Corrosion

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ESDEP WG 4A
PROTECTION: CORROSION
Lecture 4A.1: General Corrosion
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To give young architects and engineers a basic understanding of the corrosion process
and the practical means of protecting structural steelwork.
PRE-REQUISITES
None
SUMMARY
This lecture presents the theory of corrosion in a very simple way. The galvanic series
and galvanic corrosion are covered briefly. The question of why structural steel
requires protection against corrosion is discussed and the fundamental considerations
relating to protection are described, e.g. establishing the environment, the choices of
protective coatings, surface preparation options and other considerations, e.g.
chemical cleanliness.
1. INTRODUCTION
The more common metals exist in nature as metallic compounds. The principal
compounds or ores are oxides and sulphides.
The extraction process is:
Compound Metal
Metals spontaneously react with any liquid or gaseous environment in which they are
placed and a corrosion product is produced which is very similar to the original ore
from which the metal was obtained. Thus:
Iron Ore = Iron Oxide
Rust = Iron Oxide plus chemically bonded water.
Corrosion processes are chemical reactions taking place at the surface of the metal.
They obey well established chemical laws - which is fine if you know them! Most of
us do not need to know them because we are not dealing with corrosion problems
daily. The purpose of this lecture is to describe the main types of corrosion met in
ordinary buildings, structures, plant, factories, etc.
Corrosion products may act as a barrier between the metal and its surroundings,
effectively slowing down the corrosion rate. This phenomenon is frequently observed
when metals corrode in air, a process known as "dry corrosion". It cannot be expected
to happen when the corrosion products are soluble and the corrosion is taking place in
an aqueous environment, i.e. "wet corrosion". For example, in a dry environment
Zinc + Oxygen Zinc Oxide + Water + Oxygen
Nothing much happens!
But add acid condensate (as frequently occurs in industrial environments) and,
Zinc Oxide + Sulphuric Acid Zinc Sulphate + Water Eases away, exposing Zinc.
1.1 Dry Corrosion
At room temperature, most metals carry a very thin oxide layer as a result of the
metal's reaction with oxygen in the atmosphere. Metals subjected to heating may well
carry a heavier layer, or the layer may detach. For example, steel which has been hot-
rolled has a complex oxide layer which is physically unstable but still has a protective
value provided the steel remains in air and as long as the layer remains a continuous
layer.
Zinc in air carries a fairly protective film of zinc oxide, which increases in thickness
very slowly. Aluminium carries a thin, highly protective oxide layer.
Dry corrosion may seem unlikely. However, it is worth remembering some corrosion
takes place even under completely dry conditions. It needs removing before applying
any form of protective coating.
1.2 Wet Corrosion
"Wet corrosion" takes place in wet environments, i.e. where relative humidity exceeds
60%. These environments can be neutral, acid or alkaline.
There may be uniform destruction of the metal, e.g. oxidation or, localised destruction,
i.e. pitting and stress corrosion. The destruction can be concentrated at areas adjacent
to a more noble metal or, at points where the oxygen supply is limited.
Wet corrosion is electro-chemical. When a metal is immersed in a conductive liquid
(sulphur compounds in water in an industrial atmosphere or sodium chloride in water
in a marine environment) some areas have a different electrical resistance from the
rest of the surface (Figure 1). A "positive" electric current flows from the negative (-
) anode to the positive (+) cathode areas and this leads to the dissolving or
"corroding" of the anode (Figure 2). In other words, a "corrosion cell" is, broadly
speaking, the same as a car battery.

In corrosion prevention literature the terms "galvanic " and the "galvanic series" are
frequently used.
Galvanic corrosion is the destruction of the less-noble of a pair of metals joined
together, e.g. in sea water zinc is less noble than mild steel and the zinc wastes away
rapidly.
The galvanic series is a list of metals arranged in order of their corrosion potential
with the most easily corroded at the top and the least active at the bottom. The
simplified listing which follows shows why aluminium and zinc are used as coatings
to protect mild steel and, stainless steel to replace it in certain circumstances.
Aluminium
Zinc
Iron
Mild Steel
Stainless Steel
Lead
Copper
Silver
Gold
Platinum
The most active metals, e.g. zinc and aluminium, are described as having negative
electrical potentials. They may be referred to as anodic. The least active, e.g. gold and
platinum are referred to as noble or, cathodic.
When dissimilar metals are connected in the presence of an electrolyte the more noble
(cathodic) one tends to be protected while the more active (anodic or negative)
corrodes rapidly.
As the potential difference between two dissimilar metals increases so does the
possibility for galvanic corrosion.
To sum up, the corrosion of metals is simply a reversion of their extraction process.
90% of marine and industrial corrosion is electro-chemical and the reaction
approximates to that which takes place in a car battery.
1.3 Why Protect Steel?
Basically steel is an alloy iron and carbon, other elements being added depending
upon the processing method and the final performance required. Structural steels
(medium carbon steels) contain 0,12% to 0,24% carbon. It was noted above that iron
ore is iron oxide and rust is iron oxide plus chemically bonded water. Steel is man-
made and unstable. It combines readily with oxygen and water, producing an iron
oxide not unlike the original iron ore prior to refining.
Electro-chemical corrosion can be highly concentrated at certain points. If this occurs,
a high rate of destruction at points representing no more than 1% of the total surface
area can destroy the usefulness of a steel component. There are a number of reasons
why local corrosion can be so concentrated:
- The first reason is related to the presence of mill scale (Figure 2). Much of the
structural steel which is use is hot-rolled. The white hot steel is formed into
structural sections by passing it through compressing rollers. In some parts of
the process, water is poured upon the forming steel. Both these operations
cause an oxide layer to be built-up on the steel's surface.
The oxide layer on hot-rolled mild steel is called mill scale. As noted earlier it is
physically unstable. It is a separate entity from the steel in much the same way as is a
coat of paint.
- Second, the mill scale is not a continuous layer and does not represent a
protective barrier.
- Third, the mill scale is cathodic and the steel anodic. If there are a few breaks in
the scale layer, a little condensation with dissolved impurities to act as the
electrolyte, and perhaps some dissolved oxygen, then a corrosion cell is formed
in which the steel dissolves (corrodes) away.
- Fourth, small bare areas of steel in large patches of intact mill scale, i.e. large
cathodic areas, give rise to intense attack and severe pitting of the steel (Figure
3).

- Fifth, cold bending, welding, etc. can produce highly stressed areas with
adjacent anodic (-) and cathodic (+) patches (Figure 4).
- Sixth, crevice corrosion occurs in the low oxygen concentration areas of a
corrosion cell (Figure 5).
- Seventh, even cold-formed steel has anodic and cathodic areas allowing
electro-chemical corrosion to occur (Figure 6).

2. PROTECTING STRUCTURAL STEELWORK
There are some fundamental practical considerations.
2.1 Effect of Environment and Surface Conditions
Corrosion is most likely to occur when one or more of the following is present:
- High humidity - which provides the essential water, i.e. humidity above about
60%.
- Atmospheric pollution - to provide impurities, e.g. sulphides and chlorides.
- The presence of mill scale with breaks or discontinuities - the scale becomes
the positive (cathode) pole and the steel the negative, dissolving or corroding
(anode) pole in the corrosion cell.
Before deciding how to protect any steel, one must answer the question "From what?".
Table 1 gives general environments. Answering the following will help produce the
answer:
a) What is the general environment?
b) Is the environment likely to change in the foreseeable future? If it is, what is the
cause and how will it alter the general environment?
c) Is there local pollution, e.g. sulphur dioxide, which could make the environment
more aggressive than is first apparent?
d) In terms of environment must the project be divided into different parts when
determining the protective system(s) or can the worst case be applied everywhere to
simplify matters?
e) What special conditions apply, e.g., watersplash, residual pools, which may exclude
the use of specific coatings?
f) Can the protective system chosen be maintained effectively and economically
throughout the required life of the structure/plant?
2.2 Protect with What?
The most practical way to protect steel is by applying another coat either to act as an
anode (i.e. dissolving in preference to steel), as a barrier, or both. The common
protective coatings are paints, hot dip galvanising, zinc or aluminium metal spray and
any of the last three overcoated with paints. Their main features are summarised in
Appendix 1. They are discussed in Lecture 4A.2.
2.3 Surface Preparation
Surface preparation is a major influence in determining the protective value of a
coating system. For metallic coatings it is usually an integral part of the
manufacturing process and is included in the relevant national and European standards.
For paints the type and standard of surface preparation should be specified as a part of
the protective coating treatment.
The importance of removing mill scale is well established. The methods used for this
purpose and, to remove rust, etc. are as follows:
Weathering
Because the layer of mill scale is a physically unstable separate entity which breaks up
before it leaves the rolling mills, the practice of "leaving the steel to weather" still
exists. Unfortunately, the duration of weathering necessary to remove the scale from
structural steel depends on the local climate, the type of mill scale, its thickness, the
shape and thickness of the section and, when weathering takes place after the steel is
erected, by the position of the individual structure. The time necessary to remove 90%
of mill scale from 9mm thick plates of mild steel varies from about six months in
industrial atmospheres in Europe to more than five years in certain overseas areas.
Even in the most aggressive environments complete descaling by weathering of a
structure could not be guaranteed within a year. Remember too it is in the aggressive
marine or industrial environments where the chemical impurities which dissolve in
water to form good electrolytes are found!
Weathering is not recommended as a preparatory method.
Chipping, Scraping and Wire Brushing
Chipping, scraping and wire brushing are by far the least effective methods. They do
not remove deep-seated rust, or tightly adhering mill scale.
Mechanical wire brushes and scrapers give better results than manual tools, but the
standards achieved are inferior to the alternative methods below.
Pneumatic descaling pistols
A bunch of hardened steel needles is held loosely in the collar of the pistol. Operated
by compressed air, the needles move backwards and forwards in the collar to pound,
literally, the surface. This preparatory tool is particularly useful around nuts, bolts and
rivet heads. It is extremely slow to use and will not remove deep-seated rust or thin
mill scale.
Flame cleaning
An intensely hot oxy-acetylene flame is played on the surface. Differential expansion
causes the mill scale to detach. The process is extremely slow, but it can be effective.
It will nor remove tight mill scale. It cannot be used upon steel which is less than
5mm thick, because it may cause buckling. In addition, it may "burn-in" chemicals
deposited on the surface causing premature paint failures. Its use as a preparatory
method is diminishing.
Acid pickling
This is a factory process for use on new steel before erection. The steel is immersed in
hot sulphuric or hydrochloric acid; after rinsing it may be dipped in a weak
phosphoric acid solution which deposits a thin crystaline phosphate coating upon the
surface of the steel. This coating gives a very low level of protection against corrosion
for a limited period. This form of acid pickling is one of the cheapest and most
effective ways of removing all mill scale and rust. It is not a satisfactory form of
surface preparation for use beneath sophisticated primers.
Cold site-applied pickling solutions are not effective.
Abrasive blast cleaning
This is an extremely effective method of removing mill scale and rust. Chilled iron
grit or shot is projected by air or, centifrugally from a wheel. When carried out in the
factory it is a relatively cheap process, but it can be expensive on site. It is not always
practicable on erected steel.
Properly undertaken the process leaves the steel in an excellent condition to receive
paint systems and metal spray. Its advantage is the profile which is produced and upon
which the applied coating "keys".
Other Considerations
Surface Cleanliness in terms of how effectively mill scale and rust have been
removed is covered by the pictorial illustrations in ISO 8501 [1].
Surface Roughness is important in respect of the profile produced by abrasive
blasting, which roughens the surface of steel. ISO 8503 Part 1 specifies comparator
panels as a means of specifying surface roughness [2]. These panels are used to make
visual and tactile comparisons with the blast-cleaned surface.
Chemical Cleanliness too often is confused with surface cleanliness by the specifier.
Rust formed in industrial or marine environments can contain soluble salts. These
salts are often found in corrosion pits and are rarely removed by abrasive blast
cleaning and never by mechanical or hand cleaning. If overcoated they lead to rapid
coating failure. Wet abrasive blast cleaning or washing with potable water are both
used as a means of cleaning chemically contaminated steelwork. Unfortunately
standard methods are not available for the qualitative or semi-quantitative
determination of the levels of chlorides, sulphates or soluble iron salts on freshly
blast-cleaned steel. Methods are being developed and may be included in ISO 8502
and 8504 [3, 4].
2.4 Cathodic Protection
The phenomena of galvanic corrosion and the galvanic series are the basis of Cathodic
Protection (CP), a system in which the structure to be protected is made the cathode.
For example if iron and copper are connected in sea water the iron corrodes; connect a
piece of zinc into the system and a current flows from the zinc to the iron and copper
and turns the iron into a cathode, i.e. the non-corroding pole in the electrochemical
cell.
Cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes is established for the protection of
steelwork under immersed conditions. For large installations, e.g. marine jetties, an
"impressed current" system is often used. In this system the anode is inert, e.g.
graphite or titanium, and a DC supply provides the voltage.
Setting up a cathodic protection system on an immersed or semi-immersed structure
requires expert advice. There are however three points to remember when considering
a CP system.
a. To do their job, sacrificial anodes must corrode! They require regular inspection to
ensure they are replaced before they disappear completely.
b. There must be sufficient anodes to give the correct current density over the
complete surface to be protected.
c. In systems using an external DC supply the polarity of the electrical connection is
vital. Reversed connections can cause extremely rapid corrosion of the item the
system is supposed to protect!
2.5 Stainless Steel
In buildings and plant stainless steels can be used for interior decoration, facades,
cladding, fasteners and equipment. The resistance to atmospheric corrosion associated
with stainless steel stems largely from its chromium content which helps to form a
thin protective oxide layer which is also aesthetically pleasing.
There are three types of stainless steel currently used in buildings and it must be said
that in-service failures are more often due to mis-specification than to inherent
weaknesses in the products (see Lectures 18). Stainless steels do corrode!
The three grades have different mechanical properties which affect forming, welding
and performance in service. To make the best choice for a particular application, the
environment, the likely frequency of cleaning, e.g. by rainwater, the mechanical
properties needed during fabrication, and the required performance in service need to
be known.
Stainless steel components are expensive (x 10 the cost of carbon steel) and merit
careful consideration before specifying to ensure their full potential is realised.
2.6 Weathering Steels
These steels contain only 1-2% of alloying additions, e.g. copper, chromium, nickel,
phosphorus. They can be more corrosion resistance than similar unalloyed steels. But
the protective coating only forms when the steel is subject to regular wetting and
during cycles. Wet interiors, immersed or buried conditions are unsuitable
environments in which to use weathering steels. Undoubtedly specialist advice from
the steel industry is required before this type of steel is specified. There are a number
of general considerations:
a. for long life a corrosion allowance must be considered because the actual loss
varies with the environment.
b. crevices and other water/dirt traps must be designed out.
c. as the steel begins to weather iron hydroxides may run to adjacent surfaces and
cause straining.
d. fasteners should be made of weathering steel.
e. specific low alloy welding rods are needed.
f. to obtain even weathering, blasting overall may be necessary.
g. these steels are unsuitable for use in marine and aggressive industrial environments.
3. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
- Corrosion follows established chemical laws. In 'dry' conditions it is generally
inactive. In 'wet' condition it is highly active.
- The 'wet' conditions in which corrosion can take place can range from acid,
neutral through to alkaline.
- Corrosion also occurs between dissimilar metals, the less noble (anodic) being
the one destroyed.
- Steel needs to be protected in 'wet' conditions to prevent corrosion (re-
oxidization) occurring.
- The environment around the steel controls the rate of corrosion and the degree
of protection required; accessibility controls the type of corrosion prevention
treatment adopted.
4. REFERENCES
ISO 8500 series Preparation of steel substrates before the application of paints and
related products.
[1] ISO 8501 Visual assessment of surface cleanliness
- Part 1 Rust grades and preparation grades of uncoated steel substrates and of steel
substrates after overall removal of previous coatings.
- Part 2
*
Preparation grades of previously coated steel substrates after localized
removal of previous coatings.
[2] ISO 8502 Tests for the assessment of surface cleanliness.
- Part 1 Field tests for soluble iron corrosion products.
- Part 2 Laboratory determination of chloride on clean surfaces.
- Part 3 Assessment of dust on steel surfaces prepared for painting (pressure sensitive
tape method).
- Part 4
*
Guidance on the estimation of the probability of condensation prior to paint
application.
[3] ISO 8503 Surface roughness characteristics of blast-cleaned substrates.
- Part 1 Specifications and definitions for ISO surface profile comparators for the
assessment of abrasive blast-cleaned surfaces.
- Part 2 Methods for the grading of surface profile of abrasive blast-cleaned steel.
Comparator procedures.
- Part 3 Method for the calibration of ISO surface profile comparators and for the
determination of surface profile - Focusing microscope procedure.
- Part 4 Method for the calibration of ISO surface profile comparators and for the
determination of surface profile - Stylus instrument procedure.
[4] ISO 8504 Surface preparation methods.
- Part 1 General principles.
- Part 2 Abrasion blast-cleaning.
- Part 3 Hand and power tool cleaning.
[5] ISO 12944
*
Protective paint systems for steel structures
- Part 1 General Introduction.
- Part 2 Classification of Environments.
- Part 3 Types of Surface and Surface Preparation.
- Part 4 Classification and Definitions of Paint Systems and Related Products.
- Part 5 Performance Testing.
- Part 6 Workmanship.
- Part 7 Design.
- Part 8 Guidance for Developing Specification for New Work and Maintenance.
* In course of preparation
5. ADDITIONAL READING
1. Uhlig, H. H., "Corrosion and Corrosion Control", 3rd ed, 1985, John Wiley &
Sons.
2. Durability of Steel Structures: Protection of Steel Structures and Buildings
from Atmospheric Corrosion, ECSC Report 620.197, 1983.
3. "Controlling Corrosion", series of booklets published by the Department of
Industry - Committee on Corrosion.
4. Steelwork Corrosion Protection Guide - Interior Environments (3rd Ed), 1989
(published jointly by British Constructional Steeelwork Association (BCSA)
British Steel (BS), Paint Research Association (PRA) and Zinc Development
Association (ZDA)).
5. Steelwork Corrosion Protection Guide - Perimeter Walls (2nd Ed), 1989
(Published jointly by BCSA and BS).
6. Steelwork Corrosion Protection Guide - Exterior Environments (2nd Ed), 1989
(published jointly by BCSA, BS, PMA and ZDA).
7. BS 5493 Code of practice for protective coating of iron and steel structured
against corrosion.
8. DIN 55928: Part 5 Corrosion protection of steel structures by organic and
metallic coatings Part 5 Coating materials and protective systems.
9. Norsk Standard NS 5415 Anti-corrosive paint systems for steel structures.
10. ECCS No. 48 Protection against corrosion inside buildings.
11. ECCS No. 50 Protection of steel structures against corrosion by coatings.
APPENDIX 1
Characteristics of Paint and Metal Coatings
The features of hot dip galvanizing and metal spray to be considered:
a. Life predictable if the environment is accurately assessed.
b. Single application systems (plus sealing in some cases).
c. Short in-shop time.
d. Good abrasion resistance.
e. Sacrificial protection of steel provided at areas of damage.
f. Good corrosion resistance.
g. Should not be used unpainted outside the pH range of 5-12 for zinc and 4-9 for
aluminium, or, where the metal is subject to direct attack by specific chemicals.
Hot dip galvanizing has additional features:
h. The alloying action provides a good metallurgical bond.
i. Full coating on sharp corners and edges. Thickness is influenced by the composition
of the steel.
j. Adhesion problems can occur between the zinc and subsequently applied paint.
These problems can be overcome by the use of special pretreatments, primers or
specially formulated direct application paints.
Additional features for metal spraying:
k. Can be site applied.
l. Coating thickness can be built up as desired.
m. Virtually any size of structure and plant can be coated.
n. Often a better substrate for paint systems than hot dip galvanizing.
o. Should be sealed if to be over-painted.
p. Irrespective of environment aluminium-sprayed metal is best supplied sealed ex-
works.
q. Where exposure is unlikely to be aggressive, zinc sprayed steel need not be sealed.
If there is any likelihood it will need painting or sealing at a later date, then it should
be sealed initially to prevent the formation of zinc corrosion products.
The main features of paint systems are:
a. Predictable life if the environment is accurately assessed.
b. Does not affect the mechanical properties of steel.
c. Suitable for shop and site use.
d. Can be applied to complex structures and plant.
e. Systems are available to protect against most environments and conditions.
f. Painting facilities are widely available.
g. Most paints are easy to repair and maintain.
h. Wide colour ranges are available for safety and decoration.
i. High performance paints require high standards of surface preparation (usually
abrasive blast cleaning) and can be intolerant of poor painting conditions.
ESDEP WG 4A
PROTECTION: CORROSION
Lecture 4A.2: Factors Governing
Protection of Steelwork
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To expand upon Lecture 4A.1, giving the practical means of protecting steelwork at a
level suitable for young architects and engineers.
PREREQUISITES
None.
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 4A.1: General Corrosion
SUMMARY
This lecture covers the assessment of the required life design for the successful use of
protective systems and surface preparation. The coatings commonly used to protect
steel are described and the use of stainless and weathering steels are briefly discussed.
Finally a general discussion of maintenance is given.
1. LIFE EXPECTANCY
Table 1 classifies the principal types of environment that have a significant influence
on the life expectancy of steel.
In dry, heated buildings, e.g. offices, hospitals, warehouses, the corrosion rates of
carbon steel are usually very low. Steel can be used without protection in such
environments when it is hidden. Elsewhere it is coated for aesthetic or hygienic
reasons.
Many interiors are not dry however and steelwork requires protection in these
situations, as well as in exterior environments.
Structures and plant usually have a "design life". If after execution of the structure
access is impossible, the initial protective system needs to have the same life as the
steel. Economic pressures often increase the functional life of plant significantly
beyond the "design life". Changes in expectation usually occur after the initial
protective system is in place. It is sensible therefore to consider this possibility at the
start of every new project.
1.1 Likely Time to First Maintenance
Table 2 gives in column (a) typical lives in the general environment quoted to prevent
deterioration of the steel using various coating systems. Column (b) gives the likely
time to first refurbishment where good appearance and the maintenance of a readily
cleaned surface are important. Neither set of figures can allow for the influence of
local conditions, e.g. heavy overnight condensation due to the unplanned shutting
down of ventilating systems to save money.
Protective systems require regular inspection allowing unexpected local failures to be
repaired. Ideally the base steel should never be exposed. If the first coat of the system
is zinc galvanising or metal spray then it should be considered part of the structure,
the paint coats being refurbished at intervals which ensure it remains unexposed.
1.2 Life Between Maintenances
When there is data on the performance of a protective system on similar structures or
plant, prediction of the intervals to maintain the top coat(s) is fairly easy. Since the
initial failure of a protective system may be sooner than anticipated, the estimation of
the interval for some breakdown to bare steel can be complicated.
1.3 Assessment of Life Requirement
It may be necessary to assess each part of a structure separately. For each assessment
the following points should be taken into account:
a. Required life of structure/plant.
b. Decorative and hygienic requirements. The decorative life of a coating (and its
ability to be readily cleaned) is rarely as long as the protective life of the system, see
Table 2.
c. Irreversible deterioration if scheduled maintenance is delayed.
d. Difficulty of access for maintenance.
e. Technical and engineering problems in maintenance.
f. Minimum acceptable period between maintenance.
g. Total maintenance costs, including plant shut-down, closure of roads, access, etc.
2. DESIGN
The design of structures and plant is based largely on data and functional
requirements which can be quantified, e.g. 'the steelwork supports plant
manufacturing a specific product and has a life expectancy of 25 years'. The selection
of a protective system involves many factors; these factors vary widely according to
the type of structure, its complexity, its function, the general environment, (see Table
1) the influence of microclimates and the effects of possible environmental changes
(natural and otherwise) which may occur during the required life.
Other factors affecting selection are quantitative, e.g. time to first maintenance,
planned maintenance schedule to cover the required life of the structure or plant,
thickness of coatings, etc. They should be viewed with caution because the degree of
variation may differ between one coating system and another.
Quotations may vary considerably for the same system irrespective of whether it is
hot dip galvanising, metal spray or paint. Great care is necessary to ensure quotations
for apparently identical products or services do cover the same materials, application
with the same degree of control, and comparable quality of finish in terms of both
required durability and appearance.
Some of the critical conditions and circumstances that have to be taken into account
before selecting a protective system are listed in question form in Appendix 1. Not
every question is relevant to a particular job and the importance of the relevant
questions varies. The order of relevant questions might be modified in the light of
answers to later questions. The list should be studied as a whole before the questions
are considered in detail.
2.1 Design for Protective Systems
The design of structures and plant can influence the choice of protective system. It
may be appropriate and economic to modify the design to suit the preferred protective
system. The following points should be noted:
a. Provide safe and easy access to and around the structure to facilitate maintenance.
b. Design the elements:
i. to avoid pockets and recesses in which water and dirt can collect, see Figures 1 - 5.
ii. to eliminate sharp edges and corners, see Figure 6.
iii. to provide clear access for painting e.g. to allow space to use a paint brush or spray
gun, see Figure 7.

c. Any areas which are inaccessible after erection require a coating system designed to
last the required life of the structure. Is this feasible or should the design be modified?
d. Certain structural sections are more suited to some coating systems than others, e.g.
hollow section are more easily wrapped than structural shapes.
e. The method or size of fabrication may preclude or limit some protective systems,
e.g. friction grip bolts, galvanising.
f. If bimetallic corrosion is possible, additional protective measures are necessary, see
Figure 8.

g. Where steel is likely to be in contact with other building materials, special
precautions may be necessary e.g. oak timbers.
h. For steel structures in water, cathodic protection may be the best solution, see
Figure 9.

2.2 Where to Apply Protection
In this case "where" means should the protective coating system be applied on or off
site.
Protective system are more durable when applied in the fabrication shop or steel mill.
Where there is a likelihood of substantial damage occurring during transportation and
erection specifiers may prefer the final one or two coats of protection to be applied on
site. Paints specified for site use must be tolerant of delay and a measure of intercoat
contamination. The specification should state clearly who is responsible for quality
control at each stage of fabrication and processing.
Where the total system is applied off-site, the specification must cover the need for
care at all later stages to prevent damage to the finished steel and set out repair
procedures for the coatings once the steelwork is erected.
2.3 Special Areas
The protective treatment of bolts, nuts and other parts of the structural connections
require careful consideration. Ideally their protective treatment should be of a standard
at least equal to that specified for the general surfaces.
Where high performance paint systems are to be used, it is worth considering hot dip
spun galvanised or stainless steel fasteners.
The mating surfaces of connections made with high strength friction grip bolts require
special treatment, see Appendix 2 in Lecture 4A.3.
3. SURFACE PREPARATION
The surface preparation of the steelwork has a major influence in determining the
protective value of the coating system.
For galvanising and metal spraying, surface preparation is an integral part of the
process and is included in national standards for these operations. With paint systems
there is usually a choice of preparatory methods. Therefore the actual method chosen
for a specific job must be specified as part of the protective coating treatment.
The choice between blast-cleaning and manual cleaning is partly determined by the
nature of the coatings to be applied. Coatings applied to a degreased blast-cleaned
surface always last longer than similar coatings applied to manually cleaned surfaces.
However, some short-life coatings do not warrant the high cost of blast-cleaning as
required for long-life coatings. Details of methods for blast cleaning surfaces are
given in ISO 8504 [5].
3.1 Degreasing
Grease and dirt are best removed by proprietary emulsion cleaners followed by a
thorough rinsing with water, by steam-cleaning, or by controlled high pressure water
jets.
Where it is necessary to use white spirit or similar solvents to remove oil or grease,
the use of detergent or emulsion cleaner should follow before completing the
operation by thorough rinsing with clean fresh water.
Degreasing by washing with solvent is not recommended because it can lead to the
spreading of a thin film of oil or grease over the surface.
3.2 Removal of Scale and Rust
Mill-scale is made up of the surface oxides produced during the hot-rolling of steel. It
is unstable. On weathering, water penetrates fissures in the scale and rusting of the
steel surface occurs. The mill-scale loses adhesion and begins to shed. It is an
unsatisfactory base and needs to be removed before protective coatings are applied.
In general, rusted steel surfaces are not a satisfactory base for the application of
protective coatings, although some primers have a limited tolerance to residual rust
left on steel surfaces after manual cleaning. The means of removing rust and scale are
described below.
3.3 Blast Cleaning
Abrasive particles are directed at high velocity against the metal surface. They may be
carried by compressed air or high-pressure water, or thrown by centrifugal force from
an impeller wheel. For some open blasting, high pressure water without abrasives may
be used. The various methods are listed in Table 3.
Commonly used abrasives for cleaning steelwork are listed in Table 4 with notes on
their advantages and disadvantages.
The choice of blast-cleaning method is determined by the following factors.
a. Shape and size of steelwork
Centrifugal methods are economic for plates and simple sections; they can also be
used for large prefabricated sections, e.g. bridge sections, but only in specially
designed plants. 'Misses' discovered by inspection can be cleaned with open-blast
techniques. For large throughput of shaped items, e.g. pipes, both open and vacuum
blasting techniques can be used in continuous and automatic plants.
b. Effect of the stage at which cleaning is carried out
For blast-cleaning on site, open or vacuum-blasting methods have to be used as on
large fabricated sections. It is usually impractical to use centrifugal methods.
c. Throughput
Centrifugal plants are economic for a high throughput, but even with a low throughput
the method may still be preferable to large-scale open cleaning.
d. Environmental conditions
Despite its relatively high cost, vacuum blasting may be necessary to avoid
contamination of the immediate area with abrasive. It should be ensured that the blast-
cleaning process does not affect adjacent materials.
e. Types of surface deposit to be removed
Wet-blasting methods, with abrasives, are particularly suitable for removing
entrapped salts in rust and for abrading old, hard painted surfaces, e.g. two-pack
epoxies, before recoating.
On new work, blast cleaning can be carried out before or after fabrication. When it is
before fabrication a "blast" or "holding" primer is applied to prevent corrosion during
fabrication. Areas damaged during fabrication, e.g. by welding, require re-preparing
and priming as soon as possible.
3.4 Blast Cleaning Standard
ISO 8501-1 1988 is a visual standard which shows different degrees of blast cleaning
on steel of four levels of rusting [1]. The reference prints are in colour and the
standard is based on the widely used Swedish Standard SIS055900 [2]. It is used to
specify and control the standard of abrasive blast cleaning required.
3.5 Surface Roughness
Because blasting roughens the surface, some control of the profile produced is
important. If the distance between the highest peak and the deepest trough is too much
then the peaks may not be protected adequately, Figure 10. ISO8503-1 1988 is a
standard for surface comparators [3]. Visual comparison between the comparator,
Figure 11, and blasted surface allow the latter to be graded "Fine", "Medium" or
"Coarse" profile. The peak to valley distance for each grade is specified in the
standard; shot and grit blasted profiles are different and there is one comparator for
grit and one for shot blasting.

ISO8501-1 [1] is intended for use with previously unpainted steel. ISO8501-2 [1] is
being prepared and relates to the treatment of previously painted steelwork.
In both the above standards the term Surface Cleanliness is used. This is slightly
misleading because although it refers to how effectively mill scale and rust have been
removed, it sometimes is assumed to include chemical cleanliness. This is not so.
Tests for assessing the surface cleanliness are given in ISO 8502 [4]. ISO 8502-1
gives details of site tests for soluble iron corrosion products and ISO 8502-3 provides
a method for the assessment of dust on the surface and these are the only standards of
real use at present. ISO 8502-2 gives a method of determining in a laboratory the
presence of chlorides and further part giving guidance on the estimation of
condensation is in course of preparation.
3.6 Flame Cut Edges
Flame cut edges have to be smooth and corners ground in order to make a durable
paint coating. A sharp corner creates a thin film and a starting point for corrosion.
3.7 Other Methods of Surface Preparation
Manual cleaning, possibly using power assisted tools, is the method most frequently
used for practical or economic reasons, although it is the least effective. In due course
Part 3 of ISO 8504 [5] will cover hand and power tool cleaning but at present the only
relevant standard is ISO8501-1 [1] which contains two visual preparation grades for
scraping and wire-brushing [2].
4. SURFACE COATINGS
As indicated in Lecture 4A.1, the common methods of protecting steelwork are paints,
galvanising, zinc or aluminium metal spray or "duplex" systems where one of the last
three is over-coated with paint. The main characteristics of the three groups are given
in Lecture 4A.1. Appendix 1.
4.1 Paint Systems
Paints have three main components, a resinous components which literally glues them
together and is best referred to as the "film former", pigment to give colour, weather
resistance and in some cases corrosion inhibition and, solvents to produce the correct
consistency for application, control of the drying rate, etc.
It is the film former which influences a paint's main properties, e.g. hardness,
flexibility, water resistance. For convenience the paint types listed in Appendix 2 are
divided into three families, drying oil based paints, one pack chemical resistant paints
and 2-pack varieties. In each case the main film formers and pigments are indicated,
together with typical end uses for each broad family.
Usually there are three components, 'primer', 'undercoat' and 'finish' in a paint system.
Primers. Their functions are to promote adhesion and protect from corrosion. Since
film thickness is a very important in protection, two coats are frequently specified -
sometimes three when the last two are applied by brush.
Occasionally specifiers refer to the second and third coat of primer as 'primer
undercoat'. Frequently this misleads the contractor because the branded products
freely available never feature this latter term in the product description. The specifier
is advised to label the system 'First coat', 'Second coat', etc., following with the
appropriate generic description.
Undercoats. On steel, traditional undercoats provide the right colour base for the
finish; they adhere to the primer and little else. The high performance undercoat is
more accurately described as an 'Intermediate coat'. It is a second barrier should the
steel be bared by damage or erosion. Often coats used for this function can stand in
their own right as finishes.
One important feature is to provide dry film thickness. A traditional undercoat gives
about 25m per coat; those used on steel in other than a being environment must give
a minimum of 50m, with heavier duty types producing 100m plus.
Finishes. They supply the required colour, gloss or sheen level and resist weathering,
abrasion, and chemical attack, as appropriate. More than one coat may be required
depending on product type, exposure, environment, colour, etc. Dry film thicknesses
per coat vary from 25m for a simple oil based product to 100m or more for two
pack epoxy coatings.
4.2 Metallic Coatings
a. Hot Dip Galvanising
The process deposits about 85m on the surface of the structural steel. Thicker films
can be obtained in some circumstances. Galvanising must not be confused with
Sheradising which achieves no more than 30m zinc thickness or electroplating which
deposits even less thickness.
b. Strip Mill Galvanising
Strip mill galvanising utilises sophisticated plant to clean, pickle and plate strip with
non-ferrous metals under carefully controlled conditions. The exterior surface of
proprietary branded products, e.g. building cladding is likely to be finished with a 20-
25m protective layer of zinc or zinc/aluminium (the latter varying from 5 to 55%).
This layer may be overcoated on the same production line with highly durable organic
finishes of varying dry film thicknesses.
4.3 Metal Spraying
The usual methods of applying zinc and aluminium are gas combustion and electric
arc. Very high standards of blasting and surface cleanliness are essential. Metal
spraying and sealing are carried out by specialist contractors. Inspection must be
undertaken by qualified metal spraying inspectors.
All grades of steel can be metal sprayed and there is no size limit. Work can be
undertaken at works or on site. Aluminium is rarely applied at thicknesses greater than
150m. In polluted or immersed conditions zinc is applied at 200-250m.
Sprayed aluminium should be sealed. Zinc spray must be sealed if it is to be painted
or during maintenance. Sealers are applied immediately after metal spraying and
should not increase the thickness of the metal coating. There are many sealers and it is
wise to ask the paint manufacturer for a specific recommendation for each job.
Both zinc and aluminium spray have good heat resistance, zinc up to 100C and
aluminium to 500C.
4.4 Metal Plus Paint Systems
Galvanising and paint. The selection of paints is more critical than for steel. Some
paints have been developed for direct application to galvanised steel but results are
variable. Acceptable pretreatments include etch primers, proprietary pretreatments
which provide a 'key' for the paint, certain water borne primers formulated specifically
for the purpose. The paint manufacturers advice should always be obtained.
Zinc or Aluminium Spray and Paint. Sealed spray can be overcoated without
difficulty using a wide range of coatings. Unsealed zinc in particular is extremely
difficult to paint; the formation of zinc corrosion salts ("white rust") can cause severe
blistering.
The use of a mixed system. Non-ferrous metal plus paint systems, can produce a
layer which will outlasts either component if used alone. However, if the environment
is aggressive to zinc or aluminium, their use is questionable as opposed to seeking to
protect them by overpainting, i.e. outside pH range of 5-12 for zinc or 4-9 for
aluminium.
4.5 Guidance on Corrosion Prevention
In order to assist the specifier of corrosion preventative coatings in selecting the
materials to use and the workmanship and inspection requirements needed, two
further standards are now in course of preparation.
The standard dealing with paint products has been allocated the number ISO12944 [6]
and that dealing with metallic products is as yet unnumbered [7].
These are scheduled to become available by about 1996/7.
5. MAINTENANCE OF STRUCTURES AND PLANT
All protective coatings require maintenance and there are a number of ways in which
the need becomes apparent.
In the extreme, the need for maintenance is shown when a mechanical or structural
failure occurs as a complete surprise because the building or plant has never been the
subject of regular inspections.
The need may also be manifest when visible coating failure or corrosion is noted by
accident, e.g. when casually passing through a building.
The preferred method of determining maintenance needs is by means of planned
inspections made at regular intervals. The comparison of the results of inspections
with reliable records of the first and subsequent inspections give the basis for defining
maintenance needs.
The aim of maintaining coatings is to preserve a structure or building so that it
performs its required functions throughout its designed life safely, efficiently and
economically. For this purpose a maintenance schedule for the structure or building is
used to manage properly planned inspections and to keep reliable records.
Consideration of maintenance should start when a new project is being planned. The
specifier should take into account the effects not only of the design upon maintenance
painting, but also the influence of the initial coating system.
Drying Oil Based Paints The paints are readily overcoated with similar products if
the surface is cleaned and if very hard, abraded. "Upgrading" to one or two-pack
chemical resistant paints without completely removing the oil-based paint is unlikely
to prove satisfactory.
One Pack Chemical Resistant Paints They can usually be safely overcoated with
similar materials once the surface is cleaned. An exception is a moisture curing
urethane system. Such systems may well require light blasting to obtain adhesion.
Two pack products can be applied over moisture cured urethanes, but is unusual to
use them over the more common one pack chemical resistant products, e.g. vinyl and
chlorinated rubber resin based paint. Drying oil based paints are rarely applied over
this particular class of paints and never in wet environments.
Two Pack Chemical Resistant Paints They are usually hard and are difficult to
maintain unless lightly blasted. They are maintained by the application of similar
products or, one pack chemical resistant materials, but never with drying oil based
paints.
Galvanised Steelwork It can only be safely over-coated when all soluble corrosion
products are removed. Once removal of these products is achieved, virtually any
paints from the families noted above can be used. Etch primers are available which
assist adhesion to the zinc surface.
Metal Sprayed Steelwork If metal sprayed steelwork has been exposed unsealed, it
is virtually unpaintable. Sealed coatings give few problems.
The choice of a maintenance paint process depends on the existing coating and its
condition, the standard of surface preparation possible, the working environment, time
available, safety requirements, access and, economic considerations.
The decision of whether maintenance is to be by patch painting or a complete recoat is
influenced as much by access as the state of the existing work. For example, if much
scaffolding is required it may be more economical to repaint overall.
If there is more than 5% rusting of the substrate painting overall will certainly be
economical. The "European scale of degree of rusting for anti-corrosive paints"
presents monochrome pictures of nine degrees of rusting from Re1 (0,05%) to Re9
(95%).
In summary, successful maintenance starts at the beginning overall new project with
the specifier projecting the consequences of his design and choice of initial paint
system into future maintenance - can it be done and, with what? It continues with a
strict, regular inspection routine, the results of which are accurately recorded and
become part of a detailed maintenance schedule. It ends with maintenance painting
specifications tailored to the job in hand and with the provision of adequate inspection
to ensure the specification is followed.
6. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
- When choosing a protective system, the maintenance cycle is an important
consideration.
- The 'design' of the steel members and the way in which they are jointed affects
the maintenance cycle.
- Poorly prepared steel surfaces prevent the protective treatment subsequently
applied from achieving its design life.
- Corrosion prevention treatments can be either organic (paint), metallic (zinc,
etc.), duplex (metallic and organic) or cathodic.
- Alternatively, in order to limit or prevent corrosion, the steel itself can be of a
weathering or stainless grade.
- Regular inspection of the structure and proper routine maintenance prevents
major remedial work being necessary to the corrosion prevention treatment.
7. REFERENCES
ISO 8500 series Preparation of steel substrate before application of paints and related
products.
[1] ISO 8501 Visual assessment of surface cleanliness
Part 1 Rust grades and preparation grades of uncoated steel substrates and of steel
substrates after overall removal of previous coatings.
Part 2
*
Preparation grades of previously coated steel substrates after localized removal
of previous coatings.
[2] SIS 05 5900: 1988, Preparation of steel substrate before application of paints and
related products - Visual assessment of surface cleanliness.
[3] ISO 8502 Tests for the assessment of surface cleanliness.
Part 1 Field tests for soluble iron corrosion products.
Part 2 Laboratory determination of chloride clean surfaces.
Part 3 Assessment of dust on steel surfaces prepared for painting (pressure sensitive
tape method).
Part 4
*
Guidance on the estimation of the probability of condensation prior to paint
application.
[4] ISO 8503 Surface roughness characteristics of blast-cleaned substrate.
Part 1 Specifications and definitions of ISO surface profile comparators for the
assessment of abrasive blast-cleaned surface.
Part 2 Methods of the grading of surface profile of abrasive blast-cleaned steel.
Comparator procedures.
Part 3 Method for the calibration of ISO surface profile comparators and for the
determination of surface profile - focusing microscope procedure.
Part 4 Method for the calibration of ISO surface profile comparators and for the
determination of surface profile - Styles instrument procedures.
[5] ISO 8504 Surface preparation methods.
Part 1 General principles.
Part 2 Abrasion blast-cleaning.
Part 3 Hand and power tool cleaning.
[6] ISO 12944
*
Protective paint systems for steel structures
Part 1 General Introduction.
Part 2 Classification of Environments.
Part 3 Types of Surface and Surface Preparation.
Part 4 Classification and Definitions of Paint Systems and Related Products.
Part 5 Performance Testing.
Part 6 Workmanship.
Part 7 Design.
Part 8 Guidance for Developing Specification for New Work and Maintenance.
[7] Metal coatings for the corrosion protection of iron and steel in structures.
* In course of preparation
8. ADDITIONAL READING
1.

Uhlig, H. H., "Corrosion and Corrosion Control", 3rd ed, 1985, John Wiley & Sons.
2.

Durability of Steel Structures: Protection of Steel Structures and Buildings from Atmospheric Corrosion, ECSC Report
620.197, 1983.
3.

"Controlling Corrosion", series of booklets published by the Department of Industry - Committee on Corrosion.
4.

Steelwork Corrosion Protection Guide - Interior Environments (3rd Ed), 1989 (published jointly by BCSA, BS, Paint
Research Association (PRA) and Zinc Development Association (ZDA)).
5.

Steelwork Corrosion Protection Guide - Perimeter Walls (2nd Ed), 1989 (Published jointly by BCSA and BS).
6.

Steelwork Corrosion Protection Guide - Exterior Environments (2nd Ed), 1989 (published jointly by BCSA, BS, PMA
(Paint Makers' Association) and ZDA).
7.

BS 5493 Code of practice for protective coating of iron and steel structured against corrosion.
8.

DIN 55928: Part 5 Corrosion protection of steel structures by organic and metallic coatings Part 5 Coating materials
and protective systems.
9.

Norsk Standard NS 5415 Anti-corrosive paint systems for steel structures.
10.

ECCS No. 48 Protection against corrosion inside buildings
11.

ECCS No. 50 Protection of steel structures against corrosion by coatings.
12.

BS 729 Specification for hot dip galvanised coatings on iron and steel articles, 1971(1986).
13.

BS 2569 Specification for sprayed metal coatings Part 1 and 2.
14.

BS 2989: 1992 Specification for continuously hot-dip zinc coated and iron-zinc alloy coated steel: Haz product -
tolerances on dimensions and shape.
15.

BS 3083: 1988 Specification for hot-dip zinc coated and hot-dip aluminium/zinc coated corrugated steel sheets for
general purposes.
Table 1 Classification of Environments
INTERIOR ENVIRONMENTS
Environment
category
Environment Corrosion risk Examples
A Normal
(RH below 60%)
Negligible Offices
Shops
Industrial Production/Assembly
Warehousing
Hospital Wards
Schools
Hotels
B Occasional
Condensation
Low Unheated Buildings
Vehicle Depots
Sports Halls
C Frequent
Condensation
Significant Food Processing Plants/Kitchens
Laundries
Breweries
Dairies
Not covered -
seek expert
assistant
Chemical Processing Plant
Dye Works
Swimming Pools
Paper Manufacture
Boat Yards over Seawater
Foundries/Smelter
EXTERIOR ENVIRONMENTS
D Normal inland Low Industrial plant and supporting
steelwork Bus/train terminals
E Polluted inland Significant Tank farms, cranes, docks, power
stations
F Normal coastal High Docks, cranes, container installations,
power stations refineries
G Polluted coastal Very high Tank farms, industrial plants
supporting steelwork
Not covered -
seek expert
assistance
Aggressive industrial environments such as steelwork adjacent to acid plants,
salt storage depots, electroplating shops, chemical works etc. Buried or
immersed steelwork Seawater splash zones.

Table 2 Typical Protective Systems
Introduction
Whilst there are numerous protective systems available, only twelve have been selected for this lecture.
These are eight basic paint systems (P1 to P8) on which there can be variations of paint types (see Appendix 2); one galvanizing
system (G1); and two metal spray systems (AS1 and 2).
Whilst the systems remain unaltered between environments, the notes vary to cover the changes that are necessary.
Table 2 Environments A & B: Typical Protective Systems
Interior dry and interior with
occasional condensation
Dry film
thickness
Cost
comp
Likely time to first
maintenance in years
Comments upon initial
systems
Repaint -
likely system
Comments
upon repaint
system
(a) (b)
prevent
steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene
etc
P1

Off site:
Blast to Sa 2, ISO 8501-1
Medium Profile ISO 8503 Part 1

Coat 1 Blast Primer Type 1, 11 or
111
Coat 2 or Oil Based Anticorrosive
Primer

On site:
Rectify transit/erection damage with
Coat 2 Primer

Coat 3 Oil Based Undercoat
Coat 4 Oil Based Finish

Total DFT
Total DFT using micaceous Iron
oxide pigmented undercoat

Total DFT using Micaceous Iron
oxide pigmented undercoat and
finish

15
(1)

50

(50)

25
35

110
130

150

20+
20+

20+

7
7-12

7-12

1. Ignore this DFT in
calculating total
thickness required for
protection.
2. Accurate costing
possible.
3. Controlled
environment for
preparation/priming.

4. Pre or post
fabrication priming
possible. If post
fabrication, omit coat
1.
5. Total system can be
applied on site see (4)
above. Cost is likely
to increase. Quality
control is more
difficult.

6. The use of
micaceous iron oxide
pigmented undercoat
and finish give better
edge protection.
7. Coats 3 & 4 can
also be replaced with
one coat of a high
build finish.

Prepare and
spot prime -
oil based
anticorrosive
Primer plus
one or two
coats oil based
finish.

Spot priming
should be less
than 1% Top-
coats only
refurbished
overall so
maintenance
relatively
straight-
forward.

Interior dry and interior with
occasional condensation
Dry film
thickness
Cost
comp
systems
Repaint - likely system Comments upon
repaint system
(a) (b)
prevent
steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene
etc
P2 On
site:
Manual/Mechanical
preparation to St 2, ISO 8501-1
Coat 1 Oil Based Anticorrosive
Primer
Total DFT

Total DFT using micaceous
iron oxide pigmented undercoat

Total DFT using micaceous
iron oxide pigmented undercoat
and finish

50
25
35
110

130

150

20+

20+

20+

5
(1)

5+
(1)

5-7
(1)

1. light millscale,
rust in pits will not
be removed. This
may cause paint
detachment before
the top coats need
refurbishing.

2. Coats 2 & 3 can
be replaced with 1
coat of a high
build finish.

3. The use of
micaceous iron
oxide pigmented
undercoat and
finish will give
better edge
protection.

Prepare spot prime oil
based Anticorrosive
Primer bring forward
with oil based under
coat apply 1 or 2 coats
of finish overall.

OR

1 coat high build
finish.

May require up to 25%
priming & bringing
forward failure due to
millscale detachment
unpredictable.

Planned maintenance
budgeting difficult.
P3
1. This process is

Refurbish with original

Establish consequence
On site:
Manual/Mechanical
preparation to St 2, ISO 8501-1
Coat 1 Non oxidising 'grease'
paint or propriety
'anticorrosive' compound

Coat 2 As coat 1
Total DFT

100+

100+
200+

20+

20+

not

app
for hollow encased
steelwork. It is not
decorative.

2. Check risks in
the event of fire.

3. Some
manufacturer's
may recommend a
'penetrating'
primer.
material or similar. of increasing the total
film thickness in the
event of fire.

Interior dry and interior
with occasional
condensation
Dry film
thickness m
Cost
comp
systems
Repaint - likely system Comments upon repaint
system
(a) (b)
prevent steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene
etc
G1
On site:
Galvanize - pr EN 1029

85

20

not
applicable

Size limitations.
Not decorative.
Not readily cleaned in
service. *Life using
galvanized fasteners.

Oil based anticorrosive
primer calcium
plumate pigmented
(lead) containing - T -
Wash or 2-pack etch
primer similar to Type
1 Blast primer 1 coat
oil based undercoat 1

Corrosion products must be
washed prior to painting lead
- containing primers impose
limitations. T Wash must be
rinsed off thoroughly.
coat oil based finish.
AS1/ZS1

Off site:
Zinc or aluminum spray
to BS 2569 - sealed
Aluminium, Unsealed
zinc

100 100

20+ 20+

not
applicable

No size limitations.
Not decorative, retains
dirt, oil etc., readily.
Not readily cleaned in
service. * assumes
fasteners treated to same
standard.

Non lead containing
oil based anticorrosive
primer
1 coat oil based
undercoat
1 coat oil based finish.

Corrosion products must be
removed before priming.

Table 2 Environment C: Typical Protective Systems
Interior frequent condensation Dry film
thickness m
Cost
comp
Comments upon
initial systems
Repaint -
likely
system
Comments
upon repaint
system
(a) (b)
prevent
steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene etc
P4
Off site:

Coat 1 Blast Primer Type 11 or 111

1. Ignore this
DFT in
calculating
total
thickness
required for
protection.

Prepare,
prime
with
One-pack
Chemical
Resistant
Primer,
bring

These
products dry
by solvent
evaporation
alone when
unmodified
with oil.
Adhesion of
Coat 2 One-pack Chemical Resistant Primer

On site:
Rectify transit/erection damage with One-pack Chemical Resistant Primer.

Coat 3 One-pack Chemical Resistant Undercoat
Coat 4 One-pack Chemical Resistant Finish

Coat 4 Replacing with fill gloss One-pack Chemical Resistant Finish gives 25 |o |ivo _oot:
Toto AuT |c_oco

OP

AooXoot 5 |u ooo Ovcto_k Xqci_o Pcoiotovt uivioq i=iv oooitiovo 25 :
Toto AuT |c_oco
15
75

(75)
75
75
225

175

250

15+

10+

15+

12

10

12
2. Zinc
containing
(type III)
primer
normally not
used where
direct
chemical
attack
predicted.
Consult
manufacturer.
3. May be
MIO
pigmented.

4. Small
sections
vulnerable to
'blocking' if
bundled
together at
this
thickness:
consult
manufacturer.
5. Total
system can
be applied on
site see (4)
above. Cost
is likely to
increase and
quality
control is
more
difficult.
6. Maximum
resistance to
direct
forward
with one
coat of
Coat 3
type
undercoat
and apply
Coat 4
type
finish
overall
maintenance
systems
usually
good
therefore.
chemical
attack on
paint film
and for
aesthetic
reasons.
7. Maximum
durability and
chemical
resistance.

Table 2 Environment C: Typical Protective Systems
Interior frequent condensation Dry film
thickness m
Cost
comp
systems
Repaint -
likely
system
Comments
upon repaint
system
(a) (b)
prevent
steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene
etc
P5
Off site:
Coat 1 Blast Primer Type 1, 11 or 111
Coat 2 Two-pack Chemical Resistant
Primer

On site:

15
75

calculating total
protection.

2. Zinc containing
(Type III) primer
normally not used
where direct chemical
attack predicted.

Prepare
and apply
one or two
coats of
coat 3, two
pack
chemical
resistant
finish.

Preparation
may include
light
blasting.
Remember
temperature
humidity
and intervals
between
coats are
critical.
Rectify transit/erection damage with Coat
2 type Primer.
Coat
3 Two-pack Chemical Resistant Finish
Coat 4 Two-pack Chemical Resistant
Finish
Total DFT

(75)

75
75
223

15+

10+
Consult manufacturer.
3. Coat 1 may be
omitted if blasting is
post fabrication.
4. Epoxy or urethane
pitch or tar can be
used for water
resistance.
5. Consult
manufacturer for min
temperature & max
humidity requirements
during application and
curing.
6. Intervals between
coats are critical,
consult manufacturer.
Ensure relevant
information is written
into specification.
OR

1 coat one-
pack
chemical
resistant
undercoat
1 coat one-
pack
chemical
resistant
finish.

Refurbishing
with one-
pack
chemical
resistant
undercoat
and finish
can be
considered.
Note: System P1, page 1 using MIO pigmented undercoat and finish can be considered at dft's of 130-150 m. It will not resist direct
chemical attack or immersion. Likely time to first maintenance - 5 years (columns 'a' and 'b').
Consider also Galvanising - See system G1 (85 m dft). See page 22
Consider also Metal Spraying - See system AS1/ZS.1 (100 m dft). See page 22

Table 2 Environment D: Typical Protective Systems
Normal Inland Dry film
thickness m
Cost
comp
systems
Repaint -
likely system
Comments
upon repaint
system
(a) (b)
prevent
steel
maintain
appearance
corrosion hygiene
etc
P1

Off site:

111
Coat 2 or Oil Based Anticorrosive
Primer

Onsite:
Rectify transit/erection damage with
Coat 2 Primer


Total DFT
Total DFT using micaceous Iron
Total DFT using Micaceous Iron
finish

15
50

(50)

25
35

110
130

150

7+
10+

10+

5+
7-12

7-12

calculating total
protection.
2. Accurate costing
possible.

3. Controlled
environment for

4. Pre or post
fabrication priming
possible. If post
fabrication, omit coat
1.
5. Total system can
be applied on site see
(4) above. Cost is
likely to increase.
Quality control is
more difficult.

6. The use of
pigmented undercoat
and finish give better

Prepare and
spot prime -
oil based
anticorrosive
Primer plus
one or two
coats oil
based finish.

Spot priming
should be less
than 1% Top-
coats only
refurbished
overall so
maintenance
relatively
straight-
forward.

edge protection.

7. Coats 3 & 4 can
also be replaced with
one coat of a high
build finish.

thickness m
Cost
comp
systems
Repaint - likely system Comments upon repaint
system
(a) (b)
prevent
steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene etc
P2
On site:
Manual/Mechanical
preparation to St 2, ISO
8501-1
Coat 1 Oil Based
Anticorrosive Primer
Coat 2 Oil Based
Undercoat
Total DFT

Total DFT using

50
25
35
110

135

150

6-
10

6-10

3-
5

3-5

1. light millscale
rust in pits will not
be removed. This
may cause paint
detachment before
the top coats need
refurbishing.

2. The use of
micaceous iron
oxide pigmented
undercoat and finish
will give better edge
protection.

Prepare, spot prime with
coat 1 type primer, bring
forward with coat 2 type
undercoat, finish overall
with one coat type 2
undercoat and one coat
type 3 finish OR 2 coats
type 3 finish.
OR 1 coat high build
finish.

May require up to 25%
priming & bringing
forward failure due to
millscale detachment
unpredictable.

Planned maintenance
budgeting difficult.
pigmented undercoat

Total DFT using
pigmented undercoat and
finish

8-12

5-7

thickness m
Cost
comp
Comments upon initial systems Repaint -
likely system
Comments
upon repaint
system
(a) (b)
prevent
steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene
etc
P4
Off site:
Medium Profile ISO 8503 Part
1
Coat 1 Blast Primer Type 1, 11
or 111
Coat 2 Two-pack Chemical
Resistant Primer

On site:

15
75

(75)

calculating total thickness
required for protection.

2. Zinc containing (Type
III) primer normally not
used where direct
chemical attack predicted.
3. May be MIO
pigmented.

Prepare,
prime with
One-pack
Chemical
Resistant
Primer, bring
forward with
one coat of
Coat 3 type
undercoat and
apply Coat 4
type finish
overall.

These products
dry by solvent
evaporation
alone when
unmodified
with oil.
Adhesion of
maintenance
systems usually
good therefore.
Rectify transit/erection damage
with One-pack Chemical
Resistant Primer.
Coat 3 One-pack Chemical
Resistant Undercoat
Resistant Finish

Coat 4 Replacing with full gloss
One-pack Chemical Resistant
Finish gives 25 m for final
coat: Total DFT becomes

OR

Add Coat 5 - full gloss One-
pack Chemical Resistant Finish
giving additional 25 m:
Total DFT becomes
75
75
225

175

250

15+

10+

15+

7-
10

7+

7-10

4. Small sections
vulnerable to 'blocking' if
bundled together at this
thickness: consult
manufacturer.
applied on site. Cost is
likely to increase and
quality control be more
difficult.
6. Maximum resistance to
direct chemical attack on
paint film and for
aesthetic reasons.
7. Maximum durability
and chemical resistance.
Consider also Galvanising - See system G1 (85 m dft). See page 22
Consider also Metal Spraying - See system AS1/ZS.1 (100 m dft). See page 22

Table 2 Environment E: Typical Protective Systems
Normal Coastal Dry film
thickness m
Cost
comp
likely system
Comments
upon repaint
system
(a) (b)
prevent maintain
steel
corrosion
appearance
hygiene etc
P4
Off site:
Medium Profile ISO 8503 Part
1
Coat 1 Blast Primer Type 11 or
111
Resistant Primer

On site:
with One-pack Chemical
Resistant Primer.
Resistant Undercoat
Resistant Finish

Coat 4 Replacing with full gloss
One-pack Chemical Resistant
Finish gives 25 m for final
coat: Total DFT becomes

OR

15
75

(75)
75
75
225

175

250

15+

10+

15+

12

10

12


used where direct
chemical attack predicted.
3. May be MIO
pigmented.

4. Small sections
vulnerable to 'blocking' if
bundled together at this
thickness: consult
manufacturer.
difficult.
6. Maximum resistance to
direct chemical attack on
paint film and for
aesthetic reasons.

Prepare,
prime with
One-pack
Chemical
Resistant
Primer, bring
forward with
one coat of
Coat 3 type
undercoat and
apply Coat 4
type finish
overall.

These products
dry by solvent
evaporation
alone when
unmodified
with oil.
Adhesion of
maintenance
systems usually
good therefore.
Add Coat 5 - full gloss One-
giving additional 25 m:
Total DFT becomes

Polluted Inland Dry film
thickness m
Cost
comp
Comments upon initial systems Repaint - likely
system
Comments
upon repaint
system
(a) (b)
prevent
steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene
etc
P6

Off site:

Resistant Primer
Resistant Undercoat

15
75
125

2. This coat can be omitted if
post fabrication blasting is
carried out.
3. Zinc containing (Type III)
primer normally not used
where direct chemical attack
predicted. Consult
manufacturer.
4. Consult manufacturer for
min temperature and max
humidity requirements during

Prepare and
apply one to
two coats of
coat 4 type
Two-pack
Chemical
Resistant
Finish.

OR

one-pack
moisture

Preparation
may include
light blasting.
Remember,
temperature
and humidity
and intervals
between coats
are critical.
Refurbishing
with a One-
pack Chemical
Resistant
Finish can be
considered i.e.
chlorinated
rubber, vinyl or
Onsite:
with Coat 2 Primer, bring forward
primed areas with coat 3 type
undercoat.
Coat 4 to-pack Chemical Resistant
Finish
Total DFT

OR

substitute Coat 4 One-pack
Chemical Resistant Finish

Alternative process Total DFT
(75)
(125)
75
275

75

275

20

20

7-12

7-12
application and 'curling'.

5. Interval between coats is
critical consult manufacturer.
Ensure relevant information is
written into specification.

6. This is a useful alternative
to a 2-pack paint as the final
coat under cold conditions or
where there are likely to be
delays on site (includes 1-
pack moisture-curling
polyurethanes)
7. Glossy 1 or 2 pack
Chemical Resistant Finishes
will give lower DFT's (circa
25 m).
curing
polyurethanes

OR

Prepare and
apply one or
two coats One-
pack Chemical
Resistant
Finish.
acrylic resin
based. Also 1-
pack moisture-
curing
urethane.

Polluted Inland Dry film
thickness m
Cost
comp
likely system
Comments
upon repaint
system
(a) (b)
prevent
steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene etc
P7
Off site:


Prepare,

These products
111
Resistant Primer

On site:
with 2 coats One-pack Chemical
Resistant Primer.
Resistant Undercoat
Resistant Finish
Resistant Finish
Total DFT

Replacing with full gloss One-
gives 25 m for final coat:
Total DFT becomes

15
100

(50) (50)
75
75
75
325

255
(6)

15+

10+
15+

12

10
12
calculating total
protection.

used where direct
chemical attack
predicted. Consult
manufacturer.
3. May be MIO
pigmented.

4. Small sections
vulnerable to 'blocking'
if bundled together at
this thickness: consult
manufacturer.
difficult.
6. Maximum resistance
to direct chemical attack
on paint film and for
aesthetic reasons.
prime with
One-pack
Chemical
Resistant
Primer, bring
forward with
one coat of
Coat 3 type
undercoat and
apply Coat 4
type finish
overall (1 or 2
coats).
dry by solvent
evaporation
alone when
unmodified
with oil.
Adhesion of
maintenance
systems usually
good therefore.
G1
Offsite:
Galvanise - pr EN 1029

85

10+

Not
applicable

See notes under G1 page 22
3 Coat one or
two pack
chemical
resistant paint
systems 150-
300 m dft
See notes under
G1 page 22
AS2/ZS2
Off-site zinc or aluminium spray
to BS 5269 - sealed

150
zinc 15+
Aluminium
20
Not
applicable
See notes under AS1/ZS1 page
22
As noted in
G1 above
See notes under
AS1/ZS1 page
22

Table 2 Environment F: Typical Protective Systems
thickness m
Cost
comp
likely system
Comments
upon repaint
system
(a) (b)
prevent
steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene
etc
P1

Off site:
111
Coat 2 Oil Based Anticorrosive
Primer

Onsite:
with Coat 2 type Primer.

15
50

(50)

2. Accruable costing
possible.

3. Controlled environment for

4. Coat 1 may be omitted if
blasting is post fabrication.

Prepare, spot
prime with
coat 2 type
primer. Bring
forward with
coat 3 type
undercoat.
Finish overall
with coat 4
type finish.

Spot priming
should be less
than 1%.
Bringing
forward
primed areas
with undercoat
retains original
thickness.

Total DFT
Total DFT using a micaceous iron
Total DFT using micaceous iron
finish
25
35
110
130

150

8+

8+

8-12

3+

3-5

5+
applied on site. Cost is likely
to increase. Quality control is
more difficult.

6. The use of micaceous iron
and finish will give better
edge protection.

Table 2 Environment F: Typical Protective Systems
thickness m
Cost
comp
likely system
Comments
upon repaint
system
(a) (b)
prevent
steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene etc
P5
Off site:
111
Resistant Primer

15
75

calculating total
protection.

used where direct
chemical attack

Prepare and
apply one to
two coats of
coat 3, Two-
pack
chemical
resistant
finish.

Preparation
may include
light blasting.
Remember
temperature,
humidity and
intervals
between coats
are critical.
Refurbishing
with One-pack

On site:
with coat 2 type Primer.

Resistant Finish
Resistant Finish

Total DFT

(75)

75
75

225

15+

10+
predicted. Consult
manufacturer.
3. Coat 1 may be
omitted if blasting is
post fabrication.
4. Epoxy or urethane
pitch or tar can be used
for water resistance.
5. Consult manufacturer
for min temperature &
max humidity
requirements during
application and curling.

6. Intervals between
coats are critical, consult
manufacture. Ensure
relevant information is
written into
specification.
OR

1 coat One-
pack
chemical
resistant
undercoat
1 coat One-
pack
chemical
resistant
finish.
chemical
resistant
undercoat and
finish can be
considered.
G1
Offsite:

85

20

Not
applicable

See notes under G1
3 Coat one or
two pack
chemical
resistant paint
systems 150-
300 m dft
See notes
under G1
AS2/ZS1
to BS 5269 - sealed

150
20 Not
applicable
See notes under AS1/ZS1 As noted in
G1 above
See notes
under AS1/ZS1

Table 2 Environment G: Typical Protective Systems
Polluted Coastal Dry film
thickness m
Cost
comp
Comments upon initial systems Repaint - likely
system
Comments
upon repaint
system
(a) (b)
prevent
steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene
etc
P6

Off site:
Blast to Sa 2, EN 8501-1

Resistant Primer
Resistant Undercoat

Onsite:
with Coat 2 Primer, bring forward
primed areas with coat 3 type
undercoat.
Coat 4 two-pack Chemical
Resistant Finish
Total DFT

15
75
125

(75)
(125)
75
275

10+

10

2. This coat can be omitted if
post fabrication blasting is
carried out.
3. Zinc containing (Type III)
primer normally not used
where direct chemical attack
predicted. Consult
manufacturer.
4. Consult manufacturer for
min temperature and max
humidity requirements during
application and 'curling'.

5. Interval between coats is
critical consult manufacturer.
Ensure relevant information is
written into specification.

6. This is a useful alternative
to a 2-pack paint as the final

Prepare and
apply one to
two coats of
coat 4 type
Two-pack
Chemical
Resistant
Finish.

OR

one-pack
moisture
curing
polyurethanes

OR

Prepare and
apply one or
two coats One-
pack Chemical

Preparation
may include
light blasting.
Remember,
temperature
and humidity
and intervals
between coats
are critical.
Refurbishing
with a One-
pack Chemical
Resistant
Finish can be
considered i.e.
chlorinated
rubber, vinyl or
acrylic resin
based. Also 1-
pack moisture-
curing
urethane.
OR

substitute Coat 4 One-pack
Chemical Resistant Finish

Alternative process Total DFT

75

275

10+

7-12
coat under cold conditions or
where there are likely to be
delays on site (includes 1-
pack moisture-curling
polyurethanes)
7. Glossy 1 or 2 pack
Chemical Resistant Finishes
will give lower DFT's (circa
25 m).
Resistant
Finish.

Table 2 Environment G: Typical Protective Systems
Polluted Coastal Dry film
thickness m
Cost
comp
likely system
Comments
upon repaint
system
(a) (b)
prevent steel
corrosion
maintain
appearance
hygiene etc
P8
Off site:
Blast to Medium Profile
ISO 8503 Part 1
111
Resistant Primer

On site:
with 2 coats One-pack Chemical

15
100

(50)
(50)

calculating total
protection.

used where direct
chemical attack
predicted. Consult
manufacturer.
3. May be MIO

Prepare,
prime with
One-pack
Chemical
Resistant
Primer, bring
forward with
one coat of
Coat 3 type
undercoat and
apply Coat 4
type finish
overall (1 or
2 coats).

These products
dry by solvent
evaporation
alone when
unmodified
with oil.
Adhesion of
maintenance
systems
usually good
therefore.
Resistant Primer.
Resistant Undercoat
Resistant Finish
Resistant Finish
Total DFT

Replacing with full gloss One-
gives 25 m for final coat:
Total DFT becomes
75
75
75
325

275
(6)

15+

10+

12

10
pigmented.

4. Small sections
vulnerable to 'blocking'
if bundled together at
this thickness: consult
manufacturer.
difficult.
6. Maximum resistance
to direct chemical attack
on paint film and for
aesthetic reasons.
G1
Offsite:

140

10+

Not
applicable

See notes under G1
3 Coat one or
two pack
chemical
resistant paint
systems 150-
300 m dft
See notes
under G1
AS2/ZS2
to BS 5269 - sealed

150
15+ Not
applicable
See notes under AS1/ZS1 As noted in
G1 above
See notes
under AS1/ZS1

Table 3 Methods of blast-cleaning (ISO 8504-1 and 2)
Methods Advantages Disadvantages
Dry methods using compressed air or centrifugal force
Automatic plants based on High production rates, lowest High capital cost, high
centrifugal throwing of the
abrasive
costs, no moisture problems.
Can be coupled to automatic
application of primer, dust
problems contained.
maintenance cost, lack of
flexibility, ie. not suitable for
recessed areas etc.
Open blasting based on
propelling the abrasive with
compressed air.
Simple to operate, very
flexible and mobile in use
both indoor cabinets or special
rooms or on site. Low capital
and maintenance costs.
High cost of compressed air,
low efficiency, liable to
moisture entrainment from the
compressed air, manually
operated and a variable profile
can result, operator requires
protective clothing, serious
dust problems.
Vacuum blasting based on
propelling the abrasive with
compressed air and
immediately recycling by
suction from the blast-cleaned
surface.
No dust problems, no special
protective clothing for
operators, fairly low capital
costs.
Can be very slow and
therefore expensive,
particularly on awkward
profiles and girder sections.
Where flat-plate or gun-head
automation is possible it may
be considered, but liable to
moisture entrainment from the
compressed air.
Table 3 Methods of blast-cleaning - Cont'd.
Methods Advantages Disadvantages
Wet methods (hydroblasting)
projecting water at very high
pressure.
flexible and mobile in use,
suitable for removing soluble
containments. At very high
pressure can remove mill-
scale, no dry dust hazards.
Slow if firmly held
containments are to be
removed, dangerous at very
high pressure if proper
precautions are not taken,
limitation of drying surface
before painting unless
approved water-based or
moisture tolerant primers are
used, requires availability of
water and drainage, operators
require protective clothing.
projecting water at high
pressure and entraining
flexible and mobile in use,
suitable for removing all
Dangerous at very high
pressure if proper precautions
are not taken, limitation of
abrasive into the water
stream.
firmly held contaminants as
well as soluble contaminants.
drying surface before painting
unless approved water-based
or moisture tolerant primers
are based, required
availability of water and
drainage, operators require
protective clothing.
injecting low pressure water
into a compressed air stream
which is carrying an abrasive.
As above. High cost of compressed air,
limitation of drying surface
before painting unless
approved water-based or
moisture tolerant primers are
used, dust hazard reduced,
operators require protective
clothing.
Open blasting using steam-
cleaning.
As above. Similar to the above
according to whether abrasive
is or is not entrained.

Table 4 Classification of abrasives used for cleaning steel
Abrasive Hardness Normal usage Advantages Disadvantages
Chilled iron-grit
ISO 11124-2
60 to 80 RC Captive blasting
and open blasting
with recovery
systems
Relatively cheap,
cleans very
quickly, will chip
under repeated
impact with work
surface,
presenting fresh
cutting edges
Breaks down
fairly quickly. In
centrifugal wheel
plants, special
protection is
required to
reduce wear on
moving parts
Chilled iron-shot 60 to 80 RC Captive blasting
only
Relatively cheap,
very hard, should
break down to
grit in use
As chilled iron-
grit. Because of
ricochet effect is
not suitable for
open blasting or
in open cabinets
High duty chilled
iron-grit or iron-
shot
and open blasting
with recovery
Breaks down less
quickly than
chilled iron
More expensive
than chilled iron,
rendered
spherical in use,
poorer and slower
rate of cleaning
than chilled iron
Heat-treated
chilled iron-grit
or iron-shot
30 to 40 RC As high-duty As high-duty As high-duty
Steel grit 60 to 67 RC
47 to 53 RC
Captive blasting
mainly
Does not bread
down so quickly
as chilled iron,
causes less wear
in centrifugal
wheel plant
More expensive
than chilled iron,
rendered
spherical in use
and is less
efficient, supplied
in various
hardnesses but at
best is not so hard
as chilled iron-
grit and therefore
cleans more
slowly
Steel shot 41 to 49 RC Captive blasting
only
As for steel grit As for steel grit,
produces a more
rounded surface
profile than grit,
ricochet effect
makes it
unsuitable for
open blasting
Cut steel wire
ISO 11124-5
only
As for steel shot
and grit, wears
down as fairly
even sizes
High cost,
rendered
spherical in use
and slower
cleaning than
chilled iron

Table 4 Classification of abrasives used for cleaning steel - Cont'd.
Abrasive Hardness Normal usage Advantages Disadvantages
Aluminium oxide
(corundum)
Not common in
the United
Kingdom
Extremely hard Expensive,
hardness of dust
is a danger to
ISO 11126-7 machinery unless
used in sealed
captive plant
Copper slag
ISO 11126-3
Open blasting
only
Cheap, no
silicosis hazards
Initial particles
rather coarse,
breaks down to
dust very quickly,
angular particles
tend to embed in
workplace
Iron slag ISO
11126-6
Open blasting
only
As for copper
slag
As for copper
slag
Sand
(Olivine) ISO
11126-8
Open blasting Cheap In United
Kingdom,
Factory
Inspector's
approval is
required, danger
of silicosis
See Table 4
International Standards for Metallic and Non-Metallic Blast-Cleaning Abrasives
A.1 Requirements and test methods for metallic blast-cleaning abrasives are contained in ISO 11124 and ISO 11125.
ISO 11124 consists, at present, of the following parts, under the general title:
Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products -Specifications for metallic blast-cleaning
abrasives:
- Part 1: Introduction
- Part 2: Chilled-iron grit
- Part 3: High-carbon cast-steel shot and grit
- Part 4: Low-carbon cast-steel shot
- Part 5: Cut steel wire
Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products -Test methods for metallic blast-cleaning
abrasives:
- Part 1: Sampling
- Part 2: Determination of particle size distribution
- Part 3: Determination of hardness
- Part 4: Determination of apparent density
- Part 5: Determination of percentage defective particles and of microstructure
- Part 6: Determination of foreign matter
- Part 7: Determination of moisture
A.2 Requirements and test methods for metallic blast-cleaning abrasives are contained in ISO 11126 and ISO 11127.
Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products -Specifications for metallic blast-cleaning
abrasives:
- Part 1: Introduction
- Part 2: Silica sand
- Part 3: Copper refinery slag
- Part 4: Coal furnace slag
- Part 5: Nickel refinery slag
- Part 6: Iron furnace slag
- Part 7: Fused aluminium oxide
- Part 8: Olivine sand
Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products -Test methods for metallic blast-cleaning
abrasives:
- Part 1: Sampling
- Part 2: Determination of particle size distribution
- Part 3: Determination of apparent density
- Part 4: Assessment of hardness by a glass slide test
- Part 5: Determination of moisture content
- Part 6: Determination of water-soluble contaminants by conductivity measurement
- Part 7: Determination of water-soluble chlorides
APPENDIX 1 FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF COATING SYSTEMS
QUESTIONS RELATED TO DESIGN, USE AND SITE REQUIREMENTS
Function
a. What is the main function of the structure?
b. What are the secondary functions of the structure?
Life
a. For how long is it required to fulfil this function?
b. What is the life to first maintenance? (It may not be possible to decide this until further questions have been answered).
Environment
a. What is the general (atmospheric) environment at the site of the structure?
b. What localised effects exist or are to be expected, e.g. fumes from stacks?
c. What other factors may affect the structure, e.g. surface temperature and abrasion?
Appearance
a. What is the structure required to look like (colour and finish)?
b. Is the final coat to be applied on site?
Special Properties
a. What special properties are required of the coating, e.g. coefficient of friction?
Maintenance
a. What access is there going to be for effective maintenance?
b. What is the possibility of effective maintenance?
Health and Safety
a. Are any problems to be taken into account during initial treatment?
b. Are any problems to be taken into account during maintenance treatment?
Tolerance
Does the coating need to be tolerant of:
a. indifferent surface preparation
b. indifferent application techniques
c. departures from specification?
QUESTIONS RELATING TO COATING SYSTEMS
Coating systems
a. What coating systems are suitable?
b. Are these systems readily available?
c. Are the system elements mutually compatible?
d. If paints, can the coats be applied by:
-

brush
-

roller
-

airless spray
-

other?
e. Can the system, or parts, be applied on site?
Coating facilities
a. Are the coating facilities readily available:
i.

for factory application
ii.

for site application?
b. Do they cover all sizes and shapes of fabrication?
c. Do they permit speedy application?
d. Do the facilities permit work to adequate standards?
Compatibility with engineering and metallurgical features
a. Is the design and jointing of the structure compatible with the preferred coating technique?
b. Does surface preparation (blasting, pickling) or application of coating affect the mechanical properties of the steel in any way
that matters?
c. Is the system compatible with cathodic protection?
Delays
What delays should be allowed between:
a. fabrication and first protective coating;
b. application of primer and undercoat;
c. application of undercoat and finishing coat;
d. final shop coat and erection;
e. erection and final treatment?
Transport, storage and handling
How well does the coating withstand:
a. excessive or careless handling;
b. abrasion and impact;
c. early stacking;
d. exposure to seawater during transit?
Experience
a. What is known of the consistent performance of the coating?
Export
a. What special precautions should be taken when the steelwork is exported?
Maintenance
a. Is the deterioration of the coating rapid and serious if maintenance is delayed?
b. What is the likely maintenance system? (Including surface preparation).
Costs
a. What are the approximate costs of:
i.

the basic system;
ii.

any additional items;
iii.

transport;
iv.

access?
b. What are the approximate costs of maintenance?
APPENDIX 2 PAINT TYPES
BLAST PRIMERS
These primers have been the cause of some confusion; they are therefore dealt separately here.
They are used pre- or post-fabrication, normally in-shop and under controlled conditions.
a.

Pre-fabrication primers are designed for use with automated blasting and painting plant. However, increasingly
fabricators apply them by hand-held airless or high pressure conventional spray very successfully.
The most important types are:
Type I
One or two-pack polyvinyl butryal/phenolic: zinc tetroxychromate: DFT 15-20m.
Type II
Two-pack epoxy: zinc phosphate or zinc tetroxychromate: DFT 25m.
Type III
Two-pack epoxy: zinc metal DFT 10-20m. Note: Metallic zinc coatings (including zinc spray and galvanising) can give rise to
health hazards even in open shop conditions when welded or flame cut.
b.

Post-fabrication can be Types I to III; some have higher volume solids, give extended durability but are slower drying.
The specifier should state the type and indicate whether use pre- or post-fabrication is required. The manufacturer's
application rates must be followed carefully, particularly when overcoating with chemically resistant paints, e.g. over
generous application of a Type I blast primer can lead to intercoat failure (splitting).
One pack zinc metal and two-pack zinc ethyl silicate coatings are available for specific uses.
Very often the anti-corrosive primer which is the first coat of a chosen system is specified as the post-fabrication primer.
DRYING OIL BASED PAINTS
These paints dry by reaction with atmosphere oxygen. Widely used, they are based on vegetable or fish oils suitably treated, e.g.
by heat, and reinforced with synthetic or naturally occurring resins. They do not withstand direct chemical attack nor immersion
conditions.
PRIMERS
There are two basic types, relatively slow drying products whose use is limited to site application and faster-drying versions
which can be used in-shop and on site. In general the latter type have lower volume solids. All are for use beneath oil-based
systems; some can be used beneath one pack chemical resistant systems.
Typical binders are:
-

Drying oil
-

Drying oil modified alkyds
-

Epoxy ester
-

Urethane oil
-

Oil modified phenolic resin.
Typical anti-corrosive pigments include:
Zinc phosphate or zinc chromate with red lead and calcium plumbate still used in primers designed for site use. All but zinc
phosphate impose limitations in use.
Dry film thicknesses vary between 25-75m depending upon volume solids, application method and service use.
Undercoats (Intermediate coats)
With the exception of unreinforced drying oils, all the binders noted under 'Primers' may be used.
Pigmentation is typically titanium dioxide for whites and tints, organic and inorganic chemically resistant pigments for colours.
Micaceous iron oxide pigments are used to give increased film thickness, improved edge cover and good weather resistance.
Dry films are between 25-50m thick depending upon volume solids, application method and service use.
These products are for use beneath oil based gloss and micaceous iron oxide finishes.
Finishes
High gloss finishes in BS 4800 and RAL colours and low-sheen subdued colours in micaceous iron oxide paints have excellent
weather resistance but do not resist direct chemical attack or complete immersion in water.
Typical binders are oil or urethane modified alkyds, epoxy esters and oil modified phenolics.
Pigments are various grades of rutile titanium dioxide, light-fast coloured pigments and micaceous iron oxide or aluminium.
Dry film thicknesses vary between 25-50m. In this respect, the same criteria apply as for undercoats.
ONE-PACK CHEMICAL RESISTANT PAINTS
All but one of the products in this range dry by solvent evaporation. The exception, moisture-curing polyurethanes, will be dealt
with last. A wide range of film formers is available, typically plasticised chlorinated rubber, solution vinyl copolymers and
acrylic resins, acrylated polymers. The differences between products based on these resins and others are subtle with individual
manufacturers having built up experience over many years with one or two resin systems.
The main characteristics which they have in common are excellent water resistance (including immersion), good resistance to
inorganic acids and adequate alkali resistance. In this latter respect, two-pack chemical resistant systems withstand severe attack
better. Theoretically, no paint based on the resins quoted in the previous paragraph are proof against attack by organic acids,
animal fats, etc., but in practice there are many examples where they have proved more than adequate. Paint manufacturers will
advise on specific cases.
Because these paints dry by solvent evaporation they form films at low temperatures and will dry satisfactorily in polluted
atmospheres. Intercoat adhesion both initially and for maintenance is good because the resins remain soluble in the solvents used
in the paints. Conversely, solvent resistance is relatively poor. Maximum heat resistance is circa 65C.
In this group must be included waterborne resin systems, e.g. vinyl acrylic copolymers. Although relatively new (they were
introduced within the last decade) they show great promise, particularly as metal primers. Since they coalesce rather than forming
a film by simple solvent loss, their mechanical properties are better than might be expected from a one-pack paint.
Also in the group are one-pack moisture-curing polyurethane resin-based paints. These must not be confused with oil or alkyd
containing products which are 'reinforced' by the addition of a urethane component. Moisture-curing varieties dry like two-pack
paints, undergoing a complex chemical reaction in which moisture acts as the 'curing' agent. Once cured, these paints possess
most of the attributes associated with two-pack polyurethane paints. A significant advantage is their ability to form films at low
temperatures. Obviously this feature must be exploited with caution; water or ice formed at the paint/surface interface must
degrade its performance.
Primers are available for shop and site application based on all these resin systems. Since their corrosion inhibiting properties are
inferior to primers irrespective of which inhibitive pigment is chosen, some manufacturers produce an oil-modified primer
specifically formulated for use in a one-pack chemical resistant paint process (excluding moisture curing polyurethanes). Usually
these are not recommended for severe exposure or immersed conditions. They are particularly useful for site application.
Zinc phosphate pigments are widely used as the inhibitive pigment.
Dry film thicknesses vary between 25-65m depending upon volume solids, application method and service use.
Undercoats (Intermediate coats)
Any of the resins noted above may be used. These coats are both weather and chemically resistant; indeed many proprietary
products are designated 'Thick Coatings' and suitable both as intermediate and finishing coats.
Rutile titanium dioxide pigments are widely used in whites and tints. Light fast and chemically resistant pigments are used for
colours, with micaceous iron oxide used both for its weather resistance and ability to improve the mechanical properties of the
paint film.
Dry film thicknesses between 50-100m per coat depend upon volume solids, dimensions and complexity of the steelwork,
application method, surface and ambient temperatures. Additionally, solvent release is relatively slow and inhibits the thickness
which can be safely applied to avoid solvent entrapment producing bubbles or pinholes.
Finishes
Finishes are based on the same resin types as used in undercoats/intermediate coats. The same pigment types are also used.
Where finishes are sold specifically for this purpose they have better resistance to severe exposure conditions and chemical attack
than dual purpose products. High gloss finishes are available. Many BS 4800 colours can be produced although the need for
chemical resistance rules out some.
Dry film thicknesses vary between 25-100m per coat. Their achievement is governed by the considerations noted under
'Undercoats'.
TWO-PACK CHEMICAL RESISTANT PAINTS
These two-part coatings form films by a complex chemical reaction. The reaction is temperature dependent. Most products
cannot be used at surface and ambient temperatures below 10C, although a few are capable of 'curing' at 5C. It is important to
differentiate between the film drying and attaining full chemical resistance - the process referred to as 'curing'. Once this is
complete, the coatings are tough, abrasion resistant and resistant to a very wide range of acids, alkalies, oils and solvents even
when fully immersed. The time interval between coats can be critical, particularly with two-pack urethanes. The principal
difficulty being to ensure good intercoat adhesion.
Primers
A wide variety is available for both shop and site use. Most are suitable as post-fabrication primers only. They are used beneath
both one and two-pack chemical resistant paints.
The most widely used anti-corrosive pigment is zinc phosphate.
-

two-pack epoxy
-

two-pack urethane.
Dry film thicknesses between 25-75m are achieved, depending upon volume solids, application method and service use.
Undercoats (Intermediate Coats)
These products are used beneath one and 2-pack high performance finishes.
-

2-pack epoxy
-

2-pack urethane or urethane acrylic
-

Isocyanate-cured epoxy
-

Epoxy: Tar
-

Epoxy: Pitch
-

Urethane tar or pitch.
Pigmentation is typically titanium dioxide in whites and tints, with light-fast chemically resistant pigments in colours. Micaceous
iron oxide is used to improve film build, weathering and mechanical properties. It also facilitates overcoating.
Dry film thicknesses are influenced by the same criteria as the primers. They vary between 75-200m.

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