CHAPTER (I) THE ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ATOMS, PERIODIC TABLE AND CHEMICAL BONDS

Arrangement of fundamental particles of matter Fundamental particles All matter is made up of atoms. Atom consists of three main fundamental particles. They are protons (p+), neutrons (n0) and electron (e-). Fundamental particles of matter particles proton neutron electron Mass 1 amu 1 amu 1/ 1840amu
amu = atomic mass unit 1 amu = 1/12 mass of 12C atom

charge positive(+1) neutral negative(-1)

Electron Protons Neutron Nucleus

Negatively charged particles move outside and around the nucleus in circular orbit. Positively charged particles reside in the nucleus of the atom. Uncharged particles of the nucleus of the atom. The atom has a small, dense, positively charge centre is called nucleus. Nucleus contains protons and neutrons.

Symbol A = mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons X =element Z =atomic number =number of electron =number of proton mass number - atomic number = number of neutron (a) Determine the number of neutrons, protons and electrons in the atom of 3216S. (b) From the following, calculate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in each of these atoms 40 35 41 25 31 1 18 Ar, 17 Cl, 20 Ca, 19 K, 15 P, 1 H .

* Hydrogen atom has without neutron. Atomic number. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is known as the atomic number of an element. Mass number. The mass number of the element is the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom of that element. Atoms are electrically neutral. Therefore, in an atom, the number of protons must be equal to the number of neutron.
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The atom as a whole is neutral. Most of an atom is empty space that separates the tiny nucleus from the distant electrons. Most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus since the mass of the electrons is so small that it can be considered negligible. The atomic number of an element never changes. Isotope Atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. (OR) Isotopes are the atoms of the same element with different masses. eg 3517Cl and 3717Cl Answer the following (a) In a neutral atom of an element, the number of a certain particle or particles is equal to the atomic number. Name the particle or particles. (b) Select the isotopes and give reason for your answer. 4018Ar, 3517Cl, 4020Ca, 3717Cl 4018Ar,11H, 3517Cl, 4020Ca,21H, 23 Na,3 H 11 1 The electronic structure of atoms Electrons move round the nucleus in definite orbits or shell.

Each shell or energy level can contain a limited number of electrons. Electronic structure The distribution of electrons in an atom of an element is known as the electronic structure of that element. Complete electronic structure The arrangement of all the electrons of an atom of the element in appropriate sub-shell is known as the complete electronic structure. Essential electronic structure The representation of the arrangement of valence electrons of an atom of the element in appropriate sub-shell is called the essential electronic structure of that element. Valence of the elements From the electronic structure of an element, the valence of the elements may be determined. When the number of electrons in the outermost shell of the atom of the element is 4 or less than 4, then the valence of that element is equal to the number of electrons in that outermost shell. When the number of electrons in the outer most shell -2-

of the atom of element is greater than 4, the valences of the element become 8 minus the number of electrons in that outermost shell. The shell nearest to the nucleus has the lowest energy. In general the closer the shell is to the nucleus, the lowest is its energy. Main Shell K, L, M, N The maximum number of electrons in each shell = 2n2 The electronic structure *** 2 . 8 . 8 . 2 Sub shell s,p,d,f Complete electronic structure *** 1s2 , 2s2 2p6 The essential electronic structure*** , ,3s2 3p6, 4s2 - - -

Write down (1) the complete electronic structure (2) The essential electronic structure (3) the chief valence of the following elements. 11Na,9F,12Mg,13Al,17Cl,18Ar
The periodic table The elements may be arranged in a table in order of their atomic numbers. In modern periodic table there are 7 horizontal rows and 18 vertical columns. The electronic structure of the atom of the elements very periodically with their atomic number. The virtual column is called group. Element in the same group have the same number of valence of electron and have similar chemical properties. The horizontal rows are called periods. Same period have same number of electron shell. Metals Non-metals Metalloid

Elements to the left of the dark line are metal. Elements to the right of the dark line are non-metal. For along each side of the dark line are metalloid, that have properties of both metal and nonmetal.

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Group I A Alkali metal (Li,Na,K)(except H) Group II A Alkaline earth metal (Be, Mg, Ca) Group VII B Halogen (F,Cl,Br,I) Group 0 Nobel gases or inert gases or rare gases ( He ,Ne , Ar ) The elements in the central section of the periodic table are known as the transition elements. Electropositive elements In general, metals are electropositive elements. They tend to lose electrons and form positive ions. Electropositivity Electropositivity decrease from left to right across a periodic table, because the greater number of electrons in the outermost shell, the more difficult to lose electron. Electronegative elements In general non-metal are electronegative elements. They tend to gain electrons and form negative ions. Electronegativity Electronegativity increase from left to right across a periodic table. The element have an increasing tendency to gain electrons.
The noble gases or inert gases are neither electropositive nor electronegative, because they have very stable electronic structure, and have little tendency to gain or lose electrons. Noble gases are very inert i.e they do not combine with other elements in the normal conditions. All inert gases except He has 8 electrons in their outermost shell. Stability of noble gases Stability of noble gas is due to their having 8 electrons (or 2 electrons for He) in their outermost shell. When the electropositive elements combine with the electronegative elements, i.e., when metals combine with non metals ionic compound are usually formed. When electronegative elements or non metals, combine with one another covalent compounds are formed. Atomic size Atomic size is generally described by the radius of an atom. Atomic size (atomic radii) in period Atomic size decrease from left to right across a period. The charge on nucleus increases with increasing atomic number. The attraction between the nucleus and any electron around the nucleus also increase. The increased nuclear charge attracts the electrons in the outermost shell closer to the nucleus. Therefore the shell contract, resulting in smaller atoms. Atomic size increase from top to bottom in a group. Because the number of electrons increases. These additional electrons are in the larger electron shells farther and father from the nucleus. Secondly there is the repulsion between individual electron. Therefore the shell expends, resulting in larger atoms. Questions Generally the elements of the same group have similar electronic structures .Arrange the following elements in their appropriate group. 3Li,8O,11Na,12Mg,17Cl,18Ar,19K,20Ca

Classify the above elements as alkali metal alkaline earth metal, halogen and noble gases and give reason for your answer. What is meant by term (1) electropositive element (2) electronegative element. Arrange the following elements in order of their increasing electro negativity. Oxygen, carbon, fluorine, nitrogen. The following information regarding element I to IV are provided. -4-

Element I II III IV

Atomic number 4 18 17 12

Mass number 9 40 35 24

complete electronic structure 1s2,2s2 1s2,2s22p6,3s23p6 1s2,2s22p6,3s23p5 1s2,2s22p6,3s2

(a) Which of the above elements are in the same group of the periodic table? (b)Which element is a noble gas? (c)Which element has 18 neutrons in each atom? (d)Which of the element have valence of 2? Ionic size When one or more electrons are removed from a metal atom, a positive ion is formed. Both positive ion and the parent neutral atom have same nuclear charges but there is a lesser number in the positive ion. According to this reason positive ion is always smaller than its parent atoms. When one or more electrons are added to a neutral atom, a negative ion is formed. Increasing the number of electrons causes an increase in the repulsion between electrons. Thus negative ion is always larger than its parent atom. Questions From the following group of elements select the one which has the largest radius. Give reason. (1)Fe2+ ,Fe3+ (2) Cl , Cl- (3) Li , Na , K (4) C, N ,O Generally the elements of the same group have similar electronic structures .Arrange the following elements in their appropriate group. 3Li,8O,11Na,12Mg,17Cl,18Ar,19K,20Ca Classify the above elements as alkali metal alkaline earth metal, halogen and noble gases and give reason for your answer. Ionization energy The energy required to move an electron from a gaseous atom to form a gaseous ion is called ionization energy. Element(g) + ionization energy ion+ (g) + electron Na + energy Na+ + electron
Ionization energies measure how tightly electrons are bound to atoms. Low ionization energies indicate ease of removal of electrons and hence ease of positive ion (cation) formation. First ionization energy Required to remove the first electron from a neutral atom. Second ionization energy Required to remove the second electron from the ion. Second ionization energy > first ionization energy Across a period from left to right, ionization energy increase, because the nuclear charge increases across a period and the electrons are most strongly held by the force of attraction between the nucleus and the electrons. In general ionization energies decrease down a group. This is because on going down the group, the atomic size increases and the outermost electron is farther from the nucleus making it easier to remove it.

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Ionization energy increases from left to Ionization energy decreases from top to right across a periodic table. bottom in a group of the periodic table. -the atomic size increases -the atomic size decrease.

-nuclear attractive force increase - more difficult to remove electron

-less nuclear attractive force

- less difficult to removed electron

The noble gases have the highest first ionization energies and the alkali metals have the lowest first ionization energies. This is because the noble gases are known to have the close electronic structure (the octet) which resist the removal of electrons whereas the alkali metals have only one electron outside of a noble gas structure, which is very easy to remove. Group IA (Alkali metals) are lower ionization energy.
Group O (Noble gases) are heigher ionization energy. The element of the lowest ionization energy is caesium. The element of the largest ionization energy is helium.

(Q)Explain which of the following graup has the largest ionization energy. (a) 2 . 8 . 1 (b) 2 . 8 . 5 (c) 2 . 8 . 7 The ionization energies of the elements depend on the electronic structures.
Electron affinity

The electron affinity of an element is the energy released when an electron is added to a gaseous atom to form a gaseous ion. Element (g) + electron Cl + electron ion- + energy Cl- + energy

Electron affinity increase from left to right across a period. Because the larger number of electrons in the outer most shells the greater will be the tendency to gain the electron. Electron affinity decreases from top to bottom in a group of the period. Because the size of atom increases and the electron being added goes to higher shell. Group IA (Alkali metals) is lowest electron affinity. Group VII B (Halogens) is highest electron affinity. Non metals generally have higher electron affinities than metals. Metals have lower ionization energies.

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Chemical Bonds There are three main types of chemical bonds, such as (1) ionic bond (2) covalent bond (3) metallic bond. The coordinate bond, which is a special types of covalent bond is another common chemical bond. Ionic Bond (electrovalence bond) Metal + Non metal Transfer of electron An ionic bond is formed when there is complete transfer of an electron or electrons from one atom to another resulting in the formation of cations and anions. These oppositely charge ions are held together by an electrostatic attraction known as ionic bond. Covalent Bond Non metal +Non metal Shared of electron A chemical bond formed by sharing of electrons between two atoms is known as covalent bond. In covalent bond between two atoms, the electrons are not actually gained or lost by the atom concerned. Co-ordinate Bond (Dative bond) It is special types of covalent bond. This bond is characterized by the fact that the two shared electrons are both supplied by one of the participating atoms. Metallic Bond In metallic solids, atoms of metals are present. They form metallic bonds. In a metallic bond, valence electrons of the atoms are very loosely held, forming a common electron cloud. Electrons move freely within this electron could. These electrons are often described as a sea of electrons. Each metal atom is bonded to all the atoms around it by a surrounding sea of electrons. The sea or mobile electrons in a metallic crystal accounts for many of the properties of metals. Metals are malleable and ductile. The flexibility of metals results from the fact that the metal ion can slide by each other and the electrons are free to flow. The ability of the electrons to flow freely also accounts for the high electronic conductivity of metals. Electricity flows easily through metals (conductor). Characteristic properties of Ionic compounds and Covalent compounds Ionic compound Covalent compound

Ionic compound do not contain Covalent compounds molecules molecules. They contain oppositively charge ions They do not contain ions. They conduct electricity when melt or dissolve in water. They are electrolyte. They are usually solids and do not vaporize easily. Height melting points and boiling points. They do not dissolve in organic solvents.

contain

They do not conduct electricity. They are non electrolytes. They are usually gases or volatile liquids. Low melting points and boiling points. They can dissolve in organic solvents.

Simple covalent compounds are gases or volatile liquids, because their molecules are electrically neutral and the forces of attraction between them are very small. -7-

van der Walls forces As the molecule come closer together, the atomic nuclei of one molecule and the electrons of another molecule attract each other while at the same time there is repulsion between their electrons. The forces of attraction and repulsion are balanced in the formation of crystal. Octet Rule In forming a chemical bond, atoms gain, lose or share electrons in such a way to attain the stable electronic structures of the noble gases, i.e., to have eight electrons in the outermost shell. This is known as the octet rule. Exceptions to the Octet Rule There are some exceptions to the octet rule which the student should know. Such exceptions, are found with the elements of the second period of the periodic table, e.g., BeCl2 and BCl3. In BeCl2, the beryllium atom is surrounded by 4 valence electrons and in BCl3, the boron atom is surrounded by 6 valence electrons. Also there are exceptions in the third period of the periodic table, e.g., PF5, ClF3 and SF6. In PF5 and ClF3, the phosphorus and the chlorine atoms are surrounded by 10 valence electrons. In SF6, the sulphur atom is surrounded by 12 valence electrons.

(Q)The electronic structure of element A ,B and C are given below. A.2.8.1 B. 2 . 8 . 7 C. 2 . 4 (i) Which of those elements is a metal? (ii) Which of those elements are non metal? (iii)Which elements will combine to form an ionic compound? Write the most likely formula of the compound formed. (iv)Which elements will combine to form a covalent compound? Write down the most likely formula and electron dot cross structure of the compound formed. Q) Give the difference between ionic compounds and covalent compounds based on (a) volatility (b) Solubility(c) electrical conductivity (Q)(a) A compound formed between 5A and 17B. Name the type of bonding exists between A and B. write the electron dot cross formula of the compound formed. b) What type of bond is formed between the above compound and :NH3.Draw a electron dot cross structure of compound formed. (Q)(a)An atom A has an atomic number of 6, whereas an atom B has an atomic number of 17. (1) Write down the electronic structure of A and B. (2) Give the group number and period number of A and B. (3) What type of bond can be formed between A and B. (I)Write only TRUE or FALSE for each of the following statements. (i) A metallic bonding is observed in metal. (ii) Noble gas elements are neither electro positive nor electronegative. (iii) The essential electronic structure of 14Si is 3p2. (iv) Electron dot cross structure of ammonia is: NH3. (v) 6C and 7N are both in periodic 2.Therefore the size of C is larger than N. (II)Fill in the blank with the correct word(s), phrase, term etc., as necessary. (1) The ................ has a negative charge and a mass almost zero. (2) Atom of the same element that have the same atomic number but different atomic masses are......... (3) Elements that are found within the same ..............of the periodic table have similar properties. (4) From top to bottom in a given group, the atomic number increase and the size of atom............... (5) A charge particle is a (an)................ -8-

(6) Compound formed between metals and non metals will have ................bond. (III)Select the correct word(s), notation, terms etc given in brackets. (i) The atom without neutron(s) is {(a) hydrogen (b) helium (c)caesium}. (ii) The atom with a duplet structure is {(a) hydrogen (b) helium (c) neon}. (iii)The element at the group VIIB and period 3 in the periodic table is {(a) X (2.7) (b) Y (2.8.3) (c) Z (2.8.7)} (iv)The ionic compounds have {(a) low (b) medium (c) high} melting point. Q Select the isotopes from the following and give reason for your answer. Q In neutral atom of an element, the number of a certain particles is equal to the atomic number. Name the particle or particles. Q Which arrangement of elements have similar properties in the periodic table? Why? Q Explain why the noble gases are neither electropositive nor electronegative. Q Write down the notation of isotopes for an element X. Express the corresponding terms. Q Determine the number of neutrons, protons and neutron for 32 16 S .
Q Determine the number of neutrons, protons and neutron for Q How many proton and neutron for
35 17

35 17

Cl .

Cl and Al .

28 13

28 Q What are the number of protons, neutron and electron in the atom of 14 Si ? Write down its possible isotopes. Q Determine the number of protons electrons and neutrons in the atom of the element E which has atomic number 18 and mass number of 40. Give the possible isotopes. Q Find the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in 28 13 Al and give the possible isotopes of it. Q Classify the following elements as alkalimetal, alkaline earth metal, halogen and noble gas. 11Na, 17Cl, 10Ne, 12Mg. Q Classify the following elements in their appropriate group number. 3Li, 17Cl, 10Ne, 20Ca, 8O, 11Na, 16S, 9F, 12Mg. Q What is meant by the terms (i) electropositive element (ii) electronegative element? Arrange the following elements in order of their increasing electro negativity. Oxygen, Carbon, Fluorine, and Nitrogen. Q From the following elements, select the one which has the largest radius. Give reason for your answer. Be, Mg, Ca and N, B, F. Q Explain which of the following groups has the largest ionization energy. 2.8.1, 2.8.5, 2.8.7. Q Explain why Be has higher ionization energy than B. Q Explain why N has the higher ionization energy than that of O. Q What elements are most likely to form covalent bonds? Give an example with the electron dot-cross formula. Q What types of chemical bond is formed between NH3 and H+ ion? Explain. Q Write down the complete and essential electronic structure of 14Si. Find the value of (n) in the compound of Si(2.8.4), SiHn and draw the electron dot cross structure of the compound. Q What types of bonding exists between 9A and 12B? Write down the most likely formula of the compound using the symbol A and B. Q Draw the electron dot-cross structure of BeCl2 and BF3. Q What type of bond is formed between BF3 and :NH3? Write down the electron dot cross formula of the compound formed. Q Draw the electron dot-cross structure of BCl3 and PF5.Give the differences between ionic and covalent compounds based on solubility and melting point.

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