Page 1 of 47

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Developmental psychology is the scientific study of changes that occur in human beings over the course of their life. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire lifespan. This field examines change across a broad range of topics including motor skills and other psycho-physiological processes; cognitive development involving areas such as problem solving, moral understanding, and conceptual understanding; language acquisition; social, personality, and emotional development; and self-concept and identity formation. Developmental psychology examines issues such as the extent of development through gradual accumulation of knowledge versus stage-like developmentand the extent to which children are born with innate mental structures, versus learning through experience. Many researchers are interested in the interaction between personal characteristics, the individual's behavior, and environmental factors including social context, and their impact on development; others take a more narrowly-focused approach. Developmental psychology informs several applied fields, including: educational psychology, child psychopathology, and forensic developmental psychology. Developmental psychology complements several other basic research fields in psychology including social psychology, cognitive psychology, ecological psychology, and comparative psychology.

Theories
Attachment theory
Attachment theory, originally developed by John Bowl by, focuses on the importance of open, intimate, emotionally meaningful relationships. Attachment is described as a biological system or powerful survival impulse that evolved to ensure the survival of the infant. A child who is threatened or stressed will move toward caregivers who create a sense of physical, emotional and psychological safety for the individual. Attachment feeds on body contact and familiarity. Later Mary Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation protocol and the concept of the secure base.

Page 2 of 47

There are four types of attachment styles:

secure, anxious-avoidant, anxious-resistant, and

disorganized. Secure attachment is a healthy attachment between the infant and the caregiver. It is characterized by trust. Anxious-avoidant is an insecure attachment between an infant and a caregiver. This is characterized by the infant's indifference toward the caregiver. Anxious-resistant is an insecure attachment between the infant and the caregiver characterized by distress from the infant when separated and anger when reunited. Disorganized is an attachment style without a consistent pattern of responses upon return of the parent. A child can be hindered in its natural tendency to form attachments. Some babies are raised without the stimulation and attention of a regular caregiver, or locked away under conditions of abuse or extreme neglect. The possible short-term effects of this deprivation are anger, despair, detachment, and temporary delay in intellectual development. Long-term effects include increased aggression, clinging behavior, detachment, psychosomatic disorders, and an increased risk of depression as an adult.

Constructivism
Constructivism is a paradigm in psychology that characterizes learning as a process of actively constructing knowledge. Individuals create meaning for themselves or make sense of new information by selecting, organizing, and integrating information with other knowledge, often in the content of social interactions. Constructivism can occur in two ways: individual and social. Individual constructivism is when a person constructs knowledge through cognitive processes of their own experiences rather than by memorizing facts provided by others. Social constructivism is when individuals construct knowledge through an interaction between the knowledge they bring to a situation and social or cultural exchanges within that content.

Ecological Systems Theory

The Ecological systems theory, originally formulated by Urie Bronfenbrenner specifies four types of nested environmental systems, with bi-directional influences within and between the systems. The four systems are microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. Each system contains roles, norms and rules that can powerfully shape development. The microsystem is the immediate environment surrounding and influencing the individual (example: school or the home setting). The mesosystem is the combination of two microsystems and how they influence each other (example: sibling relationships at home vs. peer relationships at school). The

Page 3 of 47

exosystem is the interaction among two or more settings that are indirectly linked (example: a father's job requiring more overtime ends up influencing his daughter's performance in school because he can no longer help with her homework). The macrosystem is broader taking into account social economic status, culture, beliefs, customs and morals (example: a child from a wealthier family sees a peer from a less wealthy family as inferior for that reason). Lastly, the chronosystem refers to the chronological nature of life events and how they interact and change the individual and their circumstances through transition (example: a mother losing her own mother to illness and no longer having that support in her life). Since its publication in 1979, Bronfenbrenner's major statement of this theory, The Ecology of Human Development has had widespread influence on the way psychologists and others approach the study of human beings and their environments. As a result of this conceptualization of development, these environmentsfrom the family to economic and political structureshave come to be viewed as part of the life course from childhood through to adulthood.

Psychosexual development
Sigmund Freud believed that we all had a conscious, preconscious, and unconscious level. In the conscious we are aware of our mental process. The preconscious involves information that, though not currently in our thoughts, can be brought into consciousness. Lastly, the unconscious includes mental processes we are unaware of. He believed there is tension between the conscious and unconscious, because the conscious tries hold back what the unconscious tries to express. To explain this he developed three personality structures: the id, ego, and superego. The id, the most primitive of the three, functions according to the pleasure principle: seek pleasure and avoid pain.[8] The superego plays the critical and moralizing role; and the ego is the organized, realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the superego. Based on this, he proposed five universal stages of development, that each are characterized by the erogenous zone that is the source of the child's psychosexual energy. The first is the oral stage, which occurs from birth to 12 months of age. The second is the anal stage, from one to three years of age. The third is the phallic stage, which occurs from three to five years of age (most of a persons personality forms by this age). The fourth is the latency stage, which occurs from age five until puberty. Stage five is the genital stage, which takes place from puberty until adulthood.

Page 4 of 47

Stages of moral development Piaget claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages. Expanding on Piaget's work, Lawrence Kohlberg determined that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice, and that it continued throughout the individual's lifetime. He suggested three levels of moral reasoning; preconventional moral reasoning, conventional moral reasoning, and postconventional moral reasoning. Preconventional moral reasoning is typical of children and is characterized by reasoning that is based on rewards and punishments associated with different courses of action. Conventional moral reason occurs during late childhood and early adolescence and is characterized by reasoning based on rules and conventions of society. Lastly, postconventional moral reasoning is a stage during which the individual sees societys rules and conventions as relative and subjective, rather than as authoritative.

Stages of psychosocial development

Erik Erikson reinterpreted Freuds psychosexual stages by incorporating the social aspects of it. He came up with eight stages, each of which has two crisis (a positive and a negative). Stage one is trust versus mistrust, which occurs during infancy. Stage two is autonomy versus shame and doubt, which occurs during early childhood. Stage three is initiative versus guilt, which occurs during play age. Stage four is industry versus inferiority, which occurs during school age. Stage five is identity versus identity diffusion, which occurs during adolescence. Stage six is intimacy versus isolation which occurs during young adulthood. Stage seven is generativity versus self-absorption which occurs during adulthood. Lastly, stage eight is integrity versus despair, which occurs in old age. Each stage builds upon the successful completion of earlier stages. The challenges of stages not successfully completed may be expected to reappear as problems in the future. However, mastery of a stage is not required to advance to the next stage. Jean Piaget, a Swiss theorist, posited that children learn by actively constructing knowledge through hands-on experience. He suggested that the adult's role in helping the child learn was to provide appropriate materials that the child can interact with and use to construct. He used Socratic questioning to get children to reflect on what they were doing, and he tried to get them to see contradictions in their explanations.

Page 5 of 47

Piaget believed that intellectual development takes place through a series of stages, which he described in his theory on cognitive development. Each stage consists of steps the child must master before moving to the next step. He believed that these stages are not separate from one another, but rather that each stage builds on the previous one in a continuous learning process. He proposed four stages: sensori-motor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational. Though he did not believe these stages occurred at any given age, many studies have determined when these cognitive abilities should take place.

Zone of proximal development

Lev Vygotsky was a Russian theorist from the Soviet era, who posited that children learn through hands-on experience and social interactions with members of his/her culture. Unlike Piaget, he claimed that timely and sensitive intervention by adults when a child is on the edge of learning a new task (called the "zone of proximal development") could help children learn new tasks. Martin Hill stated that "The world of reality does not apply to the mind of a child." This technique is called "scaffolding," because it builds upon knowledge children already have with new knowledge that adults can help the child learn. Vygotsky was strongly focused on the role of culture in determining the child's pattern of development, arguing that development moves from the social level to the individual level. In other words, Vygotsky claimed that psychology should focus on the progress of human consciousness through the relationship of an individual and their environment. He felt that if scholars continued to disregard this connection, then this disregard would inhibit the full comprehension of the human consciousness.

Nature and nurture

A significant issue in developmental psychology is the relationship between innateness and environmental influence in regard to any particular aspect of development. This is often referred to as "nature and nurture" or nativism versus empiricism. A nativist account of development would argue that the processes in question are innate, that is, they are specified by the organism's genes. An empiricist perspective would argue that those processes are acquired in interaction with the environment. Today developmental psychologists rarely take such polarised positions with regard to most aspects of development; rather they investigate, among many other things, the relationship between innate and environmental influences. One of the ways this relationship has been explored in recent years is through the emerging field of evolutionary developmental psychology.

Page 6 of 47

One area where this innateness debate has been prominently portrayed is in research on language acquisition. A major question in this area is whether or not certain properties of human language are specified genetically or can be acquired through learning. The empiricist position on the issue of language acquisition suggests that the language input provides the necessary information required for learning the structure of language and that infants acquire language through a process of statistical learning. From this perspective, language can be acquired via general learning methods that also apply to other aspects of development, such as perceptual learning. The nativist position argues that the input from language is too impoverished for infants and children to acquire the structure of language. Linguist Noam Chomsky asserts that, evidenced by the lack of sufficient information in the language input, there is a universal grammar that applies to all human languages and is pre-specified. This has led to the idea that there is a special cognitive module suited for learning language, often called the language acquisition device. Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is regarded by many as a key turning point in the decline in the prominence of the theory of behaviorism generally. But Skinner's conception of "Verbal Behavior" has not died, perhaps in part because it has generated successful practical applications.

Mechanisms of development
Developmental psychology is concerned not only with describing the characteristics of psychological change over time, but also seeks to explain the principles and internal workings underlying these changes. Psychologists have attempted to better understand these factors by using models. Developmental models are sometimes computational, but they do not need to be. A model must simply account for the means by which a process takes place. This is sometimes done in reference to changes in the brain that may correspond to changes in behavior over the course of the development. Computational accounts of development often use either symbolic, connectionist (neural network), or dynamical systems models to explain the mechanisms of development.

Cognitive development
Cognitive development is primarily concerned with the ways that infants and children acquire, develop, and use internal mental capabilities such as problem solving, memory, and language. Major topics in cognitive development are the study of language acquisition and the development of perceptual and motor skills. Piaget was one of the influential early psychologists to study the

Page 7 of 47

development of cognitive abilities. His theory suggests that development proceeds through a set of stages from infancy to adulthood and that there is an end point or goal. Other accounts, such as that of Lev Vygotsky, have suggested that development does not progress through stages, but rather that the developmental process that begins at birth and continues until death is too complex for such structure and finality. Rather, from this viewpoint, developmental processes proceed more continuously. Thus, development should be analyzed, instead of treated as a product to obtain. K. Warner Schaie has expanded the study of cognitive development into adulthood. Rather than being stable from adolescence, Schaie sees adults as progressing in the application of their cognitive abilities. Modern cognitive development has integrated the considerations of cognitive psychology and the psychology of individual differences into the interpretation and modeling of development. Specifically, the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development showed that the successive levels or stages of cognitive development are associated with increasing processing efficiency and working memory capacity. These increases explain differences between stages, progression to higher stages, and individual differences of children who are the same-age and of the same grade-level. However, other theories have moved away from Piagetian stage theories, and are influenced by accounts of domain-specific information processing, which posit that development is guided by innate evolutionarily-specified and content-specific information processing mechanisms.

Social and Emotional Development

Developmental psychologists who are interested in social development examine how individuals develop social and emotional competencies. For example, they study how children form friendships, how they understand and deal with emotions, and how identity develops. Research in this area may involve study of the relationship between cognition or cognitive development and social behavior. Emotional regulation or ER refers to an individual's ability to modulate emotional responses across a variety of contexts. In young children, this modulation is in part controlled externally, by parents and other authority figures. As children develop, they take on more and more responsibility for their internal state. Studies have shown that the development of ER is affected by the emotional regulation children observe in parents and caretakers, the emotional climate in the home, and the reaction of parents and caretakers to the child's emotions.

Page 8 of 47

Physical development
Physical development concerns the physical maturation of an individual's body until it reaches the adult stature. Although physical growth is a highly regular process, all children differ tremendously in the timing of their growth spurts. Studies are being done to analyze how the differences in these timings affect and are related to other variables of developmental psychology such as information processing speed. Traditional measures of physical maturity using x-rays are less in practice nowadays, compared to simple measurements of body parts such as height, weight, head circumference, and arm span. A few other studies and practices with physical developmental psychology are the phonological abilities of mature 5- to 11-year-olds, and the controversial hypotheses of left-handers being maturationally delayed compared to right-handers. A study by Eaton, Chipperfield, Ritchot, and Kostiuk in 1996 found in three different samples that there was no difference between right- and lefthanders.

Memory development
Researchers interested in memory development look at the way our memory develops from childhood and onward. According to Fuzzy-trace theory, we have two separate memory processes: verbatim and gist. These two traces begin to develop at different times as well as at a different pace. Children as young as 4 years-old have verbatim memory, memory for surface information, which increases up to early adulthood, at which point it begins to decline. On the other hand, our capacity for gist memory, memory for semantic information, increases up to early adulthood, at which point it is consistent through old age. Furthermore, our reliance on gist memory traces in reasoning increases as we age.

Research Methods and Designs

Developmental psychology employs many of the research methods used in other areas of psychology. However, infants and children cannot be tested in the same ways as adults, so different methods are often used to study their development. Developmental psychologists have a number of methods to study changes in individuals over time. Common research methods include systematic observation, including naturalistic observations or structured observations; self-reports, which could be clinical interviews or structured interviews; clinical or case study method; and ethnography or participant observation. 3135 these methods differ in the extent of control researchers impose on study

Page 9 of 47

conditions, and how they construct ideas about which variables to study. Every developmental investigation can be characterized in terms of whether its underlying strategy involves the experimental, correlational, or case study approach. The experimental method involves "actual manipulation of various treatments, circumstances, or events to which the participant or subject is exposed; the experimental design points to cause-and-effect relationships. This method allows for strong inferences to be made of causal relationships between the manipulation of one or more independent variables and subsequent behavior, as measured by the dependent variable. The advantage of using this research method is that it permits determination of cause-and-effect relationships among variables. On the other hand, the limitation is that data obtained in an artificial environment may lack generalizability. The correlational method explores the relationship between two or more events by gathering information about these variables without researcher intervention. The advantage of using a correlational design is that it estimates the strength and direction of relationships among variables in the natural environment; however, the limitation is that it does not permit determination of cause-andeffect relationships among variables. The case study approach allows investigations to obtain an indepth understanding of an individual participant by collecting data based on interviews, structured questionnaires, observations, and test scores. Each of these methods have its strengths and weaknesses but the experimental method when appropriate is the preferred method of developmental scientists because it provides a controlled situation and conclusions to be drawn about cause-and-effect relationships. Research designs Most developmental studies, regardless of whether they employ the experimental, correlational, or case study method, can also be constructed using research designs.[24] Research designs are logical frameworks used to make key comparisons within research studies such as: 1. Cross-sectional design 2. Longitudinal design 3. Sequential design 4. Micro- genetic design In a longitudinal study, a researcher observes many individuals born at or around the same time (a cohort) and carries out new observations as members of the cohort age. This method can be used to draw conclusions about which types of development are universal (or normative) and occur in most

Page 10 of 47

members of a cohort. As an example a longitudinal study of early literacy development examined in detail the early literacy experiences of one child in each of 30 families. Researchers may also observe ways that development varies between individuals, and hypothesize about the causes of variation in their data. Longitudinal studies often require large amounts of time and funding, making them unfeasible in some situations. Also, because members of a cohort all experience historical events unique to their generation, apparently normative developmental trends may in fact be universal only to their cohort. In a cross-sectional study, a researcher observes differences between individuals of different ages at the same time. This generally requires less resources than the longitudinal method, and because the individuals come from different cohorts, shared historical events are not so much of a confounding factor. By the same token, however, cross-sectional research may not be the most effective way to study differences between participants, as these differences may result not from their different ages but from their exposure to different historical events. A third study design, the sequential design, combines both methodologies. Here, a researcher observes members of different birth cohorts at the same time, and then tracks all participants over time, charting changes in the groups. While much more resource-intensive, the format aids in a clearer distinction between what changes can be attributed to individual or historical environment from those that are truly universal. Because every method has some weaknesses, developmental psychologists rarely rely on one study or even one method to reach conclusions by finding consistent evidence from as many converging sources as possible.

Life stages of psychological development

Pre-natal development
Pre-natal development is of interest to psychologists investigating the context of early psychological development. The whole prenatal development involves three main stages: germinal stage, embryonic stage and fetal stage. Germinal stage begins at conception until 2 weeks; embryonic stage means the development from 2 weeks to 8 weeks; fetal stage represents 9 weeks until birth of the baby. The senses develop in the womb itself: a fetus can both see and hear by the second trimester (13 to 24 weeks of age). Sense of touch develops in the embryonic stage (5 to 8 weeks). Most of the brain's

Page 11 of 47

billions of neurons also are developed by the second trimester. Babies are hence born with some odor, taste and sound preferences, largely related to the mother's environment. Some primitive reflexes too arise before birth and are still present in newborns. One hypothesis is that these reflexes are vestigial and have limited use in early human life. Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggested that some early reflexes are building blocks for infant sensorimotor development. For example the tonic neck reflex may help development by bringing objects into the infant's field of view. Other reflexes, such as the walking reflex appear to be replaced by more sophisticated voluntary control later in infancy. This may be because the infant gains too much weight after birth to be strong enough to use the reflex, or because the reflex and subsequent development are functionally different. It has also been suggested that some reflexes (for example the moro and walking reflexes) are predominantly adaptations to life in the womb with little connection to early infant development. Primitive reflexes reappear in adults under certain conditions, such as neurological conditions like dementia or traumatic lesions. Ultrasound has shown that infants are capable of a range of movements in the womb, many of which appear to be more than simple reflexes. By the time they are born, infants can recognize and have a preference for their mother's voice suggesting some pre-natal development of auditory perception. Pre-natal development and birth complications may also be connected to neurodevelopment disorders, for example in schizophrenia. With the advent of cognitive neuroscience, embryology and the neuroscience of pre-natal development is of increasing interest to developmental psychology research. Several environmental agentsteratogenscan cause damage during the prenatal period. These include prescription and nonprescription drugs, illegal drugs, tobacco, alcohol, environmental pollutants, infectious disease agents such as the rubella virus and the toxoplasmosis bacterium, maternal malnutrition, maternal emotional stress, and Rh factor blood incompatibility between mother and child.

Infancy
From birth until the first year, the child is referred to as an infant. Developmental psychologists vary widely in their assessment of infant psychology, and the influence the outside world has upon it, but certain aspects are relatively clear.

Page 12 of 47

The majority of a newborn infant's time is spent in sleep. At first this sleep is evenly spread throughout the day and night, but after a couple of months, infants generally become diurnal. Infants can be seen to have six states, grouped into pairs: 1. Quiet sleep and active sleep (dreaming, when REM sleep occurs) 2. Quiet waking, and active waking 3. Fussing and crying Infant Perception: Infant perception is what a newborn can see, hear, smell, taste, and touch. These five features are better known as one's five senses. Infants respond to stimuli differently in these different states. Vision is significantly worse in infants than in older children. Infant sight tends to be blurry in early stages but improves over time. Color perception similar to that seen in adults has been demonstrated in infants as young as four months, using habituation methods.[30] Infants get to adult-like vision in about six months. Hearing is well-developed prior to birth, unlike vision. Newborns prefer complex sounds to pure tones, human speech to other sounds, mother's voice to other voices, and the native language to other languages. Scientist believe these features are probably learned in the womb. Infants are fairly good at detecting the direction a sound comes from, and by 18 months their hearing ability is approximately equal an adult's. Smell and taste are present, with infants showing different expressions of disgust or pleasure when presented with pleasant odors (honey, milk, etc.) or unpleasant odors (rotten egg) and tastes (e.g. sour taste). Newborns are born with odor and taste preferences acquired in the womb from the smell and taste of amniotic fluid, in turn influenced by what the mother eats. Both breast- and bottle-fed babies around 3 days old prefer the smell of human milk to that of formula, indicating an innate preference. There is good evidence for older infants preferring the smell of their mother to that of others. Touch and feel is one of the better-developed senses at birth considering it's one of the first senses to develop inside the womb. This is evidenced by the primitive reflexes described above, and the relatively advanced development of the somatosensory cortex.

Pain: Infants feel pain similarly, if not more strongly than older children but pain-relief in infants has
not received so much attention as an area of research.

Page 13 of 47

Language: Babies are born with the ability to discriminate virtually all sounds of all human
languages:189 Infants of around six months can differentiate between phonemes in their own language, but not between similar phonemes in another language. At this stage infants also start to babble, producing phonemes.

Infant Cognition: The Piagetian Era An early theory of infant development was the Sensorymotor
stage of Piaget's Theory of cognitive development. Piaget suggested that an infant's perception and understanding of the world depended on their motor development, which was required for the infant to link visual, tactile and motor representations of objects. According to this view, it is through touching and handling objects that infants develop object permanence, the understanding that objects are solid, permanent, and continue to exist when out of sight. Special methods are used in the psychological study of infants. Piaget's Sensorymotor Stage comprised six sub-stages. In the early stages, development arises out of movements caused by primitive reflexes. Discovery of new behaviors results from classical and operant conditioning, and the formation of habits. From eight months the infant is able to uncover a hidden object but will persevere when the object is moved. Piaget came to his conclusion that infants lacked a complete understanding of object permanence before 18 months after observing infants' failure before this age to look for an object where it was last seen. Instead infants continue to look for an object where it was first seen, committing the "A-not-B error." Some researchers have suggested that before the age of eight to nine months, infants' inability to understand object permanence extends to people, which explains why infants at this age do not cry when their mothers are gone ("Out of sight, out of mind"). Recent Finding in Infant Cognition In the 1980s and 1990s, researchers have developed many new methods of assessing infants' understanding of the world with far more precision and subtlety than Piaget was able to do in his time. Since then, many studies based on these methods suggest that young infants understand far more about the world than first thought. Based on recent findings, some researchers (such as Elizabeth Spelke and Renee Baillargeon) have proposed that an understanding of object permanence is not learned at all, but rather comprises part of the innate cognitive capacities of our species.

Page 14 of 47

Other research has suggested that young infants in their first six months of life may possess an understanding of numerous aspects of the world around them, including: - An early numerical cognition, that is, an ability to represent number and even compute the outcomes of addition and subtraction operations; - An ability to infer the goals of people in their environment; - An ability to engage in simple causal reasoning.

Toddlerhood
Infants shift between ages of one and two to a developmental stage known as toddlerhood. In this stage, an infants transition into toddlerhood is highlighted through self-awareness, developing maturity in language use, and presence of memory and imagination. During toddlerhood, babies begin learning how to walk, talk, and make decisions for themselves. An important characteristic of this age period is the development of language, where children are learning how to communicate and express their emotions and desires through the use of vocal sounds, babbling, and eventually words. Self-control also begins to develop. At this age, children take initiative to explore, experiment, and learn from making mistakes. Caretakers, who encourage toddlers to try new things and test their limits, help the child become autonomous, self-reliant, and confident. If the caretaker is overprotective or disapproving of independent actions, the toddler may begin to doubt their abilities and feel ashamed of the desire for independence. The child's autonomic development is inhibited, leaving them less prepared to deal with the world in the future. Toddlers also begin to identify themselves in gender roles, acting according to their perception of what a man or woman should do. Socially, the period of toddlerhood is commonly called the "terrible twos". Toddlers often use their new-found language abilities to voice their desires, but are often misunderstood by parents due to their language skills just beginning to develop. A person at this stage testing their independence is another reason behind the stages infamous label. Tantrums in a fit of frustration are also common.

Early childhood
Also called as pre-school age," as well as "exploratory age" and "toy age

Page 15 of 47

When children attend preschool, they broaden their social horizons and become more engaged with those around them. Impulses are channeled into fantasies, which leaves the task of the caretaker to balance eagerness for pursuing adventure, creativity and self-expression with the development of responsibility. If caretakers are properly encouraging and consistently disciplinary, children are more likely to develop positive self-esteem while becoming more responsible, and will follow through on assigned activities. As children grow their past experiences will shape who they are, allow them to perceive the world in their own way. It helps a person go through everyday life.. If not allowed to decide which activities to perform, children may begin to feel guilt upon contemplating taking initiative. This negative association with independence will lead them to let others make decisions in place of them. During a child's preschool and beginning school years, intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Operational thinking developed which means actions are reversible, and egocentric thought diminishes. Children go through the transition from the world at home to that of school and peers. Children learn to make things, use tools, and acquire the skills to be a worker and a potential provider. Children can now receive feedback from outsiders about their accomplishments. If children can discover pleasure in their activities, including their intellectual stimulation, most importantly in learning reading, writing, and basic math, they will develop a sense of competence. If they are not successful or cannot discover pleasure in the process, they may develop a sense of inferiority and feelings of inadequacy that may haunt them throughout life. This is when children think of themselves as industrious or as inferior.

Adolescence
Adolescence is the period of life between the onset of puberty and the full commitment to an adult social role, such as worker, parent, and/or citizen. It is the period known for the formation of personal and social identity and the discovery of moral purpose. Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts and formal reasoning. A return to egocentric thought often occurs early in the period. Only 35% develop the capacity to reason formally during adolescence or adulthood. (Huitt, W. and Hummel, J. January 1998) It is divided into three parts namely:

Page 16 of 47

1. Early Adolescence: 9 to 13 years (preteen), 2. Mid Adolescence: 13 to 15 years and 3. Late Adolescence: 15 to 18 years The adolescent unconsciously explores questions such as "Who am I? Who do I want to be?" Like toddlers, adolescents must explore, test limits, become autonomous, and commit to an identity, or sense of self. Different roles, behaviors and ideologies must be tried out to select an identity. Role confusion and inability to choose vocation can result from a failure to achieve a sense of identity through, for example, friends.

Early adulthood
Early adulthood, according to theorists such as Erik Erikson, is a stage where development is mainly focused on maintaining relationships. Examples include creating bond of intimacy, sustaining friendships, and ultimately making a family. Some theorists state that development of intimacy skills rely on the resolution of previous developmental stages. A sense of identity gained in the previous stages is also necessary for intimacy to develop. If this skill is not learned the alternative is alienation, isolation, a fear of commitment, and the inability to depend on others. A related framework for studying this part of the life span is that of emerging adulthood. Scholars of emerging adulthood, such as Jeffrey Arnett, are not necessarily interested in relationship development. Instead, this concept suggests that people transition after their teenage years into a period not characterized as relationship building and an overall sense of constancy with life, but with years of living with parents, phases of self-discovery, and experimentation.

Middle adulthood
Middle adulthood generally refers to the period between ages 25 to 69. During this period, middleaged adults experience a conflict between generativity and stagnation. They may either feel a sense of contributing to society, the next generation or their immediate community or a sense of purposelessness. Physically, the middle-aged experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, sensory keenness, and cardiac output. Also, women experience menopause and a sharp drop in the hormone estrogen. Men experience an equivalent endocrine system event to menopause. Andropause in males is a hormone fluctuation with physical and psychological effects that can be similar to those seen in

Page 17 of 47

menopausal females. As men age, lowered testosterone levels can contribute to mood swings and a decline in sperm count. Sexual responsiveness can also be affected, including delays in erection and longer periods of penile stimulation required to achieve ejaculation.

Old age
This stage generally refers to those aged over 70. According to Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development, old age is the stage in which individuals assess the quality of their lives. In reflecting on their lives, people in this age group develop a feeling of integrity if deciding that their lives were successful or a feeling of despair if evaluation of one's life indicates a failure to achieve goals. Physically, older people experience a decline in muscular strength, reaction time, stamina, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell. They also are more susceptible to diseases such as cancer and pneumonia due to a weakened immune system. Programs aimed at balance, muscle strength, and mobility has been shown to reduce disability among mildly (but not more severely) disabled elderly, Sexual expression depends in large part upon the emotional and physical health of the individual. Many older adults continue to be sexually active and satisfied with their sexual activity. Mental disintegration may also occur, leading to dementia or ailments such as Alzheimer's disease. It is generally believed that crystallized intelligence increases up to old age, while fluid intelligence decreases with age. Whether or not normal intelligence increases or decreases with age depends on the measure and study. Longitudinal studies show that speed declines. Some cross-sectional studies suggest that intellect is stable.

Critical periods of development

There are critical periods in infancy and childhood during which development of certain perceptual, sensor motor, social and language systems depends crucially on environmental stimulation. Feral children such as Genie, deprived of adequate stimulation, fail to acquire important skills they are unable to learn in later childhood. The concept of critical periods is also well-established in neurophysiology, from the work of Hubel and Wiesel among others.

Parenting
Parenting variables alone have typically accounted for 20 to 50 percent of the variance in child outcomes.

Page 18 of 47

Parenting styles
The following parenting styles have been described in the child development literature: Authoritative Parenting is characterized as those parents who have high parental warmth, responsiveness, and demandingness, but rate low in negativity and conflict. These parents are

assertive but not intrusive or overly restrictive. This method of parenting is associated with more positive social and academic outcomes. Interestingly, the beneficial outcomes of authoritative parenting are not necessarily universal. Among African American adolescents, authoritative parenting is not associated with academic achievement without peer support for achievement. Authoritarian parenting is characterized by low levels of warmth and responsiveness with high levels of demandingness and firm control. These parents focus on obedience and they monitor their children regularly. In general, this style of parenting is associated with maladaptive outcomes. Interestingly, the outcomes are more harmful for middle class boys than girls, preschool white girls than preschool black girls, and for white boys than Hispanic boys. Furthermore, the negative effects of authoritarian parenting among Asian Americans can be offset by positive peer support. Finally, among African Americans, some elements of authoritarian parenting such as firm control and physical discipline do not serve as predictive factors for negative outcomes. Permissive parenting is characterized by high levels of responsiveness combined with low levels of demandingness. These parents are lenient and do not necessarily require mature behavior. They allow for a high degree of self-regulation and typically avoid confrontation. Compared to children raised using the authoritative style, preschool girls raised in permissive families are less assertive. Additionally, preschool children of both sexes are less cognitively competent than those children raised under authoritative parenting styles. Rejecting or neglectful parenting is the final category. This is characterized by low levels of demandingness and responsiveness. These parents are typically disengaged in their childs lives, lacking structure in their parenting styles and are unsupportive. Children in this category are typically the least competent of all the categories.

Mother and father factors

Parenting roles in child development have typically focused on the role of the mother. Recent literature, however, has looked toward the father as having an important role in child development.

Page 19 of 47

Affirming a role for fathers, studies have shown that children as young as 15 months benefit significantly from substantial engagement with their father. In particular, a study in the U.S. and New Zealand found the presence of the natural father was the most significant factor in reducing rates of early sexual activity and rates of teenage pregnancy in girls. Furthermore, another argument is that neither a mother nor a father is actually essential in successful parenting, and that single parents as well as homosexual couples can support positive child outcomes. According to this set of research, children need at least one consistently responsible adult with whom the child can have a positive emotional connection. Having more than one of these figures contributes to a higher likelihood of positive child outcomes.

Divorce
Another parental factor often debated in terms of its effects on child development is divorce. Divorce in itself is not a determining factor of negative child outcomes. In fact, the majority of children from divorcing families fall into the normal range on measures of psychological and cognitive functioning. A number of mediating factors play a role in determining the effects divorce has on a child, for example, divorcing families with young children often face harsher consequences in terms of demographic, social, and economic changes than do families with older children. Positive co-

parenting after divorce is part of a pattern associated with positive child coping, while hostile parenting behaviors lead to a destructive pattern leaving children at risk. Additionally, direct parental relationship with the child also affects the development of a child after a divorce. Overall, protective factors facilitating positive child development after a divorce are maternal warmth, positive fatherchild relationship, and cooperation between parents.

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Definition of DEVELOPMENT The pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the human life span. Why Study Development Psychology? 1. You can gain insight to your own life as a child, adolescent, and young adult.

Page 20 of 47

2. You will learn about life through the adult yearsmiddle age, and old age. 3. You may be a parent or a teacher some day. 4. Developmental psychology is linked with many different areas of psychology. Traditional Approach of Developmental Psychology vs. Life-Span Approach o The traditional approach emphasizes extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood, and decline in late old age. o The life-span approach emphasizes developmental change during adulthood as well as childhood. Characteristics of the Life-Span Perspective 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Development is lifelong Development is multidimensional Development is multidirectional Development is plastic Development is studied by a number of disciplines Development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation

1. DEVELOPMENT IS LIFELONG 2. No age period dominates development. 3. Researchers increasingly study the experiences and 4. psychological orientations of adults at different points in 5. their development. 6. DEVELOPMENT IS MULTIDIMENSIONAL 1. There are biological dimensions. 2. There are cognitive dimensions. 3. There are socio emotional dimensions 7. DEVELOPMENT IS MULTIDIRECTIONAL 1. Some dimensions or components of a dimension increase in growth. 2. Some dimensions or components of a dimension decrease in growth. 8. DEVELOPMENT IS PLASTIC 1. Plasticity involves the degree to which characteristics change or remain stable. 2. Plasticity involves the degree to which characteristics change or remain stable.

Page 21 of 47

9. DEVELOPMENT IS STUDIED BY A NUMBER OF DISCIPLINES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Psychologists Sociologists Anthropologists Neuroscientists Medical Researchers

10.DEVELOPMENT INVOLVES GROWTH, MAINTENANCE, AND REGULATION The Three Goals of Human Development 1. Maintenance 2. Growth 3. Regulation BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES Involve changes in the individuals physical nature such as: a. Height and weight gains b. The development of the brain c. Changes in motor skills d. Cardiovascular decline. COGNITIVE PROCESSES Involve changes in the individuals thought, intelligence, and language such as: o Watching a mobile swing above a crib o Creating a two-word sentence o Memorizing a poem o Imagining being a movie star SOCIO EMOTIONAL PROCESSES Involve changes in the individuals relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality such as: o o o o An infant smiling from her mothers touch A young boy hitting a playmate A girls joy at her senior prom The affection of an elderly couple

Page 22 of 47

PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

The prenatal period Infancy Early childhood Middle and late childhood Adolescence Early adulthood Middle adulthood Late adulthood THE PRENATAL PERIOD o The time from conception to birth o From a single cell to an organism complete with a brain and behavioral capabilities o Approximately a 9-month period INFANCY o The developmental period from birth to 18 or 24 months o A time of extreme dependency on adults o Many psychological activities are just beginning EARLY CHILDHOOD The developmental period extending from the end of infancy to about 5 or 6 years Often called the preschool years Children learn to become more self-sufficient Children now develop school readiness skills Children spend many hours playing with peers MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD The developmental period extending from about 6 to 11 years of age Approximately corresponds to the elementary school years Fundamental skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic are mastered Child is formally exposed to larger world and its culture. ADOLESCENCE o The developmental period of transition from childhood to early adulthood entered at 10-12 years, ending at 18-22 years

1.

2.

3.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 3. 4.

4.

5.

Page 23 of 47

o Begins with rapid physical changes. o Pursuit of independence and identity are prominent o Thought is now more logical, abstract, and idealistic

6.
o o o o o o o o

EARLY ADULTHOOD The developmental period beginning in the late teens or early twenties and lasting through the thirties A time of establishing personal and economic independence Also a time of career development Early adults select a mate, start a family, and rear children. MIDDLE ADULTHOOD The developmental period beginning around 40 years of age and extending to about 60 A time of expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility Also a time of assisting the next generation in becoming competent Middle adults reach and maintain satisfaction in a career. LATE ADULTHOOD o The developmental period beginning in the sixties or seventies and lasting until death o A time of adjustment to decreasing strength and health o Also a time of life review, retirement, and new social roles

7.

8.

Age Groups in Late Adulthood

o The Young Old, or Old Age (65-74 years of age) o The Old Old, or Late Old Age (75 years and older) o The Oldest Old (85 years and older)
AGE AND HAPPINESS o No particular age group says they are happier or more satisfied than any other age group. CONCEPTIONS OF AGE Chronological Age The number of years that have elapsed since a persons birth

Page 24 of 47

Biological Age Psychological Age Social Age

A persons age in terms of biological health An individuals adaptive capacities compared to those of other individuals of the same chronological age Refers to social roles and expectations related to a persons age

DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES Nature vs. Nurture Continuity vs. Discontinuity Stability vs. Change Activity vs. passivity Universal vs. particular The Nature-Nurture Issue o Involves the debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature or nurture nature o An organisms biological inheritance Nurture o An organisms environmental experiences The Continuity-Discontinuity Issue This issue focuses on the extent to which development involves gradual, cumulative change or distinct stages. Continuity: Development results from a gradual process occurring over several weeks, months, and possibly years. Discontinuity: Development occurs through a sequence of stages in which change is qualitatively rather than quantitatively different. The Stability-Change Issue This issue involves the degree to which we become older renditions of our early experience or whether we develop into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in development. It considers the extent to which early experiences (especially in infancy) or later experiences are the key determinants of a persons development. Evaluating The Developmental Issues Most life-span developmentalists recognize that extreme positions are unwise. The key to development is the interaction of nature and nurture rather than either factor alone.

Page 25 of 47

There still exists strong debate regarding how strongly development is influenced by each of the factors.

01

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT.

1. Infancy 3. Middle Childhood 2. Early Childhood 4. Adolescent Neonate Infancy Infancy Toddler Early Childhood Preschool Middle Childhood Late Childhood School age Adolescent 3-6 years 6 to 12 years 13 years to approximately 18 years 1 month to 1 year 1-3 years Birth to 1 month

Principles of Growth and Development Growth is an orderly process, occurring in systematic fashion. Rates and patterns of growth are specific to certain parts of the body. Wide individual differences exist in growth rates. Growth and development are influenced by multiple factors. Development proceeds from the simple to the complex and from the general to the specific. Development occurs in a cephalocaudal and a proximodistal progression. There are critical periods for growth and development. Rates in development vary. Development continues throughout the individual's life span.

Page 26 of 47

GROWTH PATTERNS
The childs pattern of growth is in a head-to-toe direction, or cephalocaudal, and in an inward to outward pattern called proximodistal.

03

GROSS MOTOR SKILLS The acquisition of gross motor skill precedes the development of fine motor skills. Both processes occur in a cephalocaudal fashion Head control preceding arm and hand control Followed by leg and foot control. GROSS MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Newborn: barely able to lift head 6 months: easily lifts head, chest and upper abdomen and can bear weight on arms HEAD CONTROL SITTING UP 2months old: needs assistance 6 months old: can sit alone in the tripod position 8 months old: can sit without support and engage in play AMBULATION 9 month old: crawl 1 year: stand independently from a crawl position 13 month old: walk and toddle quickly 15 month old: can run FINE MOTOR INFANT Newborn has very little control. Objects will be involuntarily grasped and dropped without notice. 6 month old: palmar grasp uses entire hand to pick up an object 9 month old: pincer grasp can grasp small objects using thumb and forefinger SPEECH MILESTONES

04

Page 27 of 47

1-2 months: coos 2-6 months: laughs and squeals 8-9 months babbles: amma/acha as sounds 10-12 months: amma/acha specific 18-20 months: 20 to 30 words 50% understood by strangers 22-24 months: two word sentences, >50 words, 75% understood by strangers 30-36 months: almost all speech understood by strangers

RED FLAGS IN INFANT DEVELOPMENT Unable to sit alone by age 9 months Unable to transfer objects from hand to hand by age 1 year Unable to walk alone by 18 months Failure to speak recognizable words by 2 years. FINE MOTOR TODDLER 1 year old: transfer objects from hand to hand 2 year old: can hold a crayon and color vertical strokes Turn the page of a book Build a tower of six blocks 3 year old: copy a circle and a cross build using small blocks 4 year old: use scissors, color within the borders 5 year old: write some letters and draw a person with body parts

05

ISSUES IN PARENTING TODDLERS Stranger anxiety should dissipate by age 2 to 3 years Temper tantrums: occur weekly in 50 to 80% of children peak incidence 18 months most disappear by age 3 Sibling rivalry: aggressive behavior towards new infant: peak between 1 to 2 years but may be prolonged indefinitely Thumb sucking Toilet Training PRE-SCHOOL Fine motor and cognitive abilities Buttoning clothing Holding a crayon / pencil Building with small blocks Using scissors Playing a board game Have child draw picture of himself

06

RED FLAGS: PRESCHOOL

Page 28 of 47

Inability to perform self-care tasks, hand washing simple dressing, daytime toileting Lack of socialization Unable to play with other children Unable to follow directions during exam

SCHOOL YEARS: FINE MOTOR Writing skills improve Fine motor is refined Fine motor with more focus Building: models Sewing Musical instrument Painting Typing skills Technology: computers SCHOOL AGE: GROSS MOTOR 8 to 10 years: team sports Age ten: match sport to the physical and emotional development SCHOOL AGE: COGNITIVE Greater ability to concentrate and participate in self-initiating quiet activities that challenge cognitive skills, such as reading, playing computer and board games. ADOLESCENT 13 TO 18 YEAR OLD As teenagers gain independence they begin to challenge values Critical of adult authority Relies on peer relationship Mood swings especially in early adolescents

07

ADOLESCENT BEHAVIORAL PROBLEMS Anorexia Attention deficit Anger issues Suicide ADOLESCENT TEACHING Relationships Sexuality STDs / AIDS Substance use and abuse Gang activity Driving

Page 29 of 47

Access to weapons
01

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT Conception Every 28 days, an ovum, lasts 24 hours Millions of sperm, viable for up to 6 days Conception in the fallopian tube Tubal pregnancy Conceptions most likely: on day of ovulation or the two days preceding ovulat

The Period of the Zygote or the Germinal Stage First Two weeks following conception From fallopian tubes to attachment to the uterine wall Blastocyst, 60-70 cells, 4th day Embryonic disk (organism) Outer Ring (umbilical cord & placenta) Implantation between days 7 & 9 Amnion Membrane, amniotic fluid Yolk sack produces blood cells Chorion Membrane Placenta - Food, oxygen, waste Umbilical cord 30% of zygotes do NOT survive The Period Of The Embryo From 2nd week through 2nd month Very rapid prenatal development Embryonic disk folds into three layers Ectoderm - Nervous system (fast develop.) & skin Mesoderm - skeleton, muscles, circulation Endoderm - Digestion, lungs, urinary tract Many body parts develop the 2nd month Fingers, toes, facial features, nervous system cells fire, teeth buds have formed Embryos posture becomes upright The embryo can move The embryo responds to touch (mouth & feet) The Period Of The Fetus Growth and finishing

02

Page 30 of 47

Third month Organs, muscles & nervous system organize and connect External genitals visible with ultrasound End of first trimester Second Trimester
03

13-24 weeks - first movement felt Vernix covers fetus, prevents chapping Lanugo hold vernix to skin Trillions of brain neurons produced Stimulated by sound and light Third Trimester

Age of viability - 22 to 26 weeks Cerebral cortex enlarges Responsive to external stimulation Fat layer develops for temp. reg. Moves to the upside-down position Fetus moves less Teratogens Environmental influences or agents that can damage the developing organism Influence of Teratogens Larger doses, over time, more negative Genetics can help or hinder teratogens Several negative factors increase impact Sensitive periods especially important Embryonic period most susceptible Physical and psychological effects
04

Drugs Thalidomide sedative - 1960s Aspirin - low birth weight, infant death, Poor motor develop., lower IQ Heavy caffeine use - miscarriage Premature births, irritability

Illegal Drugs: Cocaine, heroin, methadone Prematurity, low birth weight

Page 31 of 47

Physical defects, breathing problems, Drug addiction & death Cocaine - lasting difficulties Genital, urinary tract, kidney, heart deformities Brain seizures

Crack Babies: Lowest birth weight Central nervous system damage Fathers on cocaine may pass it on Multiple harmful effects of more than one drug Tobacco use Low birth weight and premature births Impaired breathing Miscarriage & infant death Placenta doesnt work correctly Greater concentration of carbon monoxide Passive smoking also injurious Alcohol FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME (FAS) Large amounts of alcohol, whole pregnancy Mental retardation Slow physical growth Facial abnormalities Alcohol interferes with cell duplication Especially neural cells Draws oxygen away from organism

05

Hormones Diethylstilbestrol (DES), 1945-70 Vaginal cancer Malformation of the uterus Miscarriage, low birth weight In males, genital abnormalities, cancer

06

Radiation Hiroshima & Nagasaki Miscarriage, slow physical growth Underdeveloped brains

Page 32 of 47

Malformation of skeleton & eyes X-Rays - avoid during pregnancy

Environmental Pollutants: 100,000 in common use Mercury Mental retardation, speech problems Difficulty chewing & swallowing Uncoordinated movements Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) Lower birth weight, smaller heads Poor memory, lower verbal IQ

Maternal Disease: Viruses - Most not harmful Rubella Heart defects, cataracts, deafness Genital, urinary & intestinal problems HIV & AIDS 20-30% Mothers pass to infants Fast growth in infants Most survive 5 to 8 months Herpes viruses Babies infected during pregnancy or at birth Bacterial & Parasitic Diseases Toxoplasmosis from meat or cats 40% transmission Eye & brain damage Positive Health Activities Moderate, low impact exercise Healthy diet - vitamin supplements Malnutrition causes problems WIC Program
07

Page 33 of 47

Low stress Intense anxiety >> miscarriage, premature birth, low birth weight, respiratory illness, Cleft palate & Pyloric stenosis
08

Rh Factor: Mother Rh -, father Rh+, Child Rh+ Antibodies against foreign Rh protein RhoGam within 72 hours

Prenatal Health Care: Every month of pregnancy visit MD 2 times/Month for the last two months Watch For Diabetes complications Toxemia Get vaccinations before becoming pregnant Prenatal Courses Information: Birth & Parenting Exercises Support

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH from CONCEPTION to BIRTH Phases of Prenatal Development Period of the zygote: conception through implantation Period of the embryo: 3rd-8th week, organ formation, heart beat Period of the fetus: 9th week-birth

THE PERIOD OF THE ZYGOTE Blastocyst: 60-80 cells Embryo inner layer of blastocyst Protective/nourishing tissues outer layer Implantation: 7-10 days after conception

Page 34 of 47

Tapping mothers blood supply through uterine wall Only 25% successfully implant

02

Blastocyst: Support Structures Amnion: watertight sac with amniotic fluid Cushioning against blows Temperature regulation Weightless environment for movement Yolk sac: early blood cell production Chorion: becomes lining of placenta Allantois: forms umbilical cord

03 Page 35 of 47

Purpose of the Placenta Semipermeable Allowing nutrients and gasses to pass through Blood cells are too large Site of all metabolic transactions sustaining the embryo

04

THE PERIOD OF THE EMBRYO Ectoderm (outer layer) Nervous system Skin Hair

Page 36 of 47

Mesoderm (middle layer) Muscles Bones Circulatory system Endoderm (inner layer) Digestive system Lungs Urinary tract Vital organs (pancreas, liver, etc.) Developmental Milestones 3rd week neural tube 4th week heart beat 7th week a rudimentary skeleton 7th-8th weeks sexual development If male, the Y chromosome triggers a reaction to produce testes, otherwise ovaries result

THE PERIOD OF THE FETUS Third Month Movement cannot yet be felt by mother Digestive system and excretory systems functioning Reproductive system contains immature ova or sperm cells Fourth-Sixth Months Sucking, swallowing, breathing Movements felt by mother Heart beat can be heard with stethoscope Sweat glands functioning Visual and auditory senses are functional Seventh Ninth Months Age of viability - 22-28 weeks survival outside the womb is possible Weight is 4 pounds (at end of 7th month) 9th month activity slows, sleep increases Birth occurs

05

Page 37 of 47

06

POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Page 38 of 47

TERATOGEN any agent that can harm an embryo or fetus

Effects Of Teratogens Most serious when structure is forming Susceptibility to harm is influenced by genetic makeup of mother and embryo Same defect can be caused by different teratogens One teratogen can cause different defects Longer exposure/higher dose, more harm Fathers exposure may affect embryo Long-term effects depend on postnatal environment Some effects not apparent until later in life TERATOGENS Diseases of the pregnant woman Rubella (German measles) Blindness, deafness, cardiac abnormalities, mental retardation Most dangerous during 1st trimester No woman should try to conceive unless they have had rubella or been immunized TOXOPLASMOSIS Caused by eating undercooked meat, handling cat feces Causes eye and brain damage during first trimester Induces miscarriage later in pregnancy Sexually Transmitted Diseases Syphilis Cannot be transmitted to fetus until 18th week Early treatment prevents harm Damages eyes, ears, bone, heart, brain Can result in miscarriage Genital Herpes Can cross placenta Most infections occur during birth Kills 33% of infected newborns Causes blindness, brain damage and other neurological problems in 25-30% Cesarean delivery prevents infecting newborn
07

-Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) Caused by HIV Passed through placenta, while giving birth, or while breast-feeding

Page 39 of 47 08

Only 25% of those at risk are infected ZDV reduces transmission by 70% 50% of HIV infected infants live past 6

Drugs Thalidomide Used to prevent nausea and vomiting Tested on animals and was safe Caused birth defects (for some) if taken during first 2 months of pregnancy Eyes, ears, noses, hearts Phocomelia parts of limbs missing, feet or hands connected to torso Aspirin growth retardation, infant death Ibuprofen 3rd trimester pulmonary hypertension, prolonged delivery Caffeine miscarriage, low birth weight Lithium 1st trimester heart defects Oral contraceptives heart defects Diethylstilbestrol (DES) delayed effects in reproductive system, primarily female

Alcohol o o o o o o o o o o o o Compromises functioning of the placenta Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) Microcephaly Malformation of heart, limbs, joints and face Hyperactivity, seizures, tremor Lower IQ, major adjustment problems Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE) Social drinking (1-3 per day) Greatest risk binge drinking (5+) Slow physical growth, poor motor skills, attention difficulties, verbal learning difficulties Subnormal intellectual performance Fathers drinking may also be harmful

09

Cigarette Smoking o o o o o o o Cleft lip Abnormal lung functioning Miscarriage Low-birth-weight Ectopic pregnancy implantation in fallopian tube Sudden Infant Death Syndrome Higher concentration of nicotine in fetus

Page 40 of 47

MARIJUANA o Emotional regulation in males o Poorer reading/spelling at 10 years old o More depression/anxiety Narcotics (heroin, methadone) 60-80% born addicted Breathing/swallowing coordination Normal developmental progress by age 2, although boys remain vulnerable COCAINE Miscarriage, premature birth Sleep disturbances, very irritable Lower IQ Poor language development skills Negative effects also due to Maternal vocabulary Home environment Exposure to additional teratogens

10

Page 41 of 47

11

ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS Radiation death, mental retardation Chemicals/pollutants Lead/mercury deformities, mental retardation PCBs less neurologically mature Prenatal and postnatal effects Fathers exposure also harmful

MATERNAL CHARACTERISTICS Pregnant Womans Diet Total weight gain 25-35 pounds 1st trimester malnutrition miscarriage, spinal cord malformation 3rd trimester malnutrition low-birth-weight, small heads Dietary supplements and stimulation can reduce effects of prenatal malnutrition Magnesium & Zinc reduce complications Folic acid reduces Down Syndrome, spina bifida, anencephaly Medical supervision is necessary, as excessive vitamin/mineral supplements can be harmful

Pregnant Womans Emotional Well-Being Prolonged and severe emotional stress Stunted prenatal growth Premature delivery Irritable Irregular feeding, sleeping Causal relationship in animals Prolonged stress Stress hormones impede oxygen and nutrients to fetus Weaken immune system Linked to poor eating, smoking, drug and alcohol use all harm fetus Counseling to manage/reduce stress Moderate levels may aid development Pregnant Womans Age 16-35 is optimal

12

15 years old and younger

Page 42 of 47

o Impoverished backgrounds o Poor nutrition, high stress, little prenatal care o Little risk if good prenatal care is present Older than 35 Increased risk of miscarriage Risks not reduced by prenatal care

FETAL PROGRAMMING Fetal Programming Theory brain and other systems are programmed in a manner that is adaptive for the uterine environment Persists at birth, but whats adaptive in the uterus may not be after birth Focus is on subtle changes in metabolism, endocrine and autonomic functions Result may be increased susceptibility to diseases in adulthood, like diabetes
13

PREVENTION OF BIRTH DEFECTS 95% of newborns are normal Many of remaining 5% have minor congenital problems that are temporary or correctable Each pregnancy is different Genetic makeup

PRENATAL ENVIRONMENT

Page 43 of 47

14

BIRTH AND THE PERINATAL ENVIRONMENT Perinatal environment environment surrounding birth Medications Delivery practices Social environment

THE BIRTH PROCESS First stage of labor - delivery Contractions 10-15 minutes apart

Page 44 of 47

Cervix fully dilates Second stage of labor delivery Head passes through cervix Baby emerges from body Third stage of labor afterbirth Placenta expelled from body

THE BABYS EXPERIENCE Stressful, but assists with breathing Babys Appearance - 20 inches long, 7-7.5 pounds, bluish, a bit misshapen

15

Assessing The Babys Condition Apgar test Heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, color, reflex irritability Scored 0-10 (0-2 each) 7+ good, 4 and lower needs attention Assessing The Babys Condition Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale

Several days after birth 20 inborn reflexes Reactions to comforting and social stimuli Unresponsiveness may indicate neurological problems Can be a parent teaching tool LABOR AND DELIVERY MEDICATION Some medication used by 95% of mothers

Reduce pain, induce contractions, relax the mother Can reduce the ability to push effectively Can make babies lethargic and inattentive Drugs in appropriate doses can increase comfort without disrupting delivery APPLYING RESEARCH TO YOUR LIFE: VARIATIONS IN BIRTHING PRACTICES Pokot of Kenya community celebration

Page 45 of 47

Uttar Predesh in India shameful, disgusting U.S. typically a hospital procedure Natural / prepared childbirth focus is on support, relaxation reduces medication Home births shorter labors, less meds, safe if smooth pregnancy, trained midwife Alternative birthing centers homelike setting in hospital

16

THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT SURROUNDING BIRTH The Mothers experience First 6-12 hours sensitive period for emotional bonding (not essential) Maternity blues 40-60% of mothers Postpartum depression 10% of mothers Should seek professional help Depression affects outcomes of both mother and infant The Fathers experience Engrossment intense fascination, desire to touch, hold and caress Early contact with newborn can make father feel closer to partner, positive support for mother
17

POTENTIAL PROBLEMS AT BIRTH Anoxia oxygen deprivation Umbilical cord becomes tangled Breech position Placenta separation RH factor incompatibility now preventable Can cause neurological damage, permanent disabilities Increased risk of adult heart disease Complications of Low Birth Weight Preterm born more than 3 weeks early, but appropriate weight for time in womb

Page 46 of 47

Small for date underweight due to slow fetal growth greater risk than preterm Causes include smoking, drug use, stress, lack of prenatal care, multiple births, social support

Short-term Consequences of Low Birth Weight 40-50% weighing less than 2.2 pounds die Brain development and neural pattern formation in preterm infants differs Breathing difficulty due to lack of surfactin, or respiratory distress syndrome Spend time in isolates Can be frustrating to care for

18

Interventions for Preterm Infants Early acquaintance programs touching, rocking, talking, are developmentally beneficial Parents can be taught how to be sensitive and responsive to preterm infants Combined with stimulating day care programs help, improves cognitive growth and reduces behavioral disturbances Long-term Consequences of Low Birth Weight Depends on postnatal environment Stimulating home, very good Less stable home or being economically disadvantaged Smaller, emotional problems Deficits in intellectual/academic performance

REPRODUCTIVE RISK AND CAPACITY FOR RECOVERY Werner & Smith Kauai Longitudinal Study At birth, 16% severe complications, 31% mild Age 2 severity predicted developmental progress, but emotional support and educational stimulation improved outcomes Age 10 severity not very predictive, home environment now predictive

APPLYING DEVELOPMENTAL THEMES TO PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND BIRTH Active child moves, practices in womb Nature/nurture interaction effects of teratogens Qualitative changes stages of birth

19

Page 47 of 47

Quantitative changes fetal development Holistic nature of development prenatal development affects all future development; social support during birth has consequences for future development