UNIVERSITY OF LJUBLJANA FACULTY OF MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS PHYSICS DEPARTMENT

Hana Uri

Optical Holography
Seminar

Adviser: Assistant Professor Irena Drevenek-Olenik Ljubljana, December 2004

Abstract Optical holography is a method for storage and displaying a three-dimensional image of an object. I describe its historical development, its basic principles and some examples of its practical application in optical systems.

Contents
1 Introduction 2 The development of optical holography 3 Recording materials 4 Types of holograms 5 Volume grating 5.1 Volume transmission phase holograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Multihologram recording and readout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Validity of the coupled wave theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 4 8 9 10 14 15 16

6 Holograms for displays 17 6.1 Holographic stereograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 6.2 Rainbow holograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 7 Colour holography 19

8 Applications 20 8.1 Applications of holography in technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 9 Conclusion 21

Introduction

Hologram is a three-dimensional image that allows to see the depth of an image; when it is viewed from dierent angles, dierent image is observed, so that three-dimensional perception is achieved. In all conventional imaging techniques, such as photography, we merely record the intensity distribution in the original scene. As a result, all information of relative optical paths to dierent parts of the scene is lost. But in holography it is dierent. What is recorded on the photographic lm is the interference pattern produced by the two waves (reference wave and the light wave scattered from the object). The intensity at any point in this pattern depends on the phase as well as the amplitude of the original object wave [1]. Accordingly, the processed photographic lm, which is called a hologram, contains information on both the phase and the amplitude of the object wave. When the resulting hologram is subsequently illuminated with the reference wave, it contains enough information about the phase and amplitude to permit their reconstruction. [1, 4] In general, holography is an interference method of recording the light waves diracted by an object, illuminated with coherent light. Many methods exist for the recording and playback of a hologram, and a simple apparatus is shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2. [1, 4]

Figure 1: Recording a hologram [1].

Figure 2: Reconstruction of the image. The hologram, after processing, is illuminated with the reference wave from the laser [1].

The electric eld E of a linearly polarized monochromatic light wave propagating in a vacuum in z direction can be represented by the relation z (1) E = acos[2 (t )], c where a is the amplitude, the frequency, and c the speed of propagation of light. Equation (1) can also be written in the form E = Re[ae[i2 (t c )] ] = Re[aei ei2t ],
z

(2)

where = 2z = 2z . If we assume that all operations on E are linear, we can use the c complex representation E = aei ei2t = Aei2t , (3) where A is the complex amplitude. The optical intensity I at a point is given by I = AA = |A|2 . Accordingly, the intensity at any point due to the interference of two waves is
1/2 I = |A1 + A2 |2 = |A1 |2 + |A2 |2 + A1 A cos(1 2 ). (5) 2 + A1 A2 = I1 + I2 + 2(I1 I2 )

(4)

The contrast of the interference pattern at any point in the hologram plane is measured by the visibility, which is given by the relation = (Imax Imin ) , (Imax + Imin ) (6)

where Imax and Imin are the local maximum and minimum values of the intensity. In order to obtain maximum fringe visibility, it is essential to use coherent illumination. Lasers provide an intense source of highly coherent light and therefore are used almost universally in optical holography. The most commonly used are gas lasers. [1] The gas lasers are in general cheaper and easier to operate. The diode lasers are cheap, too. But the gas lasers have better coherence.

Figure 3: Output wavelength and output power of the most commonly used gas lasers [1]. The range of useful wavelengths and typical output powers available at these wavelengths for the most commonly used gas lasers are summarized in table (Fig. 3). For a simple holographic system, the He N e laser is the most economical choice. It operates on a single line and does not require water cooling. In contrast to the He N e laser, the Ar+ laser has a multiline output (but can be made to operate on a single line) and it can give high-power output. [1] 3

The development of optical holography

Holography dates from 1947, when Hungarian scientist Dennis Gabor (Nobel prize 1971) developed the theory of holography while working to improve the resolution of an electron microscope. The name for the technique that was developed comes from the Greek word holos, meaning whole, and gramma, meaning message. Holography - the whole message. [2] The type of holography originally proposed by Gabor, utilizes an inline setup (Fig. 4). The object (a transparency containing small opaque details on a clear background) and the

Figure 4: Optical system used to record an in-line hologram [1]. light source are located along an axis normal to the photographic plane. The coherent light produced by the source (monochromatic source is coherent) is transformed into uniform plane wave by a lens. The uniform plane wave that is transmitted through the highly transmissive object consists of two components. The rst is a uniform plane wave, corresponding to the directly transmitted light which constitutes the reference wave. (Since its amplitude and phase do not vary across the photographic lm, its complex amplitude can be written as a real constant r ). The second is a weak scattered wave (where |o(x, y )| r). Its complex amplitude at the photographic lm can be written as o(x, y ) = |o(x, y )| ei(x,y) . Intensity at the photographic lm is I (x, y ) = |r + o(x, y )|2 = r2 + |o(x, y )|2 + ro(x, y ) + ro (x, y ). (8) (7)

The intensity of this interference pattern depends on both the amplitude and phase of the scattered wave (equations (7) and (12)). For simplicity, we shall assume (see section 3) that amplitude transmittance (the ratio of the transmitted amplitude to that incident on it) is a linear function of the intensity t = t0 + T I , where t0 is a constant background transmittance, T is the exposure time and is a parameter determined by the photographic material used. To view the reconstructed image, the hologram is placed in the 4

Figure 5: Optical system used to reconstruct the image from an in-line hologram [1].

same position as the original photographic lm and is illuminated with the same colliminated beam used to make the original recording (Figure 5). The transmitted optical eld can be written as rt(x, y ) = r(t0 + T r2 ) + T r|o(x, y )|2 + T r2 o(x, y ) + T r2 o (x, y ). (9)

The expression for the complex amplitude of the transmitted wave contains four terms. The rst term is just a plane wave and corresponds to the directly transmitted beam. The second term can be ignored because the amplitude of the reference wave is much larger than the amplitude of the scattered wave (|o(x, y )| r). The third term (T r2 o(x, y )) is, except for a constant factor (T r2 ), identical with the complex amplitude of the scattered wave from the object that was originally incident on the photographic plate. This wave reconstructs the image of the object in its original position. This image is located behind the transparency at a distance z0 from it. The reconstructed wave appears to diverge from it and, as we see on the Fig. 6, the diverge beam in its back prolongation gives a virtual three-dimensional image of the object. Similarly,

Figure 6: Twin images [13].

the fourth term corresponds to a wavefront which resembles the original object wavefront, exept that it has the phase shift of opposite sign relative to the background. It may be called conjugate-complex wave. This wave converges to form a real image, which can be captured on the screen or seen in the smoke of a cigarette. These two images are called twin images and are 2z0 apart on axis. Let us put an observer on the left side, as it is shown on the Fig. 5. The observer observes a virtual image of the object. This image 5

is disturbed (Fig. 7) because of the convergent beam, which comes from right and forms the real image. This is the reason of limitation of Gabor holography. With this setup the

Figure 7: Optical reconstruction cycle (left-original; middle-hologram; rightreconstruction). The picture is very noisy. This nois is due to the disturbance created by the convergent beam, and due to specks of dust [14].

two images cannot be separated. The other limitation is a requirement that the object has a high average transmittance, in order that the second term (which has been assumed to be ignored) should not interfere with the reconstructed image. [1, 3] The breakthrough that has eectively solved the twin-images problem and opened the way to the large-scale development of optical holography was the o-axis reference beam technique, invented by Leith and Upatnieks in 1963. They used a separate reference beam, which was incident on the photographic lm at an appreciable angle with respect to the object beam, to produce a pair of images that were separated by a large enough angle from the directly transmitted beam, and from each other, to ensure that they did not overlap. As shown in Figure 8, the reference beam was incident on the photographic

Figure 8: Hologram recording with an o-axis reference beam [1].

lm at an oset angle to the beam from the object. The complex amplitude, due to reference beam at any point (x, y ) on the photographic lm, can be written as r(x, y ) = r ei2 while that due to the object beam is o(x, y ) = |o(x, y )| ei(x,y) . The resultant intensity at the photographic lm is I (x, y ) = |r(x, y ) + o(x, y )|2 = = |r(x, y )|2 + |o(x, y )|2 + r|o(x, y )|ei(x,y) ei2 And as before, we can write r(x, y )t(x, y ) = u1 (x, y ) + u2 (x, y ) + u3 (x, y ) + u4 (x, y ), where u1 (x, y ) = t0 rei2
sin x sin x sin x

(10)

(11)

+ r|o(x, y )|ei(x,y) ei2

sin x

(12)

(13) (14)

,
sin x

u2 (x, y ) = T r|o(x, y )|2 ei2 u4 (x, y ) = T r2 o (x, y )ei4

(15) (16)

u3 (x, y ) = T r2 o(x, y ),
sin x

(17)

The rst term u1 (x, y ) is, as before, merely the attenuated reference beam which is a plane wave, directly transmitted through the hologram. This directly transmitted beam is surrounded by a halo due to the second term, u2 (x, y ), whose angular spread is determined by the extent of the object. The third term, u3 (x, y ), is identical with the original object wave, except for a constant factor, and it produces a virtual image of the object in its original position. This wave makes an angle with the directly transmitted wave. Similary, the fourth term, u4 (x, y ), gives rise to the second image. However, in this case,

Figure 9: Image reconstruction by a hologram recorded with an o-axis reference beam [1]. the fourth term includes a factor ei4
sin x

, which indicates that the wave is deected from 7

the z axis at an angle approximately twice that which the reference wave makes with it. In 1960 the pulsed-ruby laser was developed. This laser system emits very powerful burs of light that last only a few nanoseconds. It eectively freezes movement and makes possible to produce holograms of high-speed events, such as a bullet in ight. The ruby laser is still widely used laser for optical holography mainly because of the large output energy avaliable (up to 10J per pulse) and the wavelenght of the light emitted (694nm), which is fairly well matched to the peak sensitivity of commercial photographic materials for holography. [1, 9] A major advance in display holography occurred in 1968 when Dr. S. Benton invented the rainbow hologram. This type of hologram can be viewed in ordinary white light creating a bright, sharp, monochromatic image (see section 6). Another signicant area of progress has been in recording materials. [1]

Recording materials

In the above derivations we have assumed that the amplitude transmittance is a linear function of the intensity. But in practice the response of photographic materials to exposure to light is represented by a curve, which you can see on Fig. 10.[1, 13]

Figure 10: Curve of amplitude transmittance agains exposure (E i.e., intensity multiplied by exposure time) for a recording material [1, 13]. The ideal recording material for holography should have a spectral sensitivity well matched to available laser wavelength and high resolution. With the ideal recording material, the resolution of an image is determinated only by the dimensions of the hologram. The dimensiones of a hologram are limited with the diameter of laser beams, and with the required resolution [1]. Fine-grain silver halide photographic emulsions are still the most widely used recording medium, because of their high sensitivity and their commercial availability. They can be dye sensitized, so their spectral sensitivity matches the most 8

Figure 11: Recirding materials for holography [1].

commonly used laser wavelengths. Other materials such as dichromated gelatin, photopolymers, photoresists, phototermoplastics and others are now being used to an increasing extent for specic applications. [1, 2]

Types of holograms

It is conventional to classify holograms into two broad categories, thin holograms and thick (volume) holograms. Any hologram in which the thickness of the recording material is small compared to the average spacing of the interference fringes can be classied as a thin hologram. The opposite classication is volume hologram. The medium in which a hologram is recorded can have a thickness of as much as a few milimeters, while the fringe spacing may be of the order of only 1m. The hologram is then a tree-dimensional system of layers corresponding to a periodic variation of absorption or refractive index (or both), and the diracted amplitude is a maximum only when the Bragg condition is satised. For simplicity our analysis is restricted to the holographic record of a sinusoidal fringe pattern which we call hologram gratings. To some degree a more complicated hologram can be regarded as a multiplicity of such hologram gratings. The distinction between these two regimes (thin holograms and volume holograms) is commonly established on the basis of parameter Q, which is dened by the relation Q= 20 d , n0 2 (18)

where is the period of the grating, d is grating thickness and n0 is a constant part of refractive index (see next section). Small values of Q (Q < 1) correspond to thin gratings, while large values of Q (Q > 1) correspond to volume gratings. For the majority of practical holograms the parameter Q is larger then 1. If we, for example, choose values of parameters as the following: d = 100m, = 1m and = 100nm, the value of the parameter Q is approximately 10. For that reason our analysis will be concentrated only on thick (volume) grating. [1, 5, 7]

Volume grating

When analysing the diraction of light by such thick gratings, it is necessary to take into account the fact that the amplitude of the diracted wave increases progressively, whereas that of the incident wave decreases, as they propagate through the grating. One way of doing this is by means of a coupled-wave approach, such as that developed by Kogelnik. The coupled wave theory assumes monochromatic light, incident on the hologram grating at or near the Bragg angle (polarization which we choose is polarized perpendicular to the plane of incidence). Only two light waves are assumed to be present in the grating: the incoming reference wave R and the outgoing signal wave S. Only this two waves obey the Bragg condition at least approximately, other diraction orders strongly violate the Bragg condition and are neglected. Figure 12 shows the model of a hologram grating.

Figure 12: Model of a thick hologram grating. The spatial modulation of n or is indicated by the dotted pattern [5].

The z -axis is chosen perpendicular to the surface of the medium. The fringe planes are slanted with respect to the medium boundaries at an angle . The grating vector K is oriented perpendicular to the fringe planes and is of length K = 2 , where is the period of the grating. The angle of incidence measure in the medium is . In addition, although the interference surface can assume any orientation, we will consider only two limiting cases in which they are either perpendicular or parallel to the hologram plane ( = 90 or = 0). The rst case arises when two interfering wavefronts make equal but opposite angle to the surface of the recording medium and are incident on it from the same side. Holograms recorded in this fashion produce a reconstructed image in transmitted light. The second case arises when the wavefronts are symmetrical with respect to the surface 10

of the recording medium, but are incident on it from opposite sides. Hologram of this type produces a reconstructed image by reection (Figure 13). [1, 5] We assume that

Figure 13: Volume transmission and reection gratings and their associated vector diagrams for Bragg incidence [1]. initially the recording medium is perfectly transparent but, after processing, develops a sinusoidal variation of the absorption or refractive index in the direction perpendicular to the interference surface. For = 90 their values at any point are given by the relations n = n0 + n1 cos(K x) = 0 + 1 cos(K x). (19) (20)

For simplicity, the refractive index of the surrounding medium is also assumed to be n0 . Here we can add that modulation of the absorption constant are produced in conventional photographic emulsions and in photochromics, while newer materials, like dichromated gelatin, or photopolymer material yield modulations of the refractive index. [1, 5] Wave propagation in the grating is described by the wave equation 2 E + k 2 E = 0, (21)

where E is total electric eld and k is the propagation constant in the grating. We assume that the absorption per wavelength as well as the relative variations in refractive index of the medium are small, so that n0 k0 0 n0 k0 1 n0 n1 , 11 (22)

where k0 =

2 .

The propagation constant can then be written in the form k 2 = B 2 2i0 B + 4Bcos(K x) (23)

where B = n0 k0 is the average propagation constant, and is the coupling constant dened as n1 i1 =( ) . (24) 2 This coupling constant describes the interaction between the reference wave R and the signal wave S. If = 0, there is no modulation of the refractive index or the absorption and, hence, no diraction. [1, 5] The propagation of the two coupled waves through the grating can be described by their complex amplitudes R(z) and S(z), which vary along z as a result of the energy interchange between them as well as energy losses due to absorption. The total electric eld E in the grating is then the sum of the elds due to these two waves, so that E = R(z )eix + S (z )eix , (25)

where and are the propagation vectors for the two waves, dened by the propagation constants and the directions of propagation of R and S. The quantity is assumed to be equal to the propagation vector of the free reference wave in the absence of coupling , while is determined by the grating and is related to and the grating vector K by the expression = K. (26) For the special case of incidence at the Bragg angle 0 , the lengths of both and are equal to the propagation constant n0 k0 , and the Bragg condition, which can be written in the form K cos( 0 ) = , (27) 2n0 k0 is obeyed. If (27) is dierentiated, we obtain the result K d0 = d0 4n0 sin( 0 ) (28)

To derive the couple wave equations, (21) and (23) are combined, and (25) and (26) are inserted. We get R 2iR z 2i0 BR + 2BS = 0 (29) and S 2iS z 2i0 BS + (B 2 | |2 )S + 2BR = 0,

(30)

where the prime denote dierentiation with respect to z . If, in addition, we assume that the energy interchange between S and R, as well as the energy absorption in the medium are slow, the second dierentials R and S can be neglected. Equations (29) and (30) can be rewritten in the form R cos() + 0 R = iS (31) and [cos() (K/B )cos]S + (0 + i )S = iR, 12

(32)

where is determinate as

(B 2 | |2 ) , 2B = Kcos( ) K 2 /4n0 . =

(33) (34)

For small deviations and from the Bragg condition, equation (34) becomes = Ksin( 0 ) K 2 /4n0 . (35)

The coupled wave equations (31) and (32) show that the amplitude of a wave change along z because of coupling to the other wave (R, S ) or absorption (0 R, 0 S ). The coupled wave equations can be solved for the appropriate boundery conditions. For both holograms types the reference wave R is assumed to start with unit amplitude at z=0. It decays as it propagates to the right and couples energy into S. In transmission holograms the signal S starts with zero amplitude at z=0 and propagates to the right. In reection holograms the signal travels to the left and it starts with zero amplitude at z=d. Boundary conditions are R(0)=1, S(0)=0, for transmission grating, and R(0)=1, S(d)=0, for reection gratings. [1, 5]

Figure 14: Wave propagation in (a) transmission and (b) reection holograms [5]. Based on these characteristics, holograms recorded in relatively thick recording media can be classied either as transmission amplitude holograms (n1 = 0), transmission phase holograms (0 = 1 = 0), reection amplitude holograms (n1 = 0), or reection phase holograms (0 = 1 = 0). Let us concentrate to the solutions of volume transmission phase holograms, and look at their characteristics. [1, 5]

13

Figure 15: A cross section of a thick-phase hologram. The fringes in this photopolymer are voids separated by polymer [12].

5.1

Volume transmission phase holograms

In a phase grating 0 = 1 = 0. Diraction is caused by the spatial variation of the refractive index. The diracted amplitude is then iei sin( 2 + 2 )1/2 S (d) = , 2 )1/2 (1 + 2 where = and = n1 d , cos() d . 2cos() (36)

(37)

(38)

Diraction eciency can be dened as the ratio of the energy diracted into the image by an element of the hologram to that incident on it from the source used to illuminate it. Since the incident amplitude R(0) is assumed to be unity, the diraction eciency is = |S (d)|2 = sin2 ( 2 + 2 )1/2 . 2 (1 + ) 2 (39)

The eect of deviation and from the Bragg condition can be determined, since they inuence the diraction eciency mainly through the parameter , which is a measure of the deviation from the Bragg condition. From equation (34) it can be rewritten in the form = Kd/2, (40) while the modulation parameter can be taken as constant. As either d, the thickness, or 14

Figure 16: Diraction eciency as a function of the parameter , which is a measure of the deviation from the Bragg condition, for three dierent values of the modulation parameter (red: = /2, green: = /4, blue: = /10.)

n1 , the variation of the refractive index, increases, the diraction eciency increases until the modulation parameter = /2 (Fig. 16). At this point = 1.00 (if we observe at the Bragg angle), and all energy is in the diracted beam. When increases beyond this point (overmodulation), energy is coupled back into the incident wave, and decreases (Fig. 17). [1, 5] It can be seen from the picture (Fig. 17) that for the value of parameter = the diraction eciency at the Bragg angle is 0. It reaches the highest value at two other angles. It means that we can see the same image at two dierent angles, but we do not wish this in practice.

Figure 17: Overmodulation-diraction eciency as a function of the parameter , for three dierent values of the modulation parameter (red: = /2, green: = 3/4, blue: = .)

5.2

Multihologram recording and readout

In volume holograms, it is possible to store a large number (order 10.000) of pictures and to view each one of them selectively. The fundamental reason is that in a large volume a reconstructed image results only when the Bragg condition is satised. So, the 15

reconstruction of the thick hologram is very sensitive to the angle which the reconstruction wave makes with the developed hologram. A small departure from the angle will result in a loss of the signal wave. Because of the angular sensitivity, a number of dierent holograms can be stored in a single piece of recording material by using reference beams at dierent angles. It is possible to read one specic hologram with small contributions

Figure 18: Two pictures are recorded, separately as volume holograms each with its angularly unique reference wave [12].

(crosstalk) from the others, since, for all the other holograms, the Bragg condition is strongly violated. This crosstalk places a fundamental limit on the number of holograms and their stored information contents. But by employing a suuciently large angular separation between the two reference waves, the crosstalk can be reduced. In practice, we can record many pictures in the same volume. The procedure can be repeated in the recording of thousands of holograms in the same volume (the number of recorded images is limited with the wideness of Braggs peak). The storage density is large and helps to explain the interest in holographic data storage (see section 7). [11, 12]

5.3

Validity of the coupled wave theory

Kogelniks coupled wave theory assumes that: The modulation of the refractive index and the absorption constant is sinusoidal. Only the zero order and Bragg-diracted waves propagate within the grating. (However, the existence of higher-order diracted waves in phase grating cannot be ignored, even for fairly small values of the refractive index modulation (n1 0.005).) There is a small absorption loss per wavelength and a slow energy interchange. There is the same average refractive index for the regions inside and outside the grating boundaries. More accurate theories for the diraction of light by volume holograms were therefore developed by a number of authors. But it appears that the coupled wave theory begins to give good results for values of parameter Q > 10. [1, 5]

16

Holograms for displays

An obvious application of holography is in displays. Conventional holograms have several drawbacks, such as the limited angle over which the image can be viewed and the necessity to illuminate the subject with laser light when recording the hologram.

6.1

Holographic stereograms

It is also possible to synthesize a hologram that reconstructs an acceptable three-dimensional image from a series of two-dimensional images of an object recorded from dierent angles. The rst step consists of recording in incoherent light, a series of n ordinary photographs, taken from a series of equally spaced positions along a horizontal line. In the second step, narrow, vertical strip holograms are then recorded of these photographs on a photographic plate (see Fig. 19). When this holographic stereogram is illuminated with a

Figure 19: Optical system used to record a holographic stereogram from a series of twodimensional transparencies [8]. point source of monochromatic light, the viewer sees a three-dimensional image. The image lacks vertical parallax, but it exhibits horizontal parallax over the range of angles covered by the original photographs. The advantage of this technique is that a laser is required for the second step only. White light can be used to illuminate the subject in the rst step, so that holographic stereogram can be made of quite large scenes and even of a living subject. [8, 1, 6]

6.2

Rainbow holograms

A rainbow holograms are holograms which can be viewed in white light. As shown in Fig. 20(a), the rst step in making a rainbow hologram is to record a conventional transmission hologram of the object. When this hologram is illuminated by the reversed reference beam, it generates a diracted wave that is the conjugate of the original object wave and produces a real image of the object (b). In the rainbow hologram, parallax in the vertical plane is given up. It is eliminated by a horizontal slit placed over the primary hologram. This limits the range of angles in the vertical plane from which the real image can be wieved, without restricting the range of viewing angles in the horizontal plane (c). A second hologram is recorded of this real image (d). When the nal hologram is 17

Figure 20: Steps involved in the production of the rainbow hologram [1].

illuminated with the conjugate of the reference beam used to make it, it forms a real image of the object near the hologram (Fig. 21 a). In addition, it forms a real image of the slit placed across the primary hologram. If the observers eyes move outside this slit pupil, the image disappears. It corresponds to the almost complete elimination of vertical parallax. If the hologram is viewed from within the slit pupil, a very bright image of the object is seen (Fig. 20(a)). The image of an object can be seen also in white light. How is it possible? As we have already said, we need coherent light (laser) in order to record an interference pattern. However, for a reconstruction of an image we need just diraction. In the above case, our hologram is a volume grating. The grating diracts light, if gaps (of a volume grating) are close together. If we choose the grating pitch () approximately in the order of the wavelength of visible light, and the radius of the light source is 0.05m, and the source is at the distance of 1m, we get about 20 in the coherent area of white ligth. Since the coherent area is much larger that the grating pitch, we can see the reconstructed image 18

also in white light. With a white-light source, the slit image is dispersed in the vertical plane to form a continuous spectrum (Fig. 21(b)). When we illuminate the hologram with white light, every colour component of the white light makes the real image of the slit at an angle which is determined by the diraction equation. If the light source has a continuous spectrum, the image of slits are dispersed continously as well. An observer whose eyes are positioned at any part of the spectrum then sees a sharp three-dimensional image of the object in the corresponding colour (b). [1]

Figure 21: Reconstruction of the image by a rainbow hologram (a) with monochromatic light and (b) with white light [1].

Colour holography

Image can be produced by a hologram recording with three suitably chosen wavelangths. The resulting recording can be considered as made up of three incoherently superposed holograms. When it is illuminated once again with the three wavelengs which used to make it, each of these wavelengths is diracted by the hologram recorded with it to give a reconstructed image in the corresponding colour. The superposition of these three images yields a multicolour reconstruction. The most commonly used lasers for colour holography are the He N e laser ( = 633nm) and Ar+ laser, which has two strong output lines ( = 514nm, = 488nm). A problem (it name is cross-talk) in multicolour holography is that each hologram diracts the other two wavelengths as well. As a result, a total of nine images are produced. Three of these give rise to a full-colour reconstructed image and the remaining images resulting from light of one wavelength diracted by a component 19

hologram recorded with another wavelength are formed in other positions and overlap with the multicoloured images. One of the methods to eliminate cross-talk are based on the use of volume holograms. A hologram recorded with several wavelength in thick medium contains a set of regularly spaced fringe planes for each wavelength. When this hologram is illuminated once again with the original multiwavelength beam, each wavelength is diracted by the set of fringe planes created originally by it, produce a multicolour image. But the cross-talk images are severely attenuated since they do not satisfy the Bragg condition. [1]

Figure 22: Setup used to record a multicolour hologram of a diusely reecting object in a thick recording medium [1].

Applications

The three-dimensional image is so striking and so sometimes it is easy to forget that a hologram has applications other than display. However, a number of the applications of holography are actually more important to technology than displays.

8.1

Applications of holography in technology

The hologram can be viewed as an optical component that transforms the reconstruction wave into the signal wave. If the reconstruction wave were a plane wave and the signal wave were a spherical wave, then the hologram would perform the same transformation which is performed by simple lens. This type of hologram, called a holographic optical element, has been used in a number of specialized optical applications. One example is the head-up display that projects important instrument readings into the forward eld of view of an aircraft pilot. [12] We can nd a large number of applications of holography in interferometry. If a hologram is placed at the same spot where it was exposed and the object is removed, then, as we already know, the light wave that was scattered by the object durind the exposure will be reconstructed. If object is not removed, then two waves can be observed, one coming from it directly through the hologram and the other one reconstructed by the hologram. If changes, for example strains (deformations), this 20

will immediately be noted on the picture observed. Applications of holographic interferometry can be found in medical and dental research, aerodynamics and plasma diagnostic. [13] Volume reection holograms recorded in dichromate gelatin can be used as narrowband rejection lters. [1] To better understand phytoplankton, researchers have developed an undersea holographic camera that generates in-line and o-axis holograms of the organism. [2] Optical computers, which use holograms as storage material for data, could have a dramatic impact on the overall holography market. Optical computers will be able to deliver trillions of bits of information faster than the current generation of computers, because lightwaves are capable of recording and storing innitely more information than the magnetic particles that are the basis of current computer technology. [2, 15]

Conclusion

A hologram can be made not only with a light waves of the laser, but also with sound waves and other waves in the electro-magnetic spectrum. Holograms made with X-rays can record images of particles, such as atoms or molecules. Acoustical holography uses sound waves to see through solid objects. Holography ability to record and reconstruct both light and sound waves makes it a valuable tool for industry, science, business, commerce and art.

References
[1] Hariharan P. : Optical Holography, second edition, Cambridge University Press, 1996 [2] http://www.holophile.com/history.htm [3] http://laser.physics.sunysb.edu/ dbennett/optics2/optics2.htm [4] Fontecchio A. K. : Multiplexing Studies of Holographically-formed Polymer Dispersed Liquid Crystals Dissertation, Degree of Doctor, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, May 2003 [5] Kogelnik H. : Coupled wave theory for thick hologram gratings, Technical Journal, November 1969, vol. 48, 2909-2946 [6] McCrickerd J. T. & George N. : Holographic stereograms from sequential component photographs, Applied physics letters, January, 1968, Vol.12, No.1 [7] http://www.holophile.com/about.htm [8] DeBitetto D. J. : Holographic Panoramic Stereograms Synthesized from White Light Recording, Applied Optics, Vol. 8, No. 8, August 1969

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[9] Mallick S. : Pulse Holography of uniformly moving object, Applied Optics, Vol. 14, No. 3, March 1975 [10] Crawford G. P. : Bragg gratings, Optics & Photonics News, April 2003 [11] Guenther Robert D. : Modern Optics , John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; Canada, 1990 [12] Yariv A. : Optical electronics in modern communications, fth edition, Oxford University Press, New York, 1997 [13] Ostrovsky Yu.I. : Holography and its Application , Mir Publishers, Moscow, 1977 [14] Stroke George : Coherent optics and holography , Second edition, Academic press, New York, 1969 [15] http://www.pro.on.ca

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