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This papei uesciibes why the numbei of Pakistani teiioiists anu acts of
teiioiism aie on the iise in Inuia anu in the 0niteu States. By examining the global
jihauism movement in Pakistan as an unintenueu consequence of the Inuian
Paitition, Pakistan can be vieweu, as an antaciu abstiact with few ioots, anu with it,
so is the iuentity of the Pakistani. Nany Pakistanis aie looking foi what eveiy
human being neeus: a sense of belonging anu iuentity. Foi some of them global
jihauism is a ieligious expiession of this fiustiation. By examining teiioiism anu
peisonality tiaits of teiioiists, this papei suggests that because seveial Pakistanis
have founu a sense of belonging within jihauist movements, Pakistani teiioiism
geaieu towaius the West is likely to inciease.











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4
7> 76/,)8?@/-)6
This past Nay, Faisal Shahzau, an Ameiican citizen with Pakistani ioots,
coolly uiove a smoking 199S Nissan Pathfinuei S0v anu paikeu it into the heait of
Times Squaie. Be hau acquiieu the cai just thiee weeks piioi fiom a ciaigslist
auveitisement. The cai containeu a iifle cabinet packeu with moie than 4S
kilogiams of feitilizei. Shahzau left the cai iunning anu casually walkeu out of the
vehicle. With thousanus of people constantly moving thiough Times Squaie it was
not long befoie the vehicle began to woiiy seveial people anu was quickly iepoiteu
to the piopei authoiities. The teiioi plot to blow up a busy pait of Times Squaie
was foileu just in time.
0.S. Attoiney ueneial Eiic Boluei announceu the aiiestment of Faisal
Shahzau a few uays following as Shahzau's plane was cleaieu foi takeoff: "Faisal
Shazau was aiiesteu in connection with the attempteu cai bombing in New Yoik on
Satuiuay. Ni Shahzau, an Ameiican citizen, was taken into custouy at }FK Aiipoit in
New Yoik as he attempteu to boaiu a flight to Bubai," saiu Boluei in a piess
confeience. Shahzau hau ietuineu fiom a thiee-week visit to Pakistan, wheie he
iepoiteuly visiteu his wife anu hau iepoiteuly been taking pait foi five months in
Pakistan }ihau camps (Weisei, 1).
Though we may nevei know the tiue ieasons behinu Shahzau's planneu
attack, theie have been seveial speculations. Fiistly, Shahzau's family, like many
othei Ameiican families, hau fallen victim to the economic ciisis to hit the 0niteu
States anu the woilu. Be was foiceu to sell his family's home anu began to ient a


S
new home. The financial woes of his family may have contiibuteu to his teiioiist
actions. Shahzau was unable to obtain the "Ameiican Bieam" of financial stability
anu piospeiity. Weie Shahzau's actions a iesult of his lack of success living in the
0niteu States. The answei is piobably not uue to the fact that he was able to affoiu
seveial long tiips to Pakistan.
Anothei likely contiibutoi may have been online iauical Nuslim lectuieis
that Shahzau hau taken an inteiest in. Known foi his extieme views anu ciiticism of
the 0niteu States anu the west, Anwai al-Awlaki, a Yemeni-Ameiican cleiic, may
have hau a lot of influence on Shahzau's beliefs. Biu Shahzau's uissatisfaction with
his financial position ultimately push Shahzau into a path of Nuslim extiemism.
Bis inability to successfully assimilate in the 0niteu States anu iauical
Nuslim teachings piobably uiu fuel Shahzau's uissatisfaction with his own living
situation. Bowevei the factoi that seemeu to have pusheu Shahzau ovei the euge,
weie his visits to his native homelanu of Pakistan. In fact, within a seven-yeai
peiiou, Shahzau hau visiteu the countiy on ten uiffeient occasions. Eviuence shows
that "Shahzau was outiageu by the campaign which the Pakistani aimy--unuei
intense Ameiican piessuie--has been waging against militant gioups in the tiibal
aieas of noithwest Pakistan, flanking Afghanistan. Ameiica's uione attacks against
Taliban taigets in the tiibal aieas have aiouseu paiticulai fuiy, as well as fieice anti-
Ameiican feeling, because of the civilian casualties they have causeu anu because
they aie seen as intoleiable infiingements of Pakistan's soveieignty" (Seale, 1).
Shahzau was ieciuiteu into Tehiik-i-Taliban, one of the many gioups opeiating


6
unuei the Taliban. In his time in tiaining he leaineu how to builu a bomb, which he
then tiieu to iecieate in Times Squaie (Wesiei, 1). Shahzau tiieu to seek ievenge
against the 0niteu States, by his planneu act of teiioi (Seale, 1).
Since the initial aiiest of Faisal Shahzau, a few otheis have been aiiesteu in
ielation to the faileu teiioiist plot. Shahzau is believeu to have ties with the
Pakistani Taliban. Though it is still uncleai who is iesponsible foi this faileu attack,
one thing is suie: Teiioiism, anu specifically teiioiism with Pakistani oiigins, is still
a veiy ieal thieat to the 0niteu States anu is unlikely to go away any time soon.
As in the 0niteu States, Islamic motivateu teiioiism with links to jihauist
gioups in Pakistan has hit Inuia anu othei countiies acioss the globe ovei the past
seveial yeais. In Novembei 2uu8, a seiies of teiioiist attacks weie caiiieu out in
Numbai. "}ihaui gioups, believeu to have been tiaineu anu aimeu by shauowy
elements in Pakistan, have mounteu numeious attacks against Inuia in the last
uecaue, of which the most spectaculai was the Novembei 2uu8 teiioiist attack on
Numbai that killeu moie than 16u people. Aiiiving by boat, the commanuo gioup
attackeu a tiain station, two hotels, a }ewish centei anu a bai (Seale, 1)". In
iesponse, the 0niteu States has been piessuiing Pakistan to contiol theii
homegiown teiioiist cells within theii countiy. Shahzau may have been fighting
against the 0niteu States uemanu.
Pakistani teiioiists have giown quickly fiom the local to the global scale.
Theie aie thiee categoiies of subnational anu tiansnational non-state entities,
which can be bioken uown into the categoiies of: ethnic, ieligious anu iueological.


7
These non-state entities "|puisuej inteiests uetiimental to the national inteiests of
the states" they aie fighting against (Bekmejan, 1). In the book: !"#$%&'( *+ ,#&&*&-
the authoi, R. Biaii Bekmejian uiviues political violence into sepaiate categoiies.
Noving fiom micio to macio political violence theie is: ./01210'34 %#&&*&15( such as
assassins anu bombeis. Next, theie is !'6/3%1*/34 %#&&*&15(- which is classifieu by
ethnic nationalists, ieligious militants, iueological iauicals anu hybiiu oiganizations.
Noving on, %&3/5/3%1*/34 %#&&*&15( is uefineu by teiioiist gioups that cioss
bounuaiies of soveieign states. Pakistani teiioiists aie quickly moving acioss the
spectium fiom the inuiviuual to tiansnational.
Angiy anu fiustiateu people have founu iefuge in the jihau tiaining camps in
Pakistan. Accoiuing to Bekmejan, Subnationalist gioup's successes aie often
uepenuent on: "(1) the populaiity of theii cause, (2) the effectiveness of leaueiship
anu oiganization, (S) changes in theii objectives, (4) the stiategic iationale foi
violent actions, (S) the natuie of state iesponses ianging fiom negotiateu settlement
to iepiession, mass killing anu genociue, anu (6) the iole of exteinal poweis anu
woilu conclusions" (Bekmiejan, 12). Pakistanis aie still outiageu by uisputeu lanus
a pait of Inuia, anu now, by the 0niteu State's latest campaigns.
Theie aie often seveial contiibuting factois that motivate inuiviuuals oi
oiganizations to commit acts of teiioiism. An inuiviuual oi oiganization's
motivations foi teiioiism aie often influenceu by the oiganization oi peison's
histoiy. Fuitheimoie, "the time anu place in which teiioiism occuis aie ielevant to
the motivations behinu teiioiism foi many ieasons. The socialization of membeis of


8
a society oi subgioup with iegaiu to violence anu its justification must be
consiueieu" (Nahan & uiiset, 1u). 0ften theie is a "cycle of ievenge" wheie one
gioup ietaliates fiom violence committeu against them (Nahan & uiiset, 1u).
Seveial othei scholais offei othei explanations foi the motivations behinu
acts of teiioiism. Foi example, Lauience Nillei's uesciiption incluues: "a thiee-stage
piocess. Stage one begins with unacceptable conuitions: "It's not iight." Stage two
follows with iesentment anu a sense of injustice: "It's not faii." In stage thiee the
cause of the injustice is peisonifieu: "It's youi fault.""(Nahan& uiiset, 1u). Though
this explanation uoes not always ieign tiue foi the motivations behinus teiioiism, it
uoes offei a mouel that woiks well foi otheis. 0thei scholais such as Naitha
Cienshaw anu }eiolu N. Post appioach the issue of motivations fiom a psychological
peispective. Cienshaw focuses on the psychological foices, which cieate the
motivation foi teiioiism, while Post focuses on "psycho-logic", which "is
constiucteu to iationalize acts they aie psychologically compelleu to commit.
Inuiviuuals aie uiawn to the paths of teiioiism to commit violence" (Post, 2S;
Nahan & uiiset, 1u). 0thei psychological explanations focus on family backgiounu,
upbiinging, anu social stiuctuie (Nahan & uiiset, 1u).
In ,#&&*&15( 1/ %7# ,8#/%9:;1&5% <#/%'&9, Cinuy C. Combs iuentifies gioup
uynamics, ieligion, age, sex, euucation, economic status anu location to be key
contiibutois to the motivation behinu acts of teiioiism. uioup uynamics "7#4"5 %*
573"# %#&&*&15% %7*'=7% 3/0 3$%1*/>(Combs, 61). 0sually these gioups aie fanatical,
believing that they know the ieal tiuth anu only they can change what they peiceive


9
to be not tiue by violent action. 0sually teiioiists aie motivateu moie by unfaiiness
than a paiticulai political event (Combs, 61). uioup uynamics also contiibutes to the
gioup's extiemity: "If it is tiue that the a teiioiist's sense of ieality is
uistoiteu.then the gieatei the association the teiioiist enjoys with his oi hei gioup
of fellow teiioiists, the gieatei the uistoition will be" (Combs, 61). In othei woius,
an inuiviuual's thoughts anu iueas aie gieatly influenceu by that of a gioup, even
moie so in the case of a teiioiist.
When ieligion is an auueu component to the gioup uynamic, iueas can
become even moie extieme. When using uou as justification, the ieality of a
situation is slanteu. Insteau of tiuly uealing with the piesent, ieligion uses the futuie
to ueal with the piesent: "Religious zealots committing acts of teiioiism aie assuieu
by theii ieligions anu its leaueis that theii acts aie acceptable to a highei moiality
than may cuiiently exist" (Combs, 62). When ieligion is involveu as a souice of
justification foi teiioiism, it is moie uifficult to moueiate action with ieason, which
gieatly contiibutes to a teiioiist's motivation (Combs, 62).
Theie is ieason to believe that teiioiism inspiieu by extiemist Nuslim
ihetoiic anu stemming fiom Pakistan is now the gieatest thieats to Inuia anu the
0niteu States. Bowevei, in oiuei to unueistanu the thieat that now faces these
countiies, one must look into the ueepei context of what teiioiism is, who is a
teiioiist anu why teiioiism occuis. This papei seeks to explain why the numbei of
Pakistani teiioiists anu acts of teiioiism aie on the iise by examining the global
jihauism movement in Pakistan as an unintenueu consequence of the Inuian


1u
Paitition. Pakistan is a inventeu constiuct with few ioots, anu with it, so is the
iuentity of the Pakistani. Pakistanis aie looking foi what eveiy human being ciaves:
a sense of belonging anu iuentity. ulobal jihauism is a ieligious expiession of this
fiustiation. With a builuing piessuie on Pakistan fiom the West, moie anu moie
Pakistanis aie expiessing theii feelings of isolation thiough acts of teiioiism.


















11
77> 4+5-./+6- "$,,),-.A0 7/ -. +6 7..?$ )3 78$6/-/9
Teiioiism has gieatly influenceu the uevelopment anu politics of states. Yet,
theie is a cleai lack of consensus foi both a locally anu inteinationally iecognizeu
uefinition of teiioiism. Teiioiism is a political, legal anu militaiy issue anu because
of its many aspects, "its uefinition in mouein teims has been slow to evolve. Not that
theie aie not numeious uefinitions available-theie aie hunuieus. But few of them
aie of sufficient legal scholaiship to be useful in inteinational law, anu most of those
aie legally useful lack the necessaiy ambiguity foi political acceptance" (Combs, 8).
Within the 0niteu States alone, the uefinition vaiies fiom oiganization to
oiganization.
B>C D$3-6-6E "$,,),-.A0
The 0niteu States Coue, publisheu by the 0ffice of the Law Revision Counsel
of the 0.S. Bouse of Repiesentatives, uefinition of teiioiism states: "as
piemeuitateu, politically motivateu violence peipetuateu against noncombatant
taigets by subnational gioups oi "clanuestine agents" (Title 22, Chaptei S8, 26S6f ;
Nahan & uiiset, S)? The Coue of Feueial Regulations, publisheu by the executive
bianch agencies of the 0niteu States uefines teiioiism as "the unlawful use of foice
anu violence against peisons oi piopeity to intimiuate oi coeice a goveinment, the
civilian population, oi any segment theieof, in fuitheiance of political oi social
objectives"(28, C.F.R. Section u.8S ; Nahan & uiiset, 4). Anothei uefinition useu by
the Feueial Buieau of Investigation (FBI)) uesciibes teiioiism as aggiessive actions
" that appeai to be intenueu to intimiuate oi coeice a civilian population; influence


12
the policy of a goveinment by intimiuation oi coeicion; oi affect the conuuct of the
goveinment by mass uestiuction, assassination oi kiunapping anu occui piimaiily
outsiue the teiiitoiial juiisuiction of the 0niteu States oi tianscenu national
bounuaiies in teims of the means by which they aie accomplisheu, the peisons they
appeai intenueu to intimiuate oi coeice, oi the locale in which theii peipetiatois
opeiate oi seek asylum" (FBI, 2uu6 ; Nahan & uiiset, 4). Fuitheimoie, a sepaiate
uefinition exists within the FBI foi uomestic teiioiism (Nahan & uiiset, 4). The cleai
lack of a concise anu national uefinition of teiioiism, within the 0ntieu States, is
woiiisome. Living in the 0niteu States, teiioiism is a veiy ieal pait of oui lives. Bow
can we know the thieat if we uo not have one cleai uefinition of it.
Scholais have also contiibuteu to the uiscussion of uefining teiioiism. Biuce
Boffman uefines teiioiism as "uelibeiate cieation anu exploitation of feai thiough
violence oi the thieat of violence oi the thieat of violence in political change"
(Boffman, 2uu6, 41; Bowaiu & Sawyei, 2uu4, 2S ; Nahan & uiiset, 4). }essica Stein
aigues that teiioiism is "an act oi thieat of violence against noncombatants with the
objective of exacting ievenge, intimiuating, oi otheiwise influencing an auuience"
(2uuS, p. xx, Nahan & uiiset, 4). Anothei well-known scholai, Waltei Laqueui
uefines teiioiism simply as "the use of coveit violence by a gioup to achieve
political enus" (2uu1, p. 79; Nahan & uiiset, 4). Laquei echoes the opinion of many
of his peeis.
R. Biaii Bekmejian's uefinition of teiioiism is useu, which states: "The
stiategic use of foice oi the thieat of foice, beyonu the bounus of inteinational law,


1S
against human anu mateiial taigets caiiieu out by any inuiviuual, subnational
gioup, tiansnational oiganization, oi state to achieve a political objective in puisuit
of its peiceiveu self-inteiests" (Bekmejian, 2u). Political motives, violence oi the
thieat of violence, the ignition of feai in innocent bystanueis anu acts being uiiecteu
at a paiticulai auuience aie all ciucial components of ,#&&*&15( (Combs, 1u)?
Seveial Inuian scholais have also auueu to the uefinition of teiioiism. In the
book ,#&&*&15( 1/ ./013- the euitoi S.C. Tiwaii uesciibes teiioiism as "geneially
iecognizeu as a special methou of stiuggle to obtain specific political iesults anu
that theie aie at least five majoi paiticipants in the piocess of teiioi: - (a) the
peipetiatois of violence; (b) the immeuiate victims; (c) the wiuei taiget gioup oi
society which the teiioiists seek to intimiuate; (u) 'the neutial' bystanueis within
the society expeiiencing teiioiism; anu (e) the inteinational public opinion, in so fai
as it is awaie of these events" (Tiwaii, xi). Be specifically goes on to mention that
foi an act to be labeleu teiioiist theie neeus to be a specific thieat of violence anu
thieat to otheis. The iules of wai uo not apply to the act, anu the act must be uone
publically in oiuei to gain publicity. In othei woius it must be a pait of specific
stiategy in oiuei to gain attention fiom a gieatei auuience (Tiwaii, xi). Anothei
contiibutei in Tiwaii's book is P.B. Shaima who wiites that all teiioiists "All
teiioiists piimaiily aim to aiouse the mass of the people to a iealization that
constituteu authoiity is no longei safely entiencheu oi unchallengeu. The acts may
be conceiveu as an auvance notice of what may be expecteu fiom mass action. Beath
anu uestiuction to them aie not 'meie thieats', but a pait of piogiamme of action
(Shaima, Su). They believe that eventually otheis will join them in theii objectives.


14
0ne last acauemic scholai woithy of note is Eqbal Ahmeu, who is a well
known anu highly acclaimeu anti-colonialism scholai, noteu that the "teiioiist of
yesteiuay is the heio of touay, anu the heio of yesteiuay becomes the teiioiist of
touay. This is a seiious mattei of the constantly changing woilu of images in which
we have to keep oui heaus stiaight to know what teiioiism is anu is not" (Ahmenu,
1889, p.2u; Nahan & uiiset, 4). Ahmeu classifies teiioiism into five uistinct gioups:
state teiioiism, ieligious teiioiism, ciiminal teiioiism political teiioiism, anu
oppositional teiioiism, which all use teiioiism methous to iesist the goveinment
(Nahan & uiiset, 4). The scholaily uefinition of "teiioiism" continues to vaiy
uepenuing on the backgiounu anu uiscipline of the acauemic.
Teiioiism is a ciime unuei inteinational law. Fuitheimoie, being labeleu a
teiioiist has ieal woilu consequences foi all paities involveu. If an oiganization oi
inuiviuual is labeleu a teiioiist, the label places negative attiibutes onto theii
political ambitions: "Quite simply, fieeuom fighteis coulu be seen as iebels,
extiemists oi sepaiationists, anu a national libeiation movements coulu be
uesciibeu as insuiiections uepenuing on peiceptions anu whethei the question is
auuiesseu by those who question the iegime in powei oi aie sympathetic o the
iegime in powei. Noieovei, iebels, extiemists oi sepeiationists have been
conveiteu to patiiots anu fieeuom fighteis on the achievement of inuepenuence of a
countiy; hence the uefinitional pioblem has become moie acute in the post-colonial
eia anu in the uecaues following the Seconu Woilu Wai" (Chaii, S4). Nany times the
label of "fieeuom fightei" anu "teiioiist" aie useu on the same inuiviuual oi
oiganization, biinging even moie confusion to the uebate (Nahan & uiiset, S).


1S
B>B "#$ "$,,),-./ F-680 4.9@#)()E9 +68 ;$(-$3
!"#$%$&'
Teiioiism is often examineu thiough a naiiow lens. We look at the act of
teiioiism, without evei tiuly examining who is the teiioiist. Wheie uoes the
teiioiist come fiom. What is his oi hei backgiounu. Why uiu the teiioiist commit
the act. The minu of the teiioiist is vital in unueistanuing teiioiism.
Theie aie common tiaits founu in the inuiviuuals who commit these types of
violent acts. The teiioiist feels infeiioi to his laigei enemy, but moially supeiioi. Be
feels as if he has been wiongeu anu teiioiism is a means thiough which he can
ietaliate. The act of teiioiism is the iesult of this uistaste foi the laigei enemy.
Thiough teiioiist acts, the teiioiist believes that they can gain powei thiough the
use of feai. Teiioi gives a feeling of powei to the poweiless.
Theie is no ieal way to unueistanu anu pieuict human behavioi. A teiioiist
act is even haiuei to unueistanu (Nahan &uiiset, 1). The uefinition is in a constant
state of change. It evolves baseu on the new political situations anu the way that
nation states anu political entities piocess anu iesponu to these events (Combs, 9).
Teiioiism is also vieweu as a foim of political violence anu a type of waifaie.
Teiioiists often use the meuia to uelivei theii messages anu look to it as a
measuie of theii success: "The act of teiioi.|isj uesigneu to convey a message to
inuiviuual taiget gioups anu the geneial population. Political teiioiism, theiefoie,
contains an element of theatie. In this mannei, the woilu has been conveiteu into
the stage foi teiioiism's uiama. The piincipal actois on that stage aie the teiioiists


16
anu the agencies of the State, with the auuience compiising the taiget gioups, the
geneial population anu the inteinational community. The auuience is equally, if not
moie impoitant than the actual victims of teiioiism" (Chaii, S4-SS). The evei-
incieasing amounts of communication technologies wiuen the stage foi teiioiist
oiganizations. Television, iauio, piint meuia anu the Inteinet biing live coveiage of
events to vieweis acioss the globe.
Foi the teiioiist, theie is usually an ongoing peisonal stiuggle. This may
incluue events of embaiiassment, iepiession, oi haiassment. Seconuly, the teiioiist
is expecteu to have extieme views anu beliefs. Bis oi hei beliefs aie moie extieme
than otheis in his oi hei situation. Thiiuly, foi the teiioiist theie is veiy little ioom
foi flexibility. Events anu uecisions aie seen in teims of black anu white. Theie is a
neeu foi iesponsibility, blame anu ietaliation. Lastly, a teiioiist usually holus "a
capacity to suppiess all moial constiaints against haiming innocents whethei uue to
instinct oi acquiieu factois, inuiviuuals, oi gioup foices" (Naham & uiiset, 11).
Beliefs of moiality aie uiscaiueu in oiuei to achieve the act of violence.
Nany teiioiists expeiience violence giowing up. They often come fiom
maiginalizeu communities, wheie they feel neglecteu. 0ften these aieas expeiience
violence, ueath anu uestiuction as a pait of eveiyuay life. They know fiom fiisthanu
expeiience that violence huits those involveu. Teiioiists believe that if they use
violence against theii mighty enemy, it will huit them as well (Aiuila, 12). Acts of
teiioi allow inuiviuuals who feel wiongeu to feel poweiful thiough the use of feai
(Aiuila, 1u).


17
A teiioiist's commitment to his iueology is unbenuing. Theie is no ioom foi
negotiation oi compiomise: "In many ways teiioiists uo not giow, they aie stuck in
the iut of theii unbenuing iueology. A malignancy of the minu which is the piincipal
comoibiu of psychopathology of teiioi" (Navaiio, 2S). A teiioiist holus onto an
unbieakable iuea oi passion. This inuestiuctible passion is what uiives the
inuiviuual into violence: "To teiioiize, a teiioiist must have an iuea, a thought, a
passion, a hatieu, an iueology so fixeu anu iigiu, that he can caiiy out a violent act
without ieflection, iemoise, oi hesitation" (Navaiio, 26). The iuea is set in stone
anu the teiioiist's minu in unchanging: even haiu eviuence will fail to impact his
coie beliefs (Navaiio, 26).
Nany teiioiists also suffei fiom "Nagical Thinking". They aie convinceu that
"somehow the uestiuction of that which |theyj uespise oi hate will somehow cuie
the ills of the woilu" (Navaiio, S4). Theii beliefs aie set on achieving uniealistic
goals anu "they see themselves as saciifices foi theii ueities, anu they count on the
appioval anu the backing of theii cultuie. These beliefs give sense to theii lives,
symbolic foims to achieve immoitality thiough theii own ueaths" (Aiuila, 12).
Bijackings of planes have not stoppeu people fiom flying. Teiioiist attacks on buses,
have not stoppeu people fiom taking public tianspoitation. People continue to go to
woik in lowei Nanhattan uespite the uestiuction of the Woilu Tiaue Toweis.
Ameiicans continue to have piesence in the Niuule East uespite the attempts to get
iiu of them anu Inuia continues to thiive uespite teiioiist activities in anu aiounu
its boiueis.


18
The iigiuity of the teiioiist's iueology ultimately foices the teiioiist into
seclusion. Family, fiienus anu hobbies aie eventually pusheu out of the inuiviuual's
life because of theii gieatei commitment to theii iueology. This leaves the inuiviuual
fuithei isolateu anu longing foi a gioup that shaies similai inteiests anu beliefs. A
gioup pioviues "its membeis the emotion of 1/2'4/#&36141%9- which ensuies them
some uegiee of encouiagement foi obvious iisks of uangeis. Auuitionally, |the
gioupj helps to &3%1*/341@# the wiong uoing anu gives (*&341%9 to its membeis to
justify theii selves.|5%#&#*%9"1/= allowsj membeis of the gioup |toj uehumanize
theii enemies anu justify to kill the otheis in minu" (Navaiio, 74). The teiioiist's
uissatisfaction with the woilu aiounu him is auvanceu by his stubboinness anu in
his unwillingness anu inability to auapt to the conuitions that suiiounu him. Bis
unbieakable iueology makes the woilu anu its piocesses into black anu white teims.
The gioup ieaffiims the teiioiist's beliefs, isolating the inuiviuual fuithei fiom
ieality (Navaiio, 27).
Take foi example, Ramzi Yousef, a conspiiatoi in the 199S Woilu Tiaue
Centei bombings. Yousef's iueology, stubboin anu unchanging anu his
uissatisfaction foi the woilu aiounu him, maue it easy to justify the teiioiist attack.
Yousef's beliefs "became unbenuing ioau maps oi templates to action which |hej
puisueu without iemoise.supiemely committeu to theii iespective iueologies, |hej
iemains uefiantly uniepentant"(Navaiio, 27). Yousef is cleai example of how
iueology pushes inuiviuuals into extiemist measuies such as teiioiism (Navaiio,
28).


19
(#)*$+,%-.' 0),-.* $1 , 0#))$)-*.
In Eiic Boffei's "Tiue Believeis" mass movement paiauigm, he iuentifies the
key membeis that make up mass movements. Fiistly, theie aie the leaueis. The
leaueis aie select in numbei anu aie the membeis of the gioup who aie usually the
most euucateu. These leaueis have chaiisma, a gianu vision anu a plan of action
(Navaiio, 28).
These leaueis aie welcoming to the next categoiy, the followei. The followeis
seek to fill a missing gap in theii lives: "Those who see theii lives as wasteu anu
spoileu tenu to ciave equality, fiateinity, anu oiuei that comes fiom mass
movements. Teiioiist oiganizations iemaikably fill this voiu" (Navaiio, 28). In the
stuuy: ,7#*&1#5 *+ A&15(B ./01210'34 <3"1%34 3/0 ;&'5%&3%1*/- the authois finu that
inuiviuuals who tuin to teiioiism, insteau of othei methous of confiontation,
tiauitionally come fiom backgiounus of poveity anu lack of euucation: "violence,
teiioiism in paiticulai is pieuominantly an option foi the people who have lowei
social, cultuial oi economic capital. People who have highei levels of capital woulu
be moie likely to follow a uiffeient path othei than violence" (uunes & 0zeien, S1).
Nany scholais have founu that teiioiists uo not uo well in school, anu have little
successes in theii caieeis latei on in life. They aie usually loneis, anu outsiueis
(Navaiio, SS). Teiioiists feel lost anu aie on a seaich foi powei. They have a ueep
faith in theii iueologies anu its potential to leau them to bettei lives. Bowevei, these
inuiviuuals haiuly commit teiioiist acts on a tiansnational level. Nost commit acts


2u
of teiioi locally. Theii fame is limiteu to theii immeuiate aiea anu they aie quickly
foigotten about.
While an unbenuing iueology is ciitical in unueistanuing teiioiism, it is
impoitant to look at othei peisonality tiaits of teiioiists anu teiioiist gioups. 0ne
tiait of a teiioiist is the ability to view the woilu in two uistinct ways:
"Psychological splitting is a "piimitive way to look at the woilu, much as a pieuatoi
uoes, uiviuing the woilu between that which is useful anu suuuenly useless, with no
miuule giounu" (Navaiio, S7). The woilu is sepaiateu into black anu white anu
theie is no ioom foi movement in between. Psychological Splitting is uangeious
because it uismisses the impoitance of histoiy. Theiefoie, theie is no leaining fiom
past mistakes. Psychological splitting also has a seiious impact on the teiioiist's
ielationship with othei people. If the teiioiist feels betiayeu by an inuiviuual, the
teiioiist can tiansfoim fiom fiienu to foe in a mattei of seconus (Navaiio S7).
Buiing the events of Septembei 11
th
, Flight 11's flight attenuants, Naueleine
Amy Sweeny anu Betty 0ng, uesciibeu a hoiiific scene of how oiuinaiy passengeis
tiansfoimeu into muiueious hijackeis. They weie sitting in theii seats in one
moment anu following the flight attenuant's oiueis. The next moment these
inuiviuuals took ovei the plane in a bloouy fight: "The uocile teiioiist sitting in the
aiiciaft suuuenly |becamej mass muiueis. A chilling example of "splitting" at woik"
(Navaiio, S8). In physiological splitting theie is no miuule giounus. The woilu is put
into simple teims: "Its is a ihetoiic of "us" against "them", kinuness against evil, with


21
iuealization of "us" anu piojection on them", of all that is bau" (Kiknauze, SS).
Beepei angei with society staits fiom within (Kiknauze, SS).
Anothei chaiactei tiait founu in teiioiists anu especially the leaueis of
teiioiist oiganizations is naicissism. Naicissistic inuiviuuals see themselves as
special anu unique. They see themselves as the only ones with the capability of
being iight. They aie the only ones capable of fully unueistanuing an issue anu the
only ones with the iight solutions to theii pioblems. Take foi example, 0sama bin
Lauen, who is a textbook example of a naicissist. Bin Lauen sees himself as a self-
iighteous stiugglei foi the holy lanu, Sauui Aiabia, anu the only way to fight foi the
holy lanu is thiough jihau. Naicissists aie uncompiomising anu most often lack
compassion oi empathy foi otheis. Bue to the lack of feelings, "naicissists have
piimitive objective ielationships, which aie functional iathei than meaningful. They
see themselves as impoitant even without achievement anu may feel entitleu to
unlimiteu success, fame, foitune, oi sex, usually by taking shoitcuts." (Navaiio; S9).
Naicissistic inuiviuuals aie stiongly giounueu in theii beliefs anu holu little
patience foi those who aie opposeu to theii views (Baie, 7S-89).
Naicissistic chaiacteiistics combineu with feelings of neglect anu infeiioiity
leau many teiioiists to suffei fiom feelings of being incomplete. Nany a time, these
inuiviuuals feel foigotten oi uisiegaiueu by society. "Consequently they attempt to
amelioiate what is missing fiom theii lives by subsciibing to poweiful iueologies
which give them puipose, comfoit, anu meaning (Boffei, 147; Navaiio, 41). These
inuiviuuals feel poweiless anu as a iesult tuin to gioups who offei them might. This


22
longing foi powei anu feeling of having been foigotten explains the continueu
success of al-Qaeua in Afghanistan. Teiioiist gioups, such as al-Qaeua, piomise a
bettei life anu a iichei futuie. Noieovei, ieligion contiibutes an even ueepei
context. }ihau in the context of ieligion piomises a holy anu meaningful expeiience,
in the puisuit foi powei (Navaiio, 41)
Anothei peisonality tiait founu in teiioiists, howevei often foigotten, is feai.
It is feai that uiives hatieu anu iueology. "Iiieconcilable feai is ueep within its
subconscious, it gives foim to theii unbenuing iueology, it lies nestleu within the
pathological psyche of the teiioiist" (Navaiio, 4S). These feais can iange fiom
people to change that spaik the hatieu anu motivate the teiioiist's coie beliefs.
Fuitheimoie, theie aie coie feais that come with the unbenuing iueologies of
teiioiists. Theie aie feais of being caught, while tiying to puisue an act of teiioiism.
Theie aie feais of failuie, the inability to follow thiough. These peisonal feais aie
piincipal, but most impoitantly theie is the feai of loosing one's leaueis: "So much is
usually at stake; so much has been entiusteu to these malevolent chaiismatic
leaueis that often the mission becomes one of piotecting the leauei at the expense
of committing fuithei teiioiist acts" (Navaiio, 46). The leauei of the teiioiist
oiganization pioviues guiuance anu powei foi the inuiviuual. Without the leaueis,
the followeis woulu go back to the feelings of being incomplete anu foigotten.
Naicissism, incompleteness anu feai aie significant peisonality tiaits of
teiioiists. These chaiacteiistics leau to stiong anu inflexible iueologies. Feai pushes
the teiioiists into passionate hatieu anu couises of violence. Both Inuia anu the


2S
0niteu States suffei fiom teiioiism. These teiioiists use violence anu feai tactics to
cieate feai in theii enemies. Teiioiism allows these inuiviuuals anu gioups to feel
poweiful against theii much laigei auveisaiies.
2-3,"-*45 63' (#)*$+,%-.' 7$8+.*
}ihau, oi Boly wai, is not a new concept in Islam. It occuis when non-Nuslims
thieaten a Nuslim teiiitoiy (Nenuelsohn, 4u). In fact, the concept of }ihau has been
aiounu since the founuing of the ieligion. In iecent yeais, the populaiity of }ihau has
giown at a iapiu speeu. Tiauitionally ieseiveu foi leaueis, it is now acceptable foi
oiuinaiy membeis to kill anu huit otheis in the name of theii uou. In the 21
st

centuiy }ihau ievitalizeu anu founu a new following. Befoie }ihau was founu in only
ceitain populations. Now it is an accepteu foim of fighting foi many Nuslims acioss
the globe. }ihau has giown fiom local to global anu is gaining populaiity with
Nuslims all ovei the woilu. }ihau has become a souice of mobilization anu
unification. }ihau is no longei limiteu to just a few states; it is a woiluwiue issue
affiiming iauical iueological beliefs (Nenuelsohn, S8). Boly wais caiiieu out by
teiioiist attacks aie now at the foiefiont of the 0niteu States anu Inuian political
agenuas.
In his book: <*(63%1/= C173015(B D(#&1$3/ E#=#(*/9 3/0 ./%#&5%3%#
$**"#&3%1*/ 1/ %7# F3& */ ,#&&*&15(- Baiak Nenuelsohn, iuentifies thiee majoi
events which leu to the tiansfoimation of }ihau fiom the local to global scale. }ihaus
ieemeigence fiist occuiieu uuiing the wai in Afghanistan uuiing the 198us. The
0niteu States, Pakistan, anu Sauui Aiabia encouiageu young Nuslims fiom acioss


24
the Niuule East to come to Afghanistan to help fight off the Soviet aimy. Aftei all, a
non-Nuslim entity outiageu Nuslims fiom all ovei the woilu: "This wai leu to the
ievival of the notion of }ihau as a collective uuty; foi many of the volunteeis who
came to cential Asia to wage oi suppoit the militaiy effoit, it installeu the belief that
jihau was the solution to the ummah's weaknesses anu the key to ietuining it to its
eaily uays" (Nenuelsohn, S8). Not long aftei, jihauism giew out of contiol anu was
soon expoiteu to othei countiies. The call to jihau in Afghanistan unifieu inuiviuuals
fiom all ovei the woilu, paiticulaily the Niuule East, in theii stiong beliefs anu gave
them piactical battlegiounu expeiience. The withuiawal of Soviet tioops gave the
Nuslim militants a feeling of victoiy, anu that jihau was a successful methou of
fighting foi ones goals (Nenuelsohn, S8).
Buiing the 199us, "0sama bin Lauen anu his al Qaeua netwoik pioviueu an
oiganizational anu iueological base foi a jihaui movement compiising membeis
fiom uiffeient nations, a global ieach, anu iueology with global scope" (Nenuelsohn,
S8). The events of Septembei 11
th
maue }ihau in the local a pait of a gieatei
movement against the infiuel (Nenelsohn, S8). Within the }ihau movement, the
Pakistani became a pait of this much laigei movement anu gave many Pakistanis
theii fiist ieal feelings of belonging.





2S
---. 4+,/-/-)60 "#$ =))/. )3 4+5-./+6- 78$6/-/9 4,)*($A.
In 17S7, the Biitish East Inuia Company conqueieu the lanu that is now known
as Inuia anu Pakistan fiom the Nughal Bynasty. The Biitish occupieu the lanu until
1947. Baseu on the two-nation theoiy, "Binuus anu Nuslims who liveu in Inuia weie
two uistinct, uiffeient, anu at times antagonistic cultuial entities.. These two
cultuial entities in Inuia hau a histoiical anu civilizational backuiop, an iuentity, anu
a self-image of theii own, having uiffeient sets of chaiacteiistics, yet, in the context
of Inuian politics, each one's iuentity anu unity was paiasitic on the othei" (Ahmeu,
S6). Ignoiing the uiffeient cultuies anu ethnicities that fell unueineath "Binuu" anu
"Nuslim", the Biitish paititioneu the laige lanumass into Inuia, a state foi Binuus,
anu Pakistan, a state foi Nuslims. The iegion known as Kashmii iemaineu a
uisputeu teiiitoiy. In 196S, the tensions ovei Kashmii leau to full-scale wai. The
uispute ovei Kashmii still iemains in effect touay, anu often leaus to cycles of
ieoccuiiing violence (Ahmeu, S8).
The Biitish fiist began theii iule ovei Inuia in 18S7. The uiveisity of Inuia's
population has cieateu tensions anu political pioblems foi Inuia befoie its
inuepenuence fiom the Biitish on the August 1S, 1947. Teiioiism committeu by
iauical Binuu factions was piominent in Inuia piioi to 19S9. The violence foi the
most pait, taigeteu theii Biitish occupieis. Bowevei, aftei the yeais 19S9 anu
paiticulaily 194S, Nuslims, Sikhs anu a few iauical Binuu gioups pieuominantly
began to use teiioiism as a means to ieach theii political objectives (Laqueui, 1Su).


26
At the time of the enu of the Biitish Empiie's iule ovei Inuia, Inuia was
paititioneu into two sepaiate states. 0ne lanu mass was Inuia, which woulu seive
the Binuu population. The othei countiy cieateu was calleu Pakistan, a state foi the
Nuslim population. Pakistan was to be the countiy cieateu foi the Nuslims of Inuia.
Pakistan woulu be a countiy that woulu pieseive theii iights, ieligion anu cultuie.
The hope was to biing peace anu cieate an enu to Binuu anu Nuslim clashes in the
lanu iegion (Inuia).
Aftei the 1947 paitition, it was hopeu that the newly foimeu countiy of
Pakistan woulu become a poweiful stiong state foi the Nuslims in the iegion. The
countiy woulu not only pieseive Nuslim iights anu inteiests, but it woulu giow
hopefully to be something much moie poweiful. In fact, many envisioneu Pakistan
woulu become a Nuslim homelanu- a place foi all Nuslims.
The leau up anu afteimath of the Biitish paitition hau an impoitant impact
on the veiy iuentity of the Pakistani. Fiom the veiy beginning, Pakistan has hau the
uaunting task of tiying to cieate its own chaiactei. The Pakistani iuentity hau to be
uiffeient fiom the Inuian iuentity anu this chaiactei woulu have to be iealizeu anu
accepteu acioss the globe. It was imagineu that a stiong Pakistani iuentity woulu
emeige aftei the paitition. Insteau of establishing a unifieu national iuentity,
Pakistan was built upon the common uislike towaius Inuia, anu sepaiateu
ethnicities. Feelings of abhoiience towaius Inuia fiom the paitition anu the
iesulting conflict ovei Kashmii still plague the Pakistani iuentity touay. Pakistanis


27
inability to establish a stiong national iuentity has leau many inuiviuuals to tuin to
jihau anu othei teiioiist methous in theii seaich foi iuentity (}affielot, 7).
G>C 4,)*($A. H,)A /#$ </+,/
It is obvious that theie aie cleai ieasons foi why Pakistanis have chosen
teiioiism, opposeu to othei ways in which to auuiess issues of Pakistani iuentity
within the context of Pakistani anu Inuian confiontation. Fiistly, many Pakistanis
still blame Inuia foi inteinal pioblems anu lack of belonging baseu on the lines of
Islam anu Binuuism. Theie is a ieal sense of longing foi powei. Pakistanis feels
poweiless against the Inuian state, which is big anu stiong anu not easily moveu. W.
Bowaiu Wiiggens uesciibeu the ielationship between Inuia anu Pakistan as: "the
simple fact of size anu stiategic anu economic asymmetiy.Bowevei unjustifieu
Inuian leaueis may have thought, Pakistan's ovei-iiuing concein vis--vis Inuia was
feai, feai of Inuia's size, the size of its aimy.anu feai compounueu out of infiequent
public statements by piominent Inuians iegietting the tiageuy of paitition anu
ieiteiating the inheient unity of the subcontinent" (Bussain, 267). In many ways the
tension between the two countiies is necessaiy in oiuei foi Pakistan to function as a
countiy. By cieating a foim of colu wai, Pakistanis have founu a common thieat in
Inuia.
Pait of the pioblem has to uo with Pakistan's confusion ovei the nation anu
nationalism. "Nationalism is an iueology, be it baseu on teiiitoiial oi ethnic notions"
(}affielot, 7). The Fiench Sociologist Naicel Nauss, uesciibeu the nation as: " a
society mateiially anu moitally integiateu, with stable anu peimanent centializeu


28
powei, well establisheu boiueis, a ielative moial, mental anu cultuial unity of its
inhabitants who consciously auheie to the state anu its laws>. 0nuei the nation, sub-
national iuentities aie uismisseu. Pakistan on the othei hanu, has ielieu heavily on
ethnicity as a souice of ueiiveu iuentity. Theiefoie, "Pakistan appeais to be an
unachieveu nation piecisely because of the peisistence of ethnic iuentities, which
may even be uesciibeu as 'nationalities'. The 'two-nation theoiy' gave the countiy a
/3%1*/3415% iueology-it has even been uesciibeu as an 'iueological state-which has
been foimulateu 3=31/5% Inuia, the 'othei nation'. But it uiu not enuow Pakistan with
the sociological qualities of a nation" (}affielot, 7-8). Even the commonality of
ieligion, has cieateu tension anu eiuptions of fighting between Sunni anu Shias
Nuslims (}affielot, 8). Nationalism against the othei nation, Inuia, seems to have
hobbleu the foimulation of a national iuentity insteau of cieating the nation, which
they hau uieameu of.
Nuhammeu Ali }innah, the cieatoi of the iuea of Pakistan on the Inuian
Subcontinent anu its fiist leauei, "wanteu to builu a stiong state ielying on the
thieefolu piinciple 'one nation, one cultuie, one language'"(}affielot, 8). Be believeu
that Pakistan was the only way to keep safe Nuslim welfaie anu inteiests. Be
believeu that Nuslim inteiests coulu not compete with the newly emeiging Inuian
state. Bis thieefolu piinciple was his iueal, coming fiom the Nuslim piovinces of Raj,
wheie he faceu social uecline anu was a minoiity within the iegion. In fact, the
0niteu Piovinces' Nuslim leaueis hau been piepaiing foi the Pakistani state aftei
the Biitish policies implementeu following the 18S7 'Revolt'. Piopeities weie
confiscateu anu the Nuslim elite weie uisciiminateu against by goveinmental


29
pioceeuings, as well as the intiouuction of uemociacy to the iegion. As minoiities in
these iegions, the Nuslims hau moie to lose anu theiefoie a lot moie to gain fiom
theii own state (}affielot, 9). It was this feai of uecline anu maiginalization that leu
to the founuation of a state foi Nuslims. In fact, "the fiist Nuslim sepaiatist
movements iesulteu fiom the ieaction of the Nuslim elite fiom Noithein Inuia,
whose piivilegeu position came to be challengeu by the iise of Binuu intelligentsia, a
gioup which benefiteu fiom its moie iapiu assimilation into the English-meuium
euucational system anu the anti-Nuslim bias of the Biitish till the late 19
th
centuiy"
(}affielot, 1u). As a uiiect iesult of these Biitish policies, political paities anu
oiganizations like the Nuslim league weie foimeu, with the goal of fosteiing Nuslim
unity anu pieseiving the language of 0iuu, which was piomoteu as the language of
the Nuslims.
Wheie Nuslims weie the minoiity, the iuea of Pakistan anu pieseiving
Nuslim iights began to spieau. 0n the contiaiy, in places wheie the Nuslim
populations weie the majoiity, such as Punjab oi Bengal, Nuslims weie moie
content because they iuleu ovei themselves (}affielot, 11). Foi the Nuslims who felt
maiginalizeu by the Biitish, they iemaineu hopeful that Islam anu 0iuu coulu unite
anu piomote mobilization among Nuslims acioss the subcontinent.
Aftei the emeigence of the state of Pakistan, the iifts in Pakistani iuentity
began to emeige. 0ne of these iifts was baseu on the competing visions of the
Pakistani state. The Nohajiis sought a state baseu on the uoctiine of Islam. The
Punjabs, on the othei hanu, hau seen Pakistan as the uiiect iesult of Binuus


Su
thieatening Islam anu theii social iights. The Nohajiis immeuiately gaineu a lot of
influence in the newly establisheu state; both the piesiuent anu the piime ministei
weie Nohajiis. Within ten yeais, while the Nohajii's Nuslim uoctiine iemaineu in
tact, the influence tiansfeiieu to the Punjabis who hau alieauy begun to iuentify
with the same iueology. They hau alieauy auopteu 0iuu as an official language
(}affielot, 18).
While these two gioups iemaineu influential, the Bengalis, on the othei hanu,
weie ignoieu anu uisciiminateu against, uespite the fact that they foimeu a majoiity
of the population. 0ne example of uisciimination against Bengalis occuiieu in Naich
1949, when "the Constituent Assembly appointeu a Basic Piinciples Committee
which submitteu its iepoit in Septembei 19Su. It iecommenueu the establishment
of a feueial uemociacy. The Punjabi iepiesentatives immeuiately objecteu that East
Pakistan shoulu not be alloweu to be in a position to uominate West Pakistan simply
because the Bengalis weie in a laigei numbei" (}affielot, 18). Fuitheimoie, by
making 0iuu the national language, Bengalis weie left angiy anu mobilizeu to
pieseive theii own language, liteiatuie anu cultuie. The fight between the Bengalis
anu the cential goveinment uiu not enu without violence anu spuiieu a Bengalis
nationalist movement.
The Bengalis aie just one gioup who tuineu to sepaiatist movements in
Pakistan because of unfaii policies of its leaueis. The Sinuhis, the Baluchis, anu othei
gioups have hau oi still uo have sepaiatist movements in Pakistan. The failuie of


S1
Pakistani leaueis to unify the uiffeient peoples who make up Pakistan has
contiibuteu gieatly to its failuie to establish a Pakistani iuentity (}affielot, Su-S4).
Sectaiianism, as a substitute iuentity, has become a seiious souice of conflict
in teims of national iuentity. The authoi, Niiiam Abu Zahab, uesciibes Pakistan
having been lost in its national iuentity: "Pakistan has nevei been a nation-state;
highly fiagmenteu, it has faileu in integiating the people into a nation by making
theii Pakistani iuentity theii most tieasuieu possession" (Zahab, 77). Insteau of the
nation, inuiviuuals weie foiceu to iuentify with othei fiagmenteu iuentities. This
incluueu: caste, ethnic gioup, language oi sect of Islam.
Foi those who founu a souice of ethnic iuentity in the 197us, it was almost
immeuiately outlaweu anu vieweu as uisloyalty. Buiing the 198us anu the Afghan
wai, iuentity was linkeu to ieligious Islam (Zahab, 77). "Ziaul Baq's Islamization
policy.meant state monopoly on ieligion anu uominance of a paiticulai sect, anu
biought.theological uiffeiences to the foie" (Zahab, 79). ueneial Zia's Islamization
campaign was pieuominantly Sunni in scope anu infuiiateu Shia. The campaign was
also a uiiect thieat to Shia social status in Paksitan. As a iesult of the Afghanistan
anu wai anu the Iianian Revolution, Shias weie fuithei mobilizeu anu empoweieu
(Nasi, 87). 0utsiue Shia influences weie using Pakistan to fuithei theii own political
ambitions.
Sunni anu Shia violence has eiupteu fiequently in Pakistan's shoit histoiy.
Since the 198us both Sunni anu Shia paities have emeigeu iesponsible foi
piomoting violence. These paities incluue: "Sunni Sipah-e-Sahaba Pakistan


S2
(Pakistan's 'Aimy of the Piophet's Companions' oi SSP, establisheu in 1984) anu its
allies, the Sunni Tahiik ('Sunni movement', establisheu in 199S), Tehiik Nifaz
Shaiiat-I Nuhammaui ('Novement foi Piotection of Nuhammau's Religious Law',
establisheu in 1994), Lashkai-e-}hangvi (}hangvi Aimy', establisheu in 199u),
Lashkai-e-Taiba ('The Aimy of the Puie', foimeu in 1997-8), anu Tehiik-I }afaiia
Pakistan ('Pakistan's Shia Novement ' oi T}P, foimeu in 1979) anu its militant
offshoot, Sipnah-e-Nuhammau ('Aimy of Nuhammau oi SN, foimeu in 1991)"
(Nasi, 8S). It has not helpeu the situation that many of these gioups ieceive funus
fiom outsiue of Pakistan. Sauui Aiabia has been known to senu financial suppoit to
Sunni gioups in Pakistan, while Iian has also helpeu suppoit anu mobilize Shia
gioups in the iegion (Nasi, S2). These gioups piomote a sense of belonging anu
places foi inuiviuuals who feel uisconnecteu to the goveinment in Pakistan. Clashes
among Sunni anu Shia gioups have fuithei given iise to the Pakistani Taliban (Nasi,
8S). The Pakistani iuentity has become fiagmenteu: "It has metamoiphoseu fiom
ieligious schism into political conflict aiounu mobilization of communal iuentity"
(Nasi, 86). Now sect of ieligion has given way as a foim of political iuentity anu
violence has eiupteu because of it.
0ne case of sectaiianism occuiieu in Cential anu South Punjab, wheie
political schisms uuiing the 197us, leu to a lot of iesentment among the local
populations. Since paitition, the Pakistani goveinment hau ignoieu South Punjab. In
both Cential anu South Punjab, the aieas aie poveity stiicken with the exception of
a few wealthy lanuowneis who have maintaineu theii wealth ovei the yeais by
tuining theii lanu into oichius anu then using machines insteau of some of the


SS
expeiienceu laboieis in the aiea. With othei meuium lanuowneis moving in, much
of the iuial population has been tuineu away fiom theii tiauitional jobs anu have no
lanu to go to. Fast moving social anu economic changes, iapiu paceu uibanization,
the auuition of new classes, anu a poweiful unchanging iuling elite leau to extieme
poveity anu social inequalities in the iegion. "Sectaiian militancy in this context can
be uesciibeu as a ieaction to a giowing sense of insecuiity anu hopelessness
iesulting fiom uneven uistiibution of iesouices, as a ievolt of upiooteu anu
maiginalizeu peiipheiy uepiiveu of access to the political aiena" (Zahab, 79-8u).
With the lack of inuustiialization anu euucation, anu the malfunction of tiauitional
stiuctuie, sect became a souice of iuentity. Sectaiianism seives as a platfoim of
shaieu angei anu fiustiation anu a chance at powei in a iegion that has pusheu
them into poveity (Zahab, 8u).
In Punjab, euucation was haiuly evei maue available to chiluien because it
was believeu that with euucation, the chiluien woulu leave foi the uiban aieas anu
woulu theiefoie neglect theii social enu economic iole as laboieis. Since theie was a
ieal lack of piopei euucation in Punjab, (30&3535- began to inciease in numbei
uuiing the seconu half of the 199us. The (30&3535 came into being because of
"ieligious paities iauicalizeu foieign influences staiteu ieceiving foieign funus
which they then useu to launch campaigns in favoi of theii piogiams" (Zahab, 11S).
These (30&3535- have become successful: "Not all (30&3535 aie sectaiian but the
sectaiian have multiplieu. In a feuual enviionment wheie violence is pait of the
socio-political cultuie anu is even valueu, the sectaiian (30&3535 iuentify with the
paities which piotect them, pieach violence foi enfoicement of theii kinu of Islam


S4
anu the elimination of othei sects" (Zahab, 8S). Religious political paities align
themselves anu opeiate many of the (30&3535? The G30&3535 aie known foi
teaching violence anu hatieu towaius othei sects of Islam. }ihau oi Boly Wai is not
only foi the non-Nuslims, foi the (30&3535- the infiuel has become membeis of
othei sects of Islam. Poveity anu no ieal access to euucation foices these young
chiluien of iuial peasants towaius extiemism anu violence.
In (30&3535- stuuents aie given an euucation, foou, louging, anu most
impoitantly a place to belong. Classes aie taught in Aiabic, which even the teacheis
uo not fully unueistanu. Stuuents aie taught goou behavioi anu obeuience thiough
physical abuse. The stuuents of the (30&3535 aie cut off fiom the iest of the society
anu finu a puipose in life by seiving theii ieligion. The (30&3535 give theii stuuents'
families a iespectful place in society: "The paients gain iespect of the local ('4437
foi senuing theii chiluien to these schools, a 7301%7 says that the paients of a 73+1@:#
H'&3/ will be blesseu with a luminous ciown on the Bay of }uugment" (Zahab, 8S).
The (30&3535 gives theii stuuents a place to belong anu a futuie. Bue to fact that
theie is a ieal lack of Pakistani national iuentity, inuiviuuals who have been affecteu
negatively by change have tuineu to oi in the case of (30&3535 been taught to seek
an iuentity within ieligion that puts emphasis on hate towaius the Pakistani othei
with a vaiying belief system (Zahab, 84).
Nany who have faileu oi uioppeu out of the 0iuu system of euucation lack a
ieal euucation, anu theiefoie job qualifications. Theii lack of euucation has left them
feeling isolateu fiom the iest of society. Theii families aie too pooi to suppoit them,


SS
anu they cannot iely on the goveinment to help them. They aie left stianueu,
seaiching foi a sense of belonging anu a longing foi a chaiismatic leauei to take
them to a bettei life. In South Punjab, wheie Shias tiauitionally helu a lot of lanu anu
powei, "ieligion has become a tool anu a social uemaication iathei than a faith, the
membeis of the othei sect aie vieweu as iivals anu as a thieat to the mateiial status
of one's community. Sectaiianism has been useu as an umbiella foi the stiuggle of
the emeiging classes against moie entiencheu inteiests" (Zahab, 86). The new
challenge to the Shia lanuowneis aie the Sunni miuule class. Nany of the Sunnis
come fiom an anti-Shia iueological backgiounu anu as a iesult tension anu violence
that has escalateu ovei the past uecaue (Zahab, 8S).
Insteau of unifying the Nuslim people in Pakistan, ieligion has become a
souice of conflict anu a souice foi national iuentity. Extiemist gioups now iival the
tiauitional ieligious paities, who have faileu to poitiay the tiue vision of Islam.
Sunni veisus Shia tensions have tuineu into enuless iounus of violence: "The iivaliy
has uegeneiateu into a chain ieaction of vengeance anu tit-foi-tat killing in a society
wheie ievenge is vieweu by most as a natuial sentiment linkeu to ones iuentity anu
ones honoi"(Zahab, 87). This ieligious fiustiation has taken a ieal toll on the
Pakistani iuentity. Nany people feel like the goveinment has faileu them. Nany
come fiom poveity anu little euucation. With no ieal feeling of belonging in
Pakistan, it is easy to see how ieligion woulu seive as a founuation foi a souice of
iuentity. Bowevei, the uiffeient sects of Islam, have cieateu fuithei uiviues among
the people: "Theie is no ueaith of unemployeu young people who aie looking foi a
solution to theii economic pioblems anu who think that an Islamic ievolution is


S6
long oveiuue in Pakistan" (Zahab, 124), The act of }ihau is applieu to the geneial
Pakistani society. Batieu towaius the othei is a ieligious mission anu can be easily
spieau to places acioss the woilu. Pakistanis have fallen victim to helplessness anu
uespaii anu aie tuining to othei means of iuentity.
0nfaii goveinmental policies anu iuentity confiontations have leau to a
changing view of }ihau among many of Pakistan's citizens. }ihau became an accepteu
tool of combat against the Soviet's take ovei of Afghanistan. With the success of
}ihau against the Soviets, many Pakistanis anu Nuslims acioss the woilu see }ihau as
a suitable way of achieving a goal. The lack of a Pakistani national iuentity has
pusheu Pakistanis into finuing alteinative iuentities anu into the comfoiting hanus
of }ihauist movements.
}ihaui movements can be seen as eaily 18uus in the Inuian subcontinent. But
it was not until 1927, when Abul Kalam Azau Nuhammau Ilyas Kanuhalawi ueclaieu
that }ihau shoulu be useu upon the Binuus, who aie the tiue enemies of Islam. }ihau
has iemaineu an impoitant pait of Pakistani iuentity-oi lack theie of. Buiing the
199us, Pakistanis became even moie ieliant upon }ihaui movements to fostei a
sense of national iuentity: "The enu of economic piospeiity, auueu to a huge
uemogiaphic giowth, uiove many low anu miuule class people into unemployment.
The political instability as well as coiiuption of the iuling class, helpeu to ieactivate
the unueigiounu myth of an iueal Islamic paiauigm. Last, but not least, the seizuie
of powei by some veiy piivilegeu gioups convinceu the uestitute classes that they
uiu not have a futuie in theii own countiy" (Boivin, 1u7). Auuitionally, with the enu


S7
of the Afghan wai, Pakistani-sponsoieu Taliban gaineu a footholu in Afghanistan.
Insteau of the }ihaui movement coming to a close, the }ihaui movements weie
expoiteu to the Kashmii anu gaineu in populaiity (Boivin, 1u7). With no ieal place
to call home, poveity anu an uncleai national iuentity to ielate to leau to a lot of
fiustiation, which has playeu a laige iole within }ihau in Pakistan anu acioss the
globe.
G>B 768-+ 13/$, 4+,/-/-)6
Since Inuia's inuepenuence fiom the Biitish Empiie, it has hau an ongoing
stiuggle against teiioiism. Inuia has woikeu haiu at builuing a stiong state: "The
pioblem has to be seen in the context of the fact that the Inuian 5%3%# alone has the
monopoly of the use of foice anu the state ueiives its legitimacy by stiiving to
iealize the values which the Inuian people have ieposeu in the constitution.If the
Inuian people lose faith in 0#(*$&3%1$- "#3$#+'4 anu 4#=34 methous of biinging about
changes in oui society then the cult of violence woulu piogiessively become a
giowing anu menacing ieality in Inuia which will ultimately uestioy the tenuous
civic oiuei that exists touay (Tiwaii, viii). The impoitance of uemociacy is appaient
in Inuian Society. Bowevei, theie has been a "wiuespieau feeling |thatj has giown in
Inuia that oui uemociatic piocesses often iemain opaque even to the ueeply felt anu
just giievances of one oi the othei sections of oui people" (Tiwaii, vii). This "ueeply
felt anu justice giievances" have cieateu a lot of pioblems in mouein Inuian society
(Tiwaii, vii).


S8
Inuia's fight foi inuepenuence was met by two uistinct couises of action. 0ne
pusheu foi teiioiist acts taigeting the Biitish. Bhagwati Chaian, an active membei
of the Binuustan Socialist Republican Association (BSRA), suppoiteu teiioiism as a
means to enu Biitish iule: "Belibeiate misiule has ieuuceu us to paupeis, has bleu
us white. As a iace anu as a people we stanu uishonoieu anu outiageu.we shall
have oui ievenge, a people's iighteous ievenge on the tyiant" (Chaian, 19Su,
exceipteu in Nanan & uiiset, 42). Chaian anu the BSRA committeu uelibeiate acts of
teiioiism. Foi example, they thiough bombs off public galleiy in the Legislative
Assembly anu attempteu to blow up a tiain station. They also shot a police officei.
Chaian uieu when a bomb blew up in his hanus (Nanan & uiiset, 42). Teiioiism
cieateu powei foi the Chaian anu the BSRA, aftei feeling oppiesseu by theii moie
poweiful Biitish occupieis.
The othei movement, heaueu by Nohanuas Kaiamchanu uanuhi, uigeu foi a
non-violent iesistance: civil uisobeuience anu nonviolent tactics. uanuhi was highly
euucateu anu it was his movement that ultimately succeeueu. Theie aie howevei,
many scholais who believe that the teiioiist activities contiibuteu gieatly in
libeiating Inuia fiom the hanus of the Biitish: Inuiviuual in natuie, the teiioiists
helu the belief that Inuian inuepenuence can be bought about by a seiies of
ievolutionaiy outiages calculateu to instill feai into the Biitish officials anu uiive
them out of Inuia" (Shaima, S9). The Wahhabis, a puiitanical Islamist sect, cieateu a
lot of violence in Inuia, woiking haiu against the Biitish colonialists. These teiioiist
methous occuiieu thiough out Inuia but especially in Bengel anu the uppei pait of


S9
Inuia. This methou of action latei spieau to the Punjab aiea, 0ntieu Piovinces, Belhi,
Nauias, Bihai anu 0iissa (Shaima, S9).
The Republic of Inuia, touay, is the seventh laigest countiy in the woilu,
coveiing 1,222,SS9 squaie miles of lanu anu holus the seconu laigest population of
1,198,uuS,uuu people as of 2uu9. Inuia's population is maue up of a vaiiety of
peoples: Inuigenous, invaueis anu otheis who have migiateu to the lanu ovei time.
Inuia is a uiveise countiy. Though the official languages of Inuia aie Binuu anu
English, seveial othei languages aie spoken acioss Inuia's gieat lanumass. Nost of
the Inuian population piactices Binuuism, but theie aie seveial otheis who piactice
Islam, Sikhism, Chiistianity, along with seveial othei ieligions (Inuia). Nost
impoitantly it is successful anu Inuia's citizens have an Inuian Iuentity.
G>G 4+5-./+6- "$,,), -6 768-+
When cieating a new state, nation-builuing exeicises iequiie some inuiviuuals
involveu to give up some of theii own inteiests foi the inteiest of the state. This
howevei, has the potential to upset minoiity publics: "The minoiity politics when
vulgaiizeu to manipulate ciuuei powei at the hustings activitizes these sub-gioups
into fanaticism anu funuamentalism. The teiioiist tactics iepiesent an aiticulate
attempt to cieate missionaiies, Nessiahs anu maityis foi a so calleu cause which
can electiify the insecuie anu blinuen the ignoiant to fight unuei the leaueiship of
self-appointeu fascists" (Shaima, 49-Su). Theie aie seveial types of teiioiist
movements opeiating in anu aiounu Inuia. These gioups holu a vaiiety of views anu


4u
goals specific to wheie it is locateu anu ieligious anu ethnic backgiounu of those
involveu (Tiwaii, x).
Teiioiism in Inuia has pieuominantly been concentiateu in Kashmii anu
Punjab. These conflicts stem fiom both, ethnic anu ieligious clashes that have been
ongoing since even befoie the time of Inuia's inuepenuence fiom Biitain (Laquei,
1S1). The Inuian goveinment chose to ignoie the sensitive situations in Kashmii
anu Punjab: "In iegaiu to ieconciling these factions, the Binuu Inuian goveinment
has shown little political acumen. It might have been impossible to pacify the
extiemists among the Nuslims in Kashmii anu the Sikh in Punjab, but this was a
stiategy the Inuians uiu not even ieally tiy" (Laquei, 1S1). This piomoteu fuithei
outiage within Pakistan anu has causeu the angei anu fiustiation, so often founu
within a teiioiist's motives. Foi Pakistanis, teiioiism has cieateu a sensation of
powei anu muscle against the state that ignoieu them anu has not alloweu Kashmii
to become a pait of Pakistan
Since 199u, ovei twenty thousanu people have been killeu fiom teiioiist
attacks in Kashmii. Bowevei, the teiioiism in Kashmii anu thioughout Inuia uiu not
make it to the woilu stage until 1998, when both Inuia anu Pakistan uetonateu
nucleai uevices (Laquei, 1Su). Kashmii's population is laigely maue up of
inuiviuuals who conveiteu to Islam at some point eaily on in histoiy. Kashmii was
tiauitionally ieligiously seculai, uanuhi going as fai to call it: "an islanu of
seculaiism on the Inuian subcontinent" (Laquei, 1S1). Kashmii is pait of the ue
facto boiuei between Inuia anu Pakistan, cieateu at the enu of the Inuia-Pakistan


41
Wai in 1949. Kashmii, along with anothei state, }ammu, became a constitute state, a
state a pait of Inuia, with its own goveinment anu guiuing legal uocuments. This
uecision was heaueu by the then Binuu iule of Kashmii. The legality of this issue has
been fought ovei evei since: "In the next half-centuiy the Kashmii issue woulu be a
piimaiy tiiggei of Inuian-Pakistani wais anu aimeu confiontations as well as
inteiactive teiioiism between Inuia anu Kashmiii sepaiatists anu Islamist gioups"
(Bekmejian, 111). The tensions that have seemeu to always exist between Kashmii
anu the Inuian goveinment continues to be a souice of conflict.
Aftei Inuia's inuepenuence, his goveinment took the action of aiiesting one
of Kashmiis highly acclaimeu leaueis, Sheikh Abuullah. This act, incieaseu political
tensions anu also gave Pakistan a iole in the conflict. Fuitheimoie, Kashmii's
population is split with two uiffeient political goals: The fiist wants its own
inuepenuent state. The othei wants to become a pait of Pakistan. Pakistan has been
giving impoitant political anu monetaiy suppoit to the Nuslim extiemists who want
this uieam to become a ieality. By Pakistan suppoiting the Kashmiii sepaiatist
movement, Pakistan has helpeu tiansfoim this conflict into a }ihau, oi holy wai, anu
in the piocess has shapeu the acts of violence into teiioiist acts: "The geneial
stiategy of the Islamic iauicals has been to attack anu muiuei the local Binuus
(calleu Kashmiii Panuits) anu Sikhs anu so foice them to leave the iegion" (Laquei,
1S1). As a iesult, houses have been uestioyeu anu people have been muiueieu.
Seveial Inuian accounts state that the violence taigeting the local Binuu populations
aie " tiying to exteiminate the Binuu population of Kashmii oi at least uiive them to
fall so that the iegion will become a pait of Pakistan" (Laquei, 1S1). 0ne of the


42
Kashmiii Nuslim gioups E3&3I3% D4 D/53& continueu to uetonate teiioiist attacks in
Inuia's majoi cities, incluuing New Belhi (Laquei, 1S1).
Pioblems in Kashmii began to giow uuiing the 198us, uue to conflict with
the cential goveinment in New Belhi anu local politics within Kashmii. In 1987, the
0niteu Nuslim Fiont, a political pait, lost the election anu its wake spaikeu uebate
on whethei the election hau been tampeieu with. As a iesult violence eiupteu the
following yeai: "In }uly 1988, the }ammu anu Kashmii Libeiation Fiont (}KLF)
bombeu two sites in Siinagai, followeu by kiunappings in exchange foi militants
helu in Inuian }ails" (Bekmejian, 114). This teiioiism was sponsoieu by Pakistan. In
the 198us, Kashmii was just a sepaiatist gioup within Inuia. In the 199us, the
sepaiatist gioup took on a iauical Islamist face (Bekmejian, 1u8).
Pakistan, a weakei anu smallei countiy than Inuia, came up with seveial
stiategies in oiuei to confiont its enemy in oiuei to annex Inuian-contiolleu
Kashmii. It fiistly cieateu seveial impoitant militaiy alliances with the 0niteu States
anu China. This alloweu Pakistan piotection fiom the 0niteu States anu aiu. Fiom
China it was able to gain nucleai capabilities. Next, Pakistan auopteu a iauical
Islamist iueology anu iuentity. In fact, "Pakistani uecision-makeis, sensing an Inuian
winuow of vulneiability in Kashmii, have sought to exploit a notion of Nuslim
confiateinity to suppoit the insuigents. 0n the othei hanu, Islam has also been useu
as a vehicle to mobilize a uisaffecteu population anu challenge the wiit of the Inuian
State in Kashmii" (uanguly, 179). This enableu Pakistan to mobilize its citizens
along with the Nuslims in Kashmii to caiiy out holy wai in Inuia, cieating seveial


4S
teiioiist oiganizations ueuicateu to killing the Binuu infiuel thiough }ihau. Teiioiist
attacks caiiieu out by these oiganizations incluue: Binuu massacies, cai bombs,
suiciue bombings, lanu mines anu othei explosive uevices (Bekmejian, 114).
Actions taken by Pakistan weie seen as "iational iesponses of a weakei
powei seeking to equalize a stiongei neighboi" (Bekmejian, 11S). The actions taken
by Pakistan weie in oiuei to cieate powei against Inuia (Bekmejian, 11S). Pakistan
is a weakei anu moie vulneiable countiy than Inuia anu chose to fight against Inuia
thiough acts of teiioiism, wheie it enjoyeu a limiteu amount of success. They felt
stiongei helping the smallei extiemist gioups in Inuia anu these acts allow
Pakistani's the feeling of powei against theii massive enemy of Inuia. Though theie
have been seveial attempts to figuie out a lasting peace, Inuia anu Pakistan have
ieacheu an equilibiium baseu on nucleai powei (Bekmejian, 118).
Teiioiism is often "expiessions of |a teiioiist'sj inuiviuual pathologies such
as paianoia, iuentity ciisis, cognitive uisoiueis, anu a feeling of infeiioiity,
helplessness, iejection oi maiginality" (Bekmejian, 2S). An act of teiioiism can be
committeu because of peisonal vengeance to a iange of psychological pathologies
(Bekmejian, 2S). 0ne scholai, Eiic Eiikson believes that teiioiists "aie in a state of
"patienthoou" that must be iemeuieu thiough some "meuium of
salvation""(Bekmejian, 2S). These inuiviuuals aie unable to hanule theii own
peisonal pioblems, anu theiefoie, "pioject theii inuiviuual patienthoous upon
society anu, in theii attempt to univeisalize theii peisonal pain, coulu focus on the
uestiuction of a leauing figuie oi monument" (Bekmejian, 26). Though the acts of


44
violence aie usually political in natuie, the ieasons behinus aie usually uue to
conuitions of uepiivation anu a want of fame anu gloiy (Bekmejian, 26). This is
cleaily what is occuiiing in Inuia. Teiioiism cieates a feeling of powei foi the
Pakistanis who commit the act, filling the voiu of uepiivation by making otheis feel
theii pain. Teiioiism anu the act of }ihau give a false sense of belonging anu puipose
in woilu wheie they feel uisciiminateu. Acts of teiioiism against Inuia by Pakistanis
cieate a feeling of influence anu powei foi the poweiless.
The inuiviuuals anu gioups iesponsible foi teiioiism in Inuia, feel infeiioi to
the massive anu stiong state. These teiioiists feel that they have been seiveu an
injustice by the state. Teiioiism allows them to feel poweiful, by taking out theii
pain anu fiustiations on innocent people. The act of teiioiism is often moie
impoitant than the oveiall goal. In a sense, the injustice uone to the teiioiist is
passeu on to otheis, anu the teiioiist feels a limiteu sense of powei above the state
anu above the inuiviuuals they see to have uone them wiong.
G>I :-#+8 +68 /#$ 4+5-./+6- 78$6/-/9
The attacks of Septembei 11th have hau a lasting impact on }ihauism in
Pakistan anu the Pakistani iuentity. }ihau was put into the spotlight anu the attacks
weie gloiifieu acioss the iegion. As a iesult of the attacks of Septembei 11th, The
0niteu States began a long piocess of applieu piessuie onto the Pakistani
goveinment. The 0niteu States has uemanueu that Pakistan gain contiol of its tiibal
aieas anu }ihauist movements. The piessuie fiom the 0niteu States, since the 199us,
anu its actions in Iiaq anu Afghanistan have infuiiateu many Pakistanis. Thiough the


4S
couise of teiioiism, Pakistanis have ieclaimeu }ihau as a means of peisonal
ietiibution. Pakistanis have now immigiateu to countiies coveiing the globe. The
West offeieu many a uieam of stability anu iuentity, but even in these Westein
countiies, Pakistanis cannot hiue fiom theii lack of a concise national iuentity. This
explains why }ihau against Westein states has become the ultimate fiustiation of
the Pakistani iuentity.
The two state solution, uiu not biing an enu to Nuslim anu Binuu clashes on
the subcontinent. Theie weie thiee moie wais between Inuia anu Pakistan that
occuiieu in 1948, 196S anu 1971 (Bussain, 266). In 1971, a new countiy,
Banglauesh, was foimeu, which iesulteu fiom fighting with Pakistan. Since the late
199us, Inuia anu Pakistan have thieateneu each othei with nucleai oveitones: "The
Inuian nucleai test explosions of 11 anu 1S Nay 1998, anu Pakistan 's iival nucleai
tests two weeks latei have unleasheu a new stiategic uynamic which has gave
implications foi the cause of peace anu stability in South Asia" (Bussain, 266). The
Pakistani anu Inuian conflict seems to be impoitant to the veiy function of Pakistan
anu the people living in Pakistan. The ieasoning behinu this fact is that Pakistani
anu Inuian iivaliy has become a souice of iuentity foi the Pakistani chaiactei.
G>J K#+/L. %$M/N
This accounts foi the iecent teiioiist attacks that occuiieu in Numbai in
2uu8. Lashkai-e-Taiba oi LeT is a well-known teiioiist oiganization thioughout
Inuia anu Pakistan anu is now gaining a following inteinationally. LeT has caiiieu
out seveial attacks in Inuia on the behalf of the stiuggle in Kashmii. They weie also


46
behinu the 2uu8 attacks in Numbai, wheie populai hotels foi westeineis, along
with a }ewish centei weie attackeu. The LeT leu attacks on Numbai iepiesenteu
moie than just an attack on Inuia. It was an attack on the West anu the }ews. The
only suiviving Numbai teiioiist, Ajmal Kasab, iepoiteu to the authoiities that the
teiioiists have been oiueieu to taiget Ameiican, Biitish anu Isiaeli citizens
"because they have uone injustice to the Nuslims" (Kahn, 1). It biought the global
}ihauist movement into the veiy heait of Inuia.
It is ceitain now that Pakistanis aie often finuing themselves in }ihau
movements as acts against those who uo not belong. Now we see a laigei
phenomenon. Pakistanis, who have migiateu to othei countiies, incluuing westein
countiies, aie now making theii uebut as the next Pakistani teiioiists. The lack of a
ieal Pakistani iuentity has now ciosseu continents anu the 0niteu Kinguom anu the
0niteu States aie the fiist to feel the global Pakistani fiustiation.
















47
-/. 2)6@(?.-)60 4+5-./+6- 78$6/-/9 +68 /#$ K$./

Aftei the massive teiioiist attack of Septembei 11, 2uu1, the 0niteu States
ueclaieu a wai on teiioiism. The Wai on Teiioi continues to be fought touay, often
concentiateu on Al-Qaeua anu its stiong holus in Afghanistan. Yet, what seems to be
misseu by the 0niteu States anu its westein allies is Pakistan's ciucial link to the
wai on teiioi. Pakistan's inteinal issues iemain uniesolveu. The lack of a Pakistani
iuentity anu Pakistanis acceptance into the global jihauist movement, as a means of
iuentity, shoulu gieatly concein westein states. Noieovei, the fact that Ameiican
citizens with Pakistani ioots aie now joining the fight against the 0niteu States anu
the west shoulu be at the foiefiont of 0niteu States foieign policy anu the Wai on
Teiioi. The iecent foileu attack planneu by Faisal Shahzau exemplifies Pakistanis
emeiging position at the foiefiont of teiioiism.
Touay, the most notable teiioiist thieat in the 0niteu States comes fiom
iauical Islamic teiioiism, specifically Pakistani teiioi. These teiioiists aie not only
fiom the Niuule East; seveial of them have 0niteu States citizenship anu aie
angeieu by the 0niteu State's continueu piessuie on Pakistan to contiol teiioiist
cells within the countiy. Pakistani teiioiism in the 0niteu States is not a new
phenomenon anu neeus to be lookeu at moie closely.

0ne of the fiist inciuents of Pakistani teiioiism tianspiieu in 199S. Thiee
significant events occuiieu that weie fueleu by Nuslim fanaticism. Fiistly, on
}anuaiy 2S, 199S a shooting occuiieu at the Cential Intelligence Agency (CIA)
heauquaiteis in Langley viiginia: "neaily a uecaue ago on tiaffic-chokeu Chain


48
Biiuge Roau in Langley. }ust befoie 8 a.m., Kasi steppeu out of his Izusu pickup
tiuck, shoulueieu an AK-47 anu began fiiing methouically at motoiists waiting to
tuin in to CIA heauquaiteis" (Bavis & ulou, 1). Nii Aimal Kasi, a Pakistani, was the
fiist of many willing to uie foi his cause. It was iepoiteu that he was unhappy with
the 0niteu States' foieign policy, which he felt huit Nuslims acioss the globe. Kasi
fleu to Pakistan anu in 2uu2 was caught anu extiauiteu to the 0niteu States. Be latei
ieceiveu the ueath sentence foi his ciimes, which injuieu thiee people anu killeu
one (Bavis & ulou, 1).
The bombing of the Woilu Tiaue Centei's noithein towei on Febiuaiy 26,
199S, was a sign of fai woise things to come. Ramzi Yousef, who's ieal name was
Abuul Basit Nahmounu Abuul Kaiim, was the son of a Palestinian mothei anu a
Pakistani fathei. Be hau giown up in Kuwait city anu hau hau a family in Pakistan.
Bis actions weie iepoiteuly motivateu by his uevotion to the Palestinian cause anu
his hatieu foi the }ewish people (Wiight, 2u2): "0n Febiuaiy 26, 199S, a ienteu
Foiu Econoline van enteieu the Woilu Tiaue Centei's massive basement paiking
gaiage. Insiue the tiuck was Ramzi Yousef. It was uncleai if bin Lauen sent him, but
he was the piouuct of an al-Qaeua camp in Afghanistan, wheie he hau leaineu his
bomb-ciaft. Be hau come to Ameiica to oveisee the constiuction of what the FBI
latei ueteimineu was the laigest impioviseu explosive uevice the buieau hau evei
encounteieu. Yousef lit foui twenty-foot-long fuses anu fleu to a vantage point just
noith of Canal Stieet, fiom which he expecteu to see the builuing fall" (Wiight, 2u1-
2u2). The attack was meant to knock out both toweis, by having the Noithein
towei fall into the Southein towei. Though theii teiioiist attack uiu not go as


49
planneu, they still manageu to kill six people anu injuieu ovei a thousanu otheis
(Wiight, 2uS). Yousef, with his Pakistani ioots, was the fiist of his kinu to
successfully launch a full-scale teiioiist attack on Ameiican soil. Be, along with the
othei teiioiists, felt like theii wants anu neeus, along with countless otheis, weie
being ignoieu. By taking on othei inuiviuual's buiuens, they valiuateu theii cause
anu actions. Foi Yousef, theie was no alteinative action, anu theii actions of teiioi
weie completely justifieu.
Latei that yeai, anothei teiioiist attack plot meant to taiget othei populai
Ameiican lanumaiks was foileu. 0mai Abuel-Rahman, a iauical New Yoik sheikh
anu iecognizeu leauei of the gioup, Al-uama'a al-Islamiyya, known foi its
connections with al-Qaeua, masteiminueu the planneu attack. "Sheikh 0mai Abu al-
Rahman, a iauical ieligious scholai.|hauj couiteu bin Lauen, hoping to secuie his
financial suppoit foi theii pet piojects, incluuing the assassination of Piesiuent
Nuhammau Zia ul-Baq of Pakistan anu Piesiuent Bosni Nubaiak of Egypt who, in
theii opinion, hau become apostates"(Williams, 77). Taigets incluueu: the ueoige
Washington Biiuge, the Lincoln anu Bollanu Tunnels, the FBI New Yoik City
heauquaiteis, anu the 0niteu Nations builuing. 0thei plans consisteu of kiunapping
Piesiuent Nixon, assassinating the foimei Egyptian piesiuent, uamal Abuel Nassai,
anu potentially hitting }ewish taigets. The ieasons behinu the attack weie maue
cleai by Rahman, at his conviction tiial: "The 0niteu States, he saiu, was Islam's
gieatest enemy, a countiy intent on wiping Islam fiom the face of the Eaith. The
case against him, he saiu, was simply a pait of this campaign, an attempt to silence
him because of his ieligion" (ulauwell, 1). To Rahman, the 0niteu States was the


Su
ultimate enemy, a thieat to his ieligion, anu his coie beliefs. Be felt that the
Pakistani leauei at the time, along with the Egyptian Piesiuent, was not uoing the
jobs successfully anu in the tiue path of Islam. The netwoiks that these inuiviuuals
weie an active pait of pioviueu the stiuctuie anu confiimation of theii beliefs anu
actions (Chalianu & Blin, S22).
The foileu planneu attack in Times Squaie highlights the new ambitions of
Pakistani teiioiist oiganizations. Lashkai-e-Taiba is incieasingly woiking on
inteinational teiioi plots: "Lashkai's fingeipiints have been founu on anti-Westein
attacks anu plots fiom Afghanistan to Iiaq, Bhaka to Copenhagen.Shoitly aftei
|thej Numbai |teiioiist attacksj, Pakistani authoiities aiiesteu allegeu LeT
communications specialist Zaiai Shah anu iepoiteuly uiscoveieu on his laptop a list
of S2u potential taigets, most of them outsiue Inuia--incluuing sites in Euiope"
(Kahn, 1). Fuitheimoie, not long aftei the Numbai attacks, Baviu Coleman Beauley,
an Ameiican-Pakistani was accuseu of gatheiing suiveillance foi LeT uuiing the
Numbai attacks. Aftei gatheiing infoimation fiom Beauley, 0.S. authoiities founu
fuithei eviuence of a planneu LeT teiioiist attacks, taigeting the Banish Newspapei
office that publisheu the 2uuS caitoon of Nuhammau. Not long aftei the aiiest,
othei LeT membeis weie chaigeu with planning attacks on the 0niteu States anu
0niteu Kinguom Embassies in Bhaka (Kahn, 1). uatheiing fiom the iecent aiiests,
the executeu teiioiist attack in Numbai anu the planneu teiioiist attacks against
Westein taigets, LeT anu othei Pakistani militant gioups aie going to incieasingly
pose a teiioiist iisk at home, in the 0niteu States, anu abioau.


S1
LeT iuns its tiaining piogiams openly anu is estimateu to have tiaineu ovei
2uu,uuu people fiom Inuia to Noith Ameiica. Incieasing piessuies by the 0ntieu
States have left many Pakistanis angiy, because of the sensitive situation. LeT is well
known foi its chaiity woik in Kashmii anu Punjab. It helps to pioviue the most basic
of seivices incluuing: bloou banks, schools, clinics anu an ambulance seivice.
Fuitheimoie, "Pakistan's militaiy may hesitate to go aftei Al Qaeua in the tiibal
aieas, but it's even less eagei to confiont Lashkai at its base in the countiy's
heaitlanu... LeT anu the Pakistani Aimy uiaw many of theii ieciuits fiom the same
pooi Punjabi aieas, often fiom the same families, anu LeT's humanitaiian wing
woikeu alongsiue the Pakistani militaiy to help civilians uisplaceu uuiing the
Aimy's campaign to ietake the Swat valley fiom the Taliban"(Kahn, 2). Pakistan
now finus itself in a haiu place. LeT has pioviueu not only stiuctuie but also a sense
of iuentity foi many who feel as if they uo not belong. The 0niteu States piessuiing
Pakistan to monitoi anu get iiu of these gioups makes the situation even moie
uelicate, which is why Pakistani teiioiism towaius the west shows only signs of
incieasing.
The gieatest thieat to Inuia anu the 0niteu States is Pakistani teiioiism
fueleu by the lack of a Pakistani iuentity anu extiemist Nuslim ihetoiic. Aftei
uiscussing the ueepei context of what is teiioiism, who is a teiioiist anu why
teiioiism occuis, it is cleai why Pakistani teiioiism is pieuictable anu why
Paksitani sponsoieu teiioiism against Inuia anu the West will most likely be on the
iise in the futuie. Pakistani teiioiists anu acts of teiioiism aie on the climbing
because of the veiy pioblem of Pakistani iuentity, oi the lack of one. Since the


S2
paitition between Inuia anu Pakistan, Pakistan has stiuggleu in cieating a unifieu
Pakistani iuentity. Pakistan tiieu tuining towaius hatieu towaius Inuia anu
sepaiatism only to still is uealing with the same issues aftei sixty-thiee yeais of
inuepenuence.
The global jihauism movement in Pakistan has become as an unintenueu
consequence of the Inuian Paitition. Pakistanis aie looking foi what eveiy human
being ciaves: a sense of belonging anu iuentity. While many of the (30&3535J foimei
stuuents become maityis on the local level, in aieas such as Kashmii anu Punjab, we
now see euucateu inuiviuuals with Pakistani backgiounus at the foiefiont of
teiioiism in the West. Nany Pakistanis have founu a souice of iuentity in the global
jihauist movements. These gioups have become a place of belonging, along with a
way to vent fiustiation. With a builuing piessuie on Pakistan fiom the West, moie
anu moie Pakistanis aie communicating theii feelings of isolation thiough acts of
teiioiism.









SS
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