesis in the Qumran ,e'ts *AI1I+ e)amines the
interpretati#e principles followed by biblical commentaries and other
documents among the 9ead <ea <crolls" The ma(or work on the theme of
sal#ationDhistory in the Bible is O" &ullmann %al(ation in $istor1
*AI4.+" &"H" 9odd !ccor+ing to the %criptures *AI1/+ shows the
#arious ways in which the &hristian interpretation of important areas of
the Old Testament pro#ided the substructure of !ew Testament
theology" ,"'" ,arrar $istor1 of /nterpretation *A224 reprinted AI4A+
pro#ides a classical sur#ey of biblical e)egesis from the early rabbinical
period to the AIth century; >"5" ;rant ! %hort $istor1 of the
/nterpretation of the Bible re#" ed" *AI4?+ is probably the best work of
its kind" B" 7indars 2e8 ,estament !pologetic *AI4/+ studies the Old
Testament 0uotations in the !ew Testament as e#idence in their te)t
and interpretation for the de#eloping life and thought of the primiti#e
church" $"5" >obinson and $"B" &obb *eds"+ ,he 2e8 $ermeneutic
*AI4E+ e)pounds modern hermeneutical concerns" B" <malley ,he
%tu+1 of the Bible in the Mi++le !ges /nd re#" ed" *AI1/+ remains the
standard work on early medie#al e)egesis" ;" Bermes %cripture an+
,ra+ition in 6u+aism *AI4A+ gi#es an account of the interaction of the
written te)t and oral tradition in $ewish e)egesis of the preD&hristian
and early rabbinical age" An outline of the history of biblical
interpretation and of the main e)egetical trends of the midD/8th century
is presented in $"9" 'ood ,he /nterpretation of the Bible *AI12+; A"
>ichardson and '" <chweit:er *eds"+ Biblical !uthorit1 for ,o+a1
*AI1A+ discusses the difficulties of applying biblical ethics to some of
the most urgent concerns of the modern world"
$" &oert >ylaarsdam
7inwood ,redericksen
>obert 7" ,aherty
!ahum 5" <arna
H" ;rady 9a#is
9a#id ,lusser
The >e#" Crister <tendahl
Emilie T" <ander
>obert 5" ;rant
To cite this page:
57A style:
i biblical literature "i Encyclopdia Britannica" /88." Encyclopdia Britannica Online"
I 5ay /88. jhttp:33search"eb"com3eb3articleD.?E8Ik"
A6A style:
biblical literature " */88.+" -n 4nc1clopS+ia Britannica. >etrie#ed 5ay I /88. from
Encyclopdia Britannica Online: http:33search"eb"com3eb3articleD.?E8I