OBJECTIVES To identify the different types of textiles. To name the different companies utilizing the different types of textiles.

s. To determine the different manufacturing process, chemical reactions and equipment involved in the production of different types of textiles. To determine the historical evolution of textile fibers

TEXTILE INDUSTRY

TEXTILE INDUSTRY
The textile and cloth and the industry is primarily

concerned with the production of yarn, subsequent design or manufacture of clothing and their distribution. The raw material may be natural or synthetic using products of the chemical industry. The word textile may be simply defined in two ways: as a woven or knit cloth and as fiber (collective term for filaments). Filament is a very fine thread or threadlike structure. White yarn is thread made by twisting fibers used in making cloth. Textile is any product manufactured from fibers through twisting, interlacing, bonding, looping and any other means, in such a manner that the flexibility, strength and other characteristic properties of individual fibers are not suppressed. Textile manufacturing is a major industry. It is based in the conversion of three types of fiber into yarn, then fabric, then textiles. These are then fabricated into clothes or other artifacts. Cottonremains the most important natural fiber, so is treated in depth. There are many variable processes available at the spinning and fabric-forming stages coupled with the complexities of thefinishing and coloration processes to the production of wide ranges of products. There remains a large industry that uses hand techniques to achieve the same results. Fibers are the smallest units from which fabrics are made, by on process or another. Some fibers are short, other is very long, some are kinky, others are straight and smooth, some are scaly and some are twisted. TEXTILE INDUSTRY 2

Varieties of Textile Fibers (according to nature of source) 1. Natural- found in nature in fibrous form. Example :vegetable fiber, animal fiber and mineral fiber 2. Man-made- transformed by man from non-fibrous sources. Example: natural polymer and synthetic fibers 3. Manufactured made from cellulose or protein Example: viscose rayon, acetate, olefins The difference between manufactured and synthetic fibers is that the manufactured fibers are derived from naturally-occurring cellulose or protein, while synthetic fibers are not. And manufactured fibers are unlike natural fibers because they require extensive processing (or at least more than is required by natural fibers) to become the finished product. The category of manufactured fibers is often called regenerated cellulose fibers. Cellulose is a carbohydrate and the chief component in the walls of plants.

MANUFACTURING PRODUCTION OF RAYON

I. INTRODUCTION For a very long period of human history, man fibers. depended However, many on with natural These the elements to make fibers for advances clothing. were natural technological made synthetic

man

fibers were developed. Man-made fibers have two main categories: One that are made from natural products (cellulosic fibers) and the other that are synthesized from chemical compounds (noncellulosic polymer fibers).

TEXTILE INDUSTRY

Rayon

fiber is

natural-based

material

made

from

the

cellulose

of wood pulp or cotton fiber. In fact, they are made from reformed or regenerated cellulose. As such, they are identified as regenerated cellulose fibers. Rayon was developed in France in 1884 as an artificial substitute to silk. It was called artificial silk until 1924, when its name was changed to rayon to describe the properties of the almost metallic, lustrous fabric as it reflected the rays of the sun. Rayon is a semi-synthetic fiber made from cotton fiber or regenerated/reformed wood cellulose. Rayon is also known as a regenerated cellulose fiber. Federal Trade Commission Definition for Rayon Fiber: A manufactured fiber composed of regenerated cellulose, in which substituents have replaced not more than 15% of the hydrogens of the hydroxyl groups. A. TYPES OF RAYON There are different types of rayon, including viscose rayon, high tenacity rayon, cupramonium rayon, high wet modulus rayon and rayon microfibers.

High Wet Modulus Rayon is a fiber that has an exceptionally high wet modulus of about 1 g/den and is used as parachute cords and other industrial uses. Polynosic Rayon is a fiber that has a very high degree of orientation, achieved as a result of very high stretching (up to 300 %) during processing. They have a unique fibrillar structure, high dry and wet strength, low elongation (8 to 11 %), relatively low water retention and very high wet modulus. Cuprammonium rayon is rayon made from cellulose dissolved

in cuprammonium solution. It is produced by making cellulose a soluble compound by combining it with copper and ammonia. Cuprammonium rayon is usually made in fine filaments that are used in lightweight summer dresses and blouses, sometimes in combination with cotton to make textured fabrics with slubbed, uneven surfaces.

TEXTILE INDUSTRY

High-tenacity rayon is another modified version of viscose that has almost twice the strength of HWM. This type of rayon is typically used for industrial purposes such as tire cord. Microfibers are not a type of rayon, but rather a very fine fiber that can be manufactured from either regular or HWM rayons. B. Uses and Application of Rayon Yarns: Neither build up static electricity, nor will it pill unless the yarn is made from short staple with low-twist thus preferred for sewing thread, Easily dyed in vivid colours so, used as embroidery thread, chenille, cord, novelty yarn. Apparel: Rayon as a cloth is soft and comfortable. It drapes well, which is one of the reasons it is so desirable as an apparel fabric. Thus it is popularly used for making blouses, dresses, saris, jackets, lingerie, linings, millinery (hats), slacks, sport shirts, sportswear, suits, ties, work clothes.

Fabrics: Rayon is the most absorbent of all cellulose fibers, even more so than cotton and linen (table 1). Because of this, rayon absorbs perspiration and allows it to evaporate away from the skin, making it an excellent summer fabric. Its high TEXTILE INDUSTRY 5

absorbency applies equally to dyes, allowing beautiful, deep, rich colours. Thus it is preferred for crepe, gabardine, suiting, lace, outer wear fabrics and linings for fur coats. Domestic Textiles: Fabrics made out of viscose rayon has silk-like aesthetic with superb drape and feel so, used for bedspreads, blankets, curtains, draperies, sheets, slip covers, tablecloths, and upholstery. Industrial Textiles: high-tenacity rayon is used as reinforcement to mechanical rubber goods (tires, conveyor belts, and hoses), applications within the aerospace, agricultural and textile industries, braided cord, tapes. It is also used for medical surgery products, non-woven products, tire cord etc. Other: Rayon is a major feedstock in the production of carbon fiber.

II. BRIEF HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT Rayon is the generic term used for fiber (and the resulting yarn and fabric) manufactured of regenerated cellulose. Its historical development started by an artificial silk theory. As natural silk was incredibly tedious to produce and therefore, was more expensive, chemists sought to synthesize their own silk which was given the name artificial silk. English naturalist Robert Hooke has theorized Artificial Silk first in 1664. He suggested that artificial filaments might be spun from a substance similar to that which silkworms secrete to make silk. This was often tried by various scientists in the ensuing years but not succeeded. Finally George Audemars, the Frenchman was able to make a thread by dipping a needle into a viscous solution of mulberry bark pulp and gummy rubber in 1855. While interesting from a scientific standpoint, this process was hardly viable economically - it was very slow, and required a great deal of skill and precision. The first commercial synthetic fiber was produced by Hilaire de Bernigaud, Count of Chardonnay (1839-1924) after 29 years of research, was patented in 1884, and manufactured by him in 1889. He came to be known as the 'father of rayon'.

TEXTILE INDUSTRY

Initially rayon was called "Artificial Silk", and many other names. In 1924, a committee formed by the U.S. Department of Commerce and various commercial associations decided upon the name "rayon" for "Artificial Silk". It was called "rayon" for one of two reasons: either because of its brightness and similarities in structure with cotton (sun = ray, on = cotton). The name Viscose was derived from the word viscous which means sticky spinning solution out of which Rayon was manufact ured. Thus the innovative cellulosic derivative has taken the present name of Viscose rayon. III. PROPERTIES Rayon is a versatile fiber and has the same comfort properties as natural fibers. It can imitate the feel and texture of silk, wool, cotton and linen. The fibers are easily dyed in a wide range of colors. Rayon fabrics are soft, smooth, cool, comfortable, and highly absorbent, but they do not insulate body heat, making them ideal for use in hot and humid climates. The following are the unique properties of Rayon: 1. Strength The tensile strength of viscose rayon is greater than wool but only about half as great as that of silk. 2. Elasticity Viscose rayon has greater elasticity than cotton or linen but less than wool or silk. 3. Resilience Resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically, and release that energy upon unloading.Viscose rayon lack the resilience like that of wool and silk and creases readily. 4. Drapability Drapability is the manner in which fabric hangs or falls.Viscose rayon have a good quality of drapability as it is a relatively heavyweight fabric. 5. Heat Conductivity Viscose rayon is a good conductor of heat and thus is appropriate for summer clothing. TEXTILE INDUSTRY 7

6. Absorbency Viscose rayon is one of the most absorbent fabrics, more absorbent than cotton or linen. Only wool and silk exceed rayon in absorbency. 7. Shrinkage Viscose rayon fabrics tend to shrink more than cotton fabrics of similar construction. Spun Viscose rayon fabrics shrink more with repeated laundering than fabrics made of the filament yarns. 8. Washability Viscose rayon fiber, due to its smoothness, produces such fabric that sheds dirt. Some of them wash easily. Finishes given to them decides whether they'll become yellow on washing or dry cleaning. Since viscose rayon temporarily loses strength when wet, it must be handled with care when washed. Rayon Fiber Characteristics

Highly absorbent Soft and comfortable Easy to dye Drapes well

Variations during spinning of viscose or during drawing of filaments provide a wide variety of fibers with a wide variety of properties. These include: Fibers with thickness of 1.7 to 5.0dtex, particularly those between 1.7 and 3.3 dtex, dominate large scale production. Tenacity ranges between 2.0 to 2.6 g/den when dry and 1.0 to 1.5 g/den when wet.Tenacity is the customary measure of strength of a fiber or yarn. In the U.S. it is usually defined as the ultimate (breaking) strength of the fiber (in gram-force units) divided by the denier. Wet strength of the fiber is of importance during its manufacturing and also in subsequent usage. Modifications in the production process have led to the problem of low wet strength being overcome. TEXTILE INDUSTRY 8

Dry and wet tenacies extend over a range depending on the degree of polymerization and crystallinity. The higher the crystallinity and orientation of rayon, the lower is the drop in tenacity upon wetting. Percentage elongation-at-break seems to vary from 10 to 30 % dry and 15 to 40 % wet. Elongation-at-break is seen to decrease with an increase in the degree of crystallinity and orientation of rayon. Thermal properties: Viscose rayon loses strength above 149 C; chars and decomposes at 177 to 204 C. It does not melt or stick at elevated temperatures. Chemical properties: Hot dilute acids attack rayon, whereas bases do not seem to significantly attack rayon. Rayon is attacked by bleaches at very high concentrations and by mildew under severe hot and moist conditions. Prolonged exposure to sunlight causes loss of strength because of degradation of cellulose chains. Abrasion resistance is fair and rayon resists pill formation. Rayon has both poor crease recovery and crease retention.

IV. COMPANIES IN THE PHILIPPINES

1. Polara Chemical Corporation

Polara (formerly Chemical Corporation has

Colokem

Corporation)

evolved from a mere marketer of dyestuff and auxiliaries into a source of a wide variety of specialty chemicals. The company has been supplying the textile industry for over 27 years and has diversified over the years to specialty chemicals. The company continues to provide high quality products and services in developing, testing, and repackaging merchandise that have contributed in the continuous development of our clientele.

TEXTILE INDUSTRY

2. Chung Nan Textile (Phils) Corp. Chung Nan Textile (Phils) Corp. is a company primarily engaged in weaving and manufacturing greige (grey) cloth and other clothing materials. The company was registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) on October 24, 1994, and with the Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority (SBMA) on November 10, 1995 in compliance with the Philippine laws and Republic Act No. 7227. V. RAW MATERIAL

The production of viscose rayon begins with purified cellulose. The major source of cellulose isspecially processed wood pulp harvested from pine, spruce, or hemlock trees. Bamboo hasrecently become a popular source for cellulose in rayon manufacturing, favored because of itsrapid growth cycle. Bamboo is commonly regarded as the world's fastest growing plant. The chemical composition of bamboo fiber is mainly cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin. Cellulose is the main material composed of bamboo fiber cells, as it is the significance of the textile fibers. Different bamboo ages will have different cellulose content, tender bamboo has 75%, 1-year-old has 66% and 3-years-old has 58. Average content of bamboo is about 22.7% and content also declined when ages are getting older, 2-year-old is 24.9% and 4-year-old is 23.6%.

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VI. MANUFACTURING PROCESS (VISCOSE RAYON) The process of manufacturing viscose rayon consists of the following steps mentioned, in the order that they are carried out: (1) Steeping, (2) Pressing, (3) Shredding, (4) Aging, (5) Xanthation, (6) Dissolving, (7)Ripening, (8) Filtering, (9) Degassing, (10) Spinning, (11) Drawing, (12) Washing, (13) Cutting. The manufacture of viscose rayon starts with the purification of cellulose. Bamboo trees are cut into timber. Their barks are removed and cut into pieces measuring 7/8" x 1/2" x 1/4". These pieces are treated with a solution of calcium bisulphite and cooked with steam under pressure for about 14 hours. The cellulosic component of the wood is unaffected by this treatment, but the cementing material called lignin, which is present in the wood, is converted into its sulphonated compound which is soluble in water. This can be washed off, thereby purifying the remaining cellulose. This cellulose is treated with excess of water. After this it is treated with a bleaching agent (sod hypochlorite) and finally converted into paper boards or sheets. This is called wood pulp, which is normally purchased by the manufacturers of viscose rayon. 1. Steeping Cellulose pulp is immersed in 17-20% aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH) at a temperature in the range of 18 to250C in order to swell the cellulose fibers and to convert cellulose to alkali cellulose. 2. Pressing The swollen alkali cellulose mass is pressed to a wet weight equivalent of 2.5 to 3.0 times the original pulp weight to obtain an accurate ratio of alkali to cellulose. 3. Shredding The pressed alkali cellulose is shredded mechanically to yield finely divided, fluffy particles called "crumbs". This step provides increased surface area of the alkali cellulose, thereby increasing its ability to react in the steps that follow.

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4. Aging The alkali-cellulose has to pass through an Aging process to adjust the degree of polymerization. The shredded alkali-cellulose is aged in a belt ageing device. The alkali cellulose is aged under controlled conditions of time and temperature (between 18 and 30 C) in order to depolymerize the cellulose to the desired degree of polymerization. In this step the average molecular weight of the original pulp is reduced by a factor of two to three. Reduction of the cellulose is done to get a viscose solution at right viscosity and cellulose concentration. Ageing contributes to viscosity of viscose. The longer the ageing time the less viscosity and the higher its degree of polymerization it will have. And the higher the DP of the fiber, the higher the tensile strength it will possess. 5. Xanthation In this step the aged alkali cellulose crumbs are placed in vats and are allowed to react with carbon disulphide under controlled temperature (20 to 30OC) to form cellulose xanthate. (C6H9O4ONa)n + nCS2 ----> (C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n Side reactions that occur along with the conversion of alkali cellulose to cellulose xanthate are responsible for the orange color of the xanthate crumb and also the resulting viscose solution. The orange cellulose xanthate crumb is dissolved in dilute sodium hydroxide at 15 to 20 oC under high-shear mixing conditions to obtain a viscous orange colored solution called "viscose", which is the basis for the manufacturing process. The viscose solution is then filtered (to get out the insoluble fiber material) and is deaerated. The rough homogenizer ensures that the viscose discharged from the xanthation machine contains virtually no particles larger than the gap between the two shredding rollers. Additionally the twin roller design can reduce the discharge time of the xanthation machine to minimize the batch cycle time, thereby raising the production capacity per machine. TEXTILE INDUSTRY 12

A viscose pump situated after the rough homogenizer sucks the xanthate from the wet churn through this rough homogenizer, and pumps it through fine homogenizers to the dissolving tank. 6. Dissolving The yellow crumb is dissolved in aqueous caustic solution. The large xanthate substituents on the cellulose force the chains apart, reducing the interchain hydrogen bonds and allowing water molecules to solvate and separate the chains, leading to solution of the otherwise insoluble cellulose. Because of the blocks of un-xanthated cellulose in the crystalline regions, the yellow crumb is not completely soluble at this stage. Because the cellulose xanthate solution (or more accurately, suspension) has a very high viscosity, it has been termed "viscose". 7. Ripening The viscose is allowed to stand for a period of time to "ripen". Two important processes occur during ripening: Redistribution and loss of xanthate groups. The reversible xanthation reaction allows some of the xanthate groups to revert to cellulosic hydroxyls and free CS2. This free CS2 can then escape or react with other hydroxyl on other portions of the cellulose chain. In this way, the ordered, or crystalline, regions are gradually broken down and more complete solution is achieved. The CS2 that is lost reduces the solubility of the cellulose and facilitates regeneration of the cellulose after it is formed into a filament. (C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n + nH2O ---> (C6H10O5)n + nCS2 + nNaOH 8. Filtering The viscose is filtered to remove undissolved materials that might disrupt the spinning process or cause defects in the rayon filament. 9. Degassing Bubbles of air entrapped in the viscose must be removed prior to extrusion or they would cause voids, or weak spots, in the fine rayon filaments.

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10. Spinning - (Wet Spinning): Production of Viscose Rayon Filament The viscose solution is metered through a spinnerette into a spin bath containing sulphuric acid (necessary to acidify the sodium cellulose xanthate), sodium sulphate (necessary to impart a high salt content to the bath which is useful in rapid coagulation of viscose), and zinc sulphate (exchange with sodium xanthate to form zinc xanthate, to cross link the cellulose molecules). Once the cellulose xanthate is neutralized and acidified, rapid coagulation of the rayon filaments occurs which is followed by simultaneous stretching and decomposition of cellulose xanthate to regenerated cellulose. Stretching and decomposition are vital for getting the desired tenacity and other properties of rayon. Slow regeneration of cellulose and stretching of rayon will lead to greater areas of crystallinity within the fiber, as is done with high-tenacity rayon. (C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n + (n/2)H2SO4 --> (C6H10O5)n + nCS2 + (n/2)Na2SO4

Elongation-at-break is seen to decrease with an increase in the degree of crystallinity and orientation of rayon. TEXTILE INDUSTRY 14

11. Drawing The rayon filaments are stretched while the cellulose chains are still relatively mobile. This causes the chains to stretch out and orient along the fiber axis. As the chains become more parallel, interchain hydrogen bonds form, giving the filaments its properties necessary for use as textile fibers. 12. Washing The freshly regenerated rayon contains many salts and other water soluble impurities which need to be removed. Several different washing techniques may be used. 13. Cutting If the rayon is to be used as staple (i.e., discreet lengths of fiber), the group of filaments (termed "tow") is passed through a rotary cutter to provide a fiber which can be processed in much the same way as cotton. Production of Rayon Fabrics After treatment with textile chemicals,

various weaving processes are carried out to produce rayon fabrics. Different varieties of yarns such as monofilament yarns, multifilament yarns, spun yarns etc. permit the manufacturing of a wide variety of fabrics. Spun rayon yarns can be used for making fabrics similar to cotton fabrics, linen fabrics orwool fabrics. Rayon filament yarns can make fabrics resembling silk fabrics. Finally, various finishing processes are carried out to enhance the appearance of these fabrics and to improve their serviceability. Most common finishes include calendaring for smoothness, embossing for decorative effects, flame resistance, napping (spun rayons only) for softness & warmth, preshrinking for greater dimensional stability, stiffening, water resistance, wrinkle resistance etc.

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High-Wet-Modulus (HWM) Rayon Viscose rayon has its own limitations. It loses up to 70% of its strength when wet. In fact, in 1950s, when first developed, rayon was used in industrial products and home furnishings only and not for clothing. This was due to the fact that viscose rayon fibers were too weak as compared to other fibers intended to be used in apparel making. In 1960, commercial production was started for a rayon that had similar strength as of cotton fabrics and retained most of the strength, even when wet. It was high-wetmodulus (HWM) rayon. It is also known as 'modified rayon'. The process for manufacturing high-wet-modulus rayon is almost similar to that for making viscose rayon but with a few exceptions.
o

Initially, when the purified cellulose sheets are bathed in a caustic soda solution, a weaker caustic soda is used while making HWM rayon. Alkali crumbs or the viscose solution, neither of the two are aged in the HWM process of making rayon. When making HWM rayon, the filaments are stretched to a greater degree than when making viscose rayon. BYPRODUCTS As one of the industry's major problems, the chemical by-products of rayon have received much attention in these environmentally conscious times. The most popular method of production, the viscose method, generates undesirable water and air emissions. Of particular concern is the emission of zinc and hydrogen sulfide. At present, producers are trying a number of techniques to reduce pollution. Some of the techniques being used are the recovery of zinc by ion-exchange, crystallization, and the use of more purified cellulose. Also, the use of absorption and chemical scrubbing is proving to be helpful in reducing undesirable emissions of gas.

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VII. PROCESS LAYOUT

Cellulose pulp is immersed in 17-20% aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH) at a temperature in the range of 18 to250C in order to swell the cellulose fibers and to convert cellulose to alkali cellulose. The swollen alkali cellulose mass is pressed to a wet weight equivalent of 2.5 to 3.0 times the original pulp weight

STEEPING

PRESSING

SHREDDING

The pressed alkali cellulose is shredded mechanically to yield finely divided, fluffy particles called "crumbs" .

AGING

The alkali cellulose is aged under controlled conditions of time and temperature (between 18 and 30 C) in order to depolymerize the cellulose to the desired degree of polymerization.

XANTHATION

The aged alkali cellulose crumbs are placed in vats and are allowed to react with carbon disulphide under controlled temperature (20 to 30 OC) to form cellulose xanthate.

DISSOLVING

The yellow crumb is dissolved in aqueous caustic solution.Because the cellulose xanthate solution has a very high viscosity, it has been termed "viscose".

RIPENING

The viscose is allowed to stand for a period of time to "ripen".

FILTERING

The viscose is filtered to remove undissolved materials that might disrupt the spinning process or cause defects in the rayon filament.

DEGASSING

Bubbles of air entrapped in the viscose must be removed prior to extrusion or they would cause voids, or weak spots, in the fine rayon filaments.

WET STEEPING

The viscose solution is metered through a spinnerette into a spin bath containing sulphuric acid, sodium sulphate ,and zinc sulphate which is followed by simultaneous stretching and decomposition of cellulose xanthate

DRAWING

The rayon filaments are stretched while the cellulose chains are still relatively mobile.

WASHING

The freshly regenerated rayon contains many salts and other water soluble impurities which need to be removed. Several different washing techniques may be used.

CUTTING

If the rayon is to be used as staple, the group of filaments (termed "tow") is passed through a rotary cutter to provide a fiber which can be processed in much the same way as cotton.

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VIII. EQUIPMENT LAYOUT

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SCHEMATIC FLOW DIAGRAM OF EQUIPMENT

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IX. CHEMICAL REACTIONS INVOLVED A. OVERALL REACTION

Cellulose is treated with alkali and carbon disulfide to yield Viscose Rayon B. SUB REACTIONS (1) C6H9O4OH + NaOH C6H9O4ONa+H2O (Cellulose is converted to alkali cellulose during Steeping.) (2) C6H9O4ONa + CS2 C6H9O4OCSSNa+Na2CS3 (Carbon disulphide reacts with alkali cellulose. Sodium cellulose xanthate & sodium trithiocarbamate is produced during Xanthation.) (3) C6H9O4OCSSNa + NaOH Viscose Solution (Viscose solution is formed during Dissolution.) (4) C6H9O4OCSSNa + H2O C6H9O4OH+CS2+NaOH (Sodium cellulose xanthate is decomposed to get cellulose during Ripening.) (5) C6H9O4OCSSNa + H2SO4 C6H9O4OH+CS2+Na2SO4 (Recovery of cellulose from cellulose xanthate by acid decomposition during Spinning.)

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COTTON YARN MANUFACTURING Introduction Yarn consists of several strands of material twisted together. Each strand is, in turn, made of fibers, all shorter than the piece of yarn that they form. These short fibers are spun into longer filaments to make the yarn. Long continuous strands may only require additional twisting to make them into yarns. Sometimes they are put through an additional process called texturing. The characteristics of spun yarn depend, in part, on the amount of twist given to the fibers during spinning. A fairly high degree of twist produces strong yarn; a low twist produces softer, more lustrous yarn; and a very tight twist produces crepe yarn. Yarns are also classified by their number of parts. A single yarn is made from a group of filament or staple fibers twisted together. Ply yarns are made by twisting two or more single yarns. Cord yarns are made by twisting together two or more ply yarns. Almost eight billion pounds (3.6 billion kg) of spun yarn was produced in the United States during 1995, with 40% being produced in North Carolina alone. Over 50% of spun yarn is made from cotton. Textured, crimped, or bulked yarn comprised one half of the total spun. Textured yarn has higher volume due to physical, chemical, or heat treatments. Crimped yarn is made of thermoplastic fibers of deformed shape. Bulked yarn is formed from fibers that are inherently bulky and cannot be closely packed. Yarn is used to make textiles using a variety of processes, including weaving, knitting, and felting. Nearly four billion pounds (1.8 billion kg) of weaving yarn, three billion pounds (1.4 kg) of machine knitting yarn, and one billion pounds (450 million kg) of carpet and rug yarn was produced in the United States during in 1995. The U.S. textile industry employs over 600,000 workers and consumes around 16 billion pounds (7 billion kg) of mill fiber per year, with industry profits estimated at $2.1 billion in 1996. Exports represent more than 11% of industry sales, approaching $7 billion. The apparel industry employs another one million workers.

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History Natural fiberscotton, flax, silk, and woolrepresent the major fibers available to ancient civilizations. The earliest known samples of yarn and fabric of any kind were found near Robenhausen, Switzerland, where bundles of flax fibers and yarns and fragments of plain-weave linen fabric, were estimated to be about 7,000 years old. Cotton has also been cultivated and used to make fabrics for at least 7,000 years. It may have existed in Egypt as early as 12,000 B.C. Fragments of cotton fabrics have been found by archeologists in Mexico (from 3500 B.C. )., in India (3000 B.C. ), in Peru (2500 B.C. ), and in the southwestern United States (500 B.C. ). Cotton did not achieve commercial importance in Europe until after the colonization of the New World. Silk culture remained a specialty of the Chinese from its beginnings (2600 B.C.) until the sixth century, when silkworms were first raised in the Byzantine Empire. Synthetic fibers did not appear until much later. The first synthetic, rayon, made from cotton or wood fibers, was developed in 1891, but not commercially produced until 1911. Almost a half a century later, nylon was invented, followed by the various forms of polyester. Synthetic fibers reduced the world demand for natural fibers and expanded applications. Until about 1300, yarn was spun on the spindle and whorl. A spindle is a rounded stick with tapered ends to which the fibers are attached and twisted; a whorl is a weight attached to the spindle that acts as a flywheel to keep the spindle rotating. The fibers were pulled by hand from a bundle of carded fibers tied to a stick called a distaff. In hand carding, fibers are placed between two boards covered with leather, through which protrude fine wire hooks that catch the fibers as one board is pulled gently across the other. The spindle, which hangs from the fibers, twists the fibers as it rotates downward, and spins a length of yarn as it pulls away from the fiber bundle. When the spindle reaches the floor, the spinner winds the yarn around the spindle to secure it and then starts the process again. This is continued until all of the fiber is spun or until the spindle is full.

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A major improvement was the spinning wheel, invented in India between 500 and 1000 A.D. and first used in Europe during the Middle Ages. A horizontally mounted spindle is connected to a large, hand-driven wheel by a circular band. The distaff is mounted at one end of the spinning wheel and the fiber is fed by hand to the spindle, which turns as the wheel turns. A component called the flyer twists the thread just before it is wound on a bobbin. The spindle and bobbin are attached to the wheel by separate parts, so that the bobbin turns more slowly than does the spindle. Thus, thread can be twisted and wound at the same time. About 150 years later, the Saxon wheel was introduced. Operated by a foot pedal, the Saxon wheel allowed both hands the freedom to work the fibers. A number of developments during the eighteenth century further mechanized the spinning process. In 1733, the flying shuttle was invented by John Kay, followed by Hargreaves' spinning jenny in 1766. The jenny featured a series of spindles set in a row, enabling one operator to produce large quantities of yarn. Several years later Richard Arkwright patented the spinning frame, a machine that used a series of rotating rollers to draw out the fibers. A decade later Samule Cromptons' mule machine was invented, which could spin any type of yarn in one continuous operation. The ring frame was invented in 1828 by the American John Thorp and is still widely used today. This system involves hundreds of spindles mounted vertically inside a metal ring. Many natural fibers are now spun by the open-end system, where the fibers are drawn by air into a rapidly rotating cup and pulled out on the other side as a finished yarn.

Raw Material About 15 different types of fibers are used to make yarn. These fibers fall into two categories, natural and synthetic. Natural fibers are those that are obtained from a plant or an animal and are mainly used in weaving textiles. The most abundant and commonly used plant fiber is cotton, gathered from the cotton boil or seed pod when it is mature. In fact, cotton is the best-selling fiber in America, outselling all synthetic fibers combined. TEXTILE INDUSTRY 23

Fibers taken from the plant leaf or stern are generally used for rope. Other plant fibers include acetate (made from wood pulp or cotton linters) and linen, made from flax, a vegetable fiber. Animal fibers include wool, made from sheep hair, and mohair, made from angora goats and rabbits. Silk is a protein extruded in long, continuous strands by the silkworm as it weaves its cocoon. Synthetic fibers are made by forcing a thick solution of polymerized chemicals through spinneret nozzles and hardening the resulting filament in a chemical bath. These include acrylic, nylon, polyester, polyolefin, rayon, spandex, and triacetate. Some of these fibers have similar characteristics to the natural fibers without the shrinkage problems. Other fibers have special properties for specific applications. For instance, spandex can be stretched over 500% without breaking.

Fibers are shipped in bales, which are opened by hand or machine. The picker loosens and separates the lumps of fiber and also cleans the fiber if necessary. The carding machine separates the fibers and pulls them into somewhat parallel form. The thin web of fibers formed then passes through a funnel-shaped device that produces a ropelike strand of parallel fibers. Rollers elongate the strand, called a sliver, into a single more uniform strand that is given a small amount of twist and fed into large cans.

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Companies

Indo Phil Acrylic Mfg. Corporation

Founded since 1975, located atLambakin, Marilao, Philippines

Asia Palm Fibers Inc. Founded in 2008, located at355 MLQ St. Bagumbayan, Taguig City, Metro Manila, Philippines

Monti Textile Philippines Located at Km 22 Aguinaldo Hw , Imus Cavite, Philippines

The Manufacturing Process

Harvesting and Preparing the Cotton Harvesting is done by machine, with a single machine replacing 50 hand-pickers. Two mechanical systems are used to harvest cotton. The picker system uses wind and guides to pull the cotton from the plant, often leaving behind the leaves and rest of the plant. The stripper system chops the plant and uses air to TEXTILE INDUSTRY 25

separate the trash from the cotton. Most cotton is harvested using pickers. Pickers must be used after the dew dries in the morning and must conclude when dew begins to form again at the end of the day. Moisture detectors are used to ensure that the moisture content is no higher than 12%, or the cotton may not be harvested and stored successfully. Not all cotton reaches maturity at the same time, and harvesting may occur in waves, with a second and third picking. Next, most cotton is stored in "modules," which hold 13-15 bales in water-resistant containers in the fields until they are ready to be ginned. The cotton module is cleaned, compressed, tagged, and stored at the gin. The cotton is cleaned to separate dirt, seeds, and short lint from the cotton. At the gin, the cotton enters module feeders that fluff up the cotton before cleaning. Some gins use vacuum pipes to send fibers to cleaning equipment where trash is removed. After cleaning, cotton is sent to gin stands where revolving circular saws pull the fiber through wire ribs, thus separating seeds from the fiber. Highcapacity gins can process 60, 500-lb (227-kg) bales of cotton per hour. Cleaned and de-seeded cotton is then I 0 compressed into bales, which permits economical storage and transportation of cotton. The compressed bales are banded and wrapped. The wrapping may be either cotton or polypropylene, which maintains the proper moisture content of the cotton and keeps bales clean during storage and transportation. Every bale of cotton produced in the United States must be given a gin ticket and a warehouse ticket. The gin ticket identifies the bale until it is woven. The ticket is a bar-coded tag that is torn off during inspection. A sample of each bale is sent to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) for evaluation, where it is assessed for color, leaf content, strength, fineness, reflectance, fiber length, and trash content. The results of the evaluation determine the bale's value. Inspection results are available to potential buyers. After inspection, bales are stored in a carefully controlled warehouse. The bales remain there until they are sold to a mill for further processing.

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Preparing the fibers

Fibers are shipped in bales, which are opened by hand or machine. Natural fibers may require cleaning. The picker loosens and separates the lumps of fiber and also cleans the fiber if necessary. Blending of different staple fibers may be required for certain applications. Blending may be done during formation of the lap, during carding, or during drawing out. Quantities of each fiber are measured carefully and their proportions are consistently maintained.

Carding

The carding machine is set with hundreds of fine wires that separate the fibers and pull them into somewhat parallel form. A thin web of fiber is formed, and as it moves along, it passes through a funnel-shaped device that produces a ropelike strand of parallel fibers. Blending can take place by joining laps of different fibers.

Drawing out

After carding, the fiber mass is referred to as the sliver. Several slivers are combined before this process. A series of rollers rotating at different rates of speed elongate the sliver into a single more uniform strand that is given a small amount TEXTILE INDUSTRY 27

of twist and fed into large cans. Carded slivers are drawn twice after carding. Combed slivers are drawn oncebefore combing and twice more after combing. Twisting

The sliver is fed through a machine called the roving frame, where the strands of fiber are further elongated and given additional twist. These strands are called the roving.

Spinning The sliver is fed through a machine called the roving frame, where the strands given The of fiber are twist. further elongated and additional predominant

commercial systems of yarn formation are ring spinning and open-end spinning. step. The predominant commercial systems of yarn formation are ring spinning and open-end spinning. In ring spinning, the roving is fed from the spool through rollers. These rollers elongate the roving, which passes through the eyelet, moving down and through the traveler. The traveler moves freely around the stationary ring at 4,000 to 12,000 revolutions per minute. The spindle turns the TEXTILE INDUSTRY 28 Open-end spinning omits the roving

bobbin at a constant speed. This turning of the bobbin and the movement of the traveler twists and winds the yarn in one operation. Open-end spinning omits the roving step. Instead, a sliver of fibers is fed into the spinner by a stream of air. The sliver is delivered to a rotary beater that separates the fibers into a thin stream that is carried into the rotor by a current of air through a tube or duct and is deposited in a V-shaped groove along the sides of the rotor. As the rotor turns, twist is produced. A constant stream of new fibers

Equipment Layering Machine this machine passess over the bales and removes a 5mm layer of cotton. It removes some leaves and stem that are mixed in with the cotton fibers. Blending and Cleaning Machine - this machine processes 500 kg of cotton per hour. The cotton comes out evenly blended and cleaner. Second Cleaning Machine the cotton fibers are still not clean enough so it goes into a second cleaning machine which finishes the job. Carding Machine this machine has huge rollers with wire teeth. It combed out the fibers and line them up in parallel rolls. The machine also discards any fibers that are too short to process. Coiler - this machine takes the rolls of fibers and forms them into a thicken loose first stage yarn called sliver. Drying Machine - this machine lines the slivers up six at a time and draws them out stretching them to form a second stage yarn. Roving Frame this machine stretches the second stage yarn strengthening it by thinning it out. This third stage yarn is called roving. Winding Machine - it winds the yarn from the first spool on to the cone.

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Cotton yarn is made from large bales of raw cotton. Cotton comes from a plant so naturally some leaves and stem are mixed in with the cotton fibers. To remove them, the first machine passes over the bales and removes a 5mm layer of cotton then sends it through a duct system to the blending and cleaning machine. That machine processes 500 kg of cotton per hour. The cotton comes out evenly blended and cleaner but still not clean enough so it goes into a second cleaning machine which finishes the job. Now the cotton goes to a carding machine. It has huge rollers with wire teeth. The machine combed out the fibers and lines them up in parallel rolls. The machine also discards any fibers that are too short to process. Next stop is the coiler. This device takes the rolls of fibers and forms them into a thicken loose first stage yarn called sliver. The slivers move on to the drying machine. it lines them up six at a time and draws them out stretching them to form a second stage yarn. Then a machine called a roving frame stretches the second stage yarn strengthening it by thinning it out until it looks like this. This third stage yarn is called roving. Depending on the type of yarn theyre making, its anywhere from 3 to 16 times thinner than sliver. They now stretch the roving up to 30 times thinner which strengthens it even more. The yarn is finally finished. Now they have to transfer the yarn from all these small spools on to huge industrial size cones, twenty spools to a cone. One transfer uses the winding machine. it winds the yarn from the first spool on to the cone.

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Process Layout:

Preparing the Fibers

- After preparing the cotton, the cotton fibers are shipped in bales. The fibers are further blended and cleaned through a blending and cleaning machine.

Carding
- This process separates the fibers and pull them into somewhat parallel form through the carding machine

Drawing Out
- Through the coiler, the rolls of fibers are formed into a thicken loose first stage yarn called sliver.

Twisting
- The sliver is fed through a machine called the roving frame, where the strands of fiber are further elongated and given additional twist.

Spinning
- The yarn is winded from the spool to the cone through the winding machine.

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WOOL MANUFACTURING

INTRODUCTION Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and certain other animals. Wool is the dense, warm coat of sheep, also called a fleece. This material is highly flame resistant, and frequently used for mattresses and rugs for that reason. It is also highly durable, able to stretch up to 50% when wet and 30% when dry. In addition, wool has excellent moisture wicking properties, pulling moisture into the core of the fiber so that it doesn't feel wet or soggy to the wearer. It pulls moisture away from the skin, as well, and is worn by people in a wide variety of situations who prefer the feeling of dry air next to the skin to the clammy sense of perspiration. Wool is favoured for textile production because it is easy to work with and takes dye very well. People have been using sheep wool for many, many centuries. Historians believe the practice began in 8000 BCE. The warm wool was the ideal protection against the bitter cold, and was used as a very simple wrap or blanket. Over the years, people found ways to process the material, and also began coloring it and weaving it into different patterns. CLASSIFICATION OF WOOL Worsted Yarn This type of yarn is usually spun from long-stapled fleeces. The staples are combed into a parallel formation, which removes all the short fibers. Worsted materials normally have a smooth finish, and are extremely durable. Some examples of worsted products include suits, dresses, and gabardines. Woolen Yarn Woolen yarn is usually spun from short-stapled fleeces. The fleece wool is not combed, but rather carded. As a result, the materials are thicker, and garments look bulky in appearance. Some examples of the wollen products include, sweaters, and carpets. Comparison of WOOLEN and WORSTED yarns TEXTILE INDUSTRY 32

Woolens Spun from short wool fibers (1-3 inches long) Fibers are washed, scoured and carded lower tensile strength than worsteds low to medium twist Bulky, uneven yarn Soft, fuzzy appearance heavier weight not as durable as worsteds

Worsted Spun from long wool fibers (more than 3") Fibers are washed, scoured, carded, combed and drawn higher tensile strength than woolens tighter twist Fine, smooth yarn crisp, smooth appearance lighter weight More durable than woolens

PROPERTIES OF THE WOOL: 1 2 3 4 5 It has excellent absorbency. It is lightweight and versatile. Wool does not wrinkle easily. It is resistant to dirt and wear and tear. It has good elasticity and resiliency.

PRODUCTS MADE FROM WOOL:

Boots Carpet Blankets Sweaters Coats Dresses jackets

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COMPANIES

ROYAL TEXTILE MILLS, INC. #234 Encarnacion Navotas, NCR St., San Rafael Village, Navotas, 1485 Metro Manila

Boys-mens knit-shirt, pants, infants/newborn-knit rompers, ladies/children-knit t-shirts, sweatshirts, ladies knit blouse LUZON SPINNING MILLS, INCORPORATED Address: 72 Judge Juan Luna Street Quezon City Metro Manila

toddlers

knitswimsuit,

A recognized pioneer in the fiber and textile industry, Luzon Spinning Mills is engaged in the development of fibers and spinning solutions as well as local fabric supplier for knitted and weaving materials.

R.H. LINDSAY WOOL COMPANY. Since 1936 our expertise has helped supply wool to hundreds of customers throughout North America from kindergarten classes to large textile manufacturers. Today R.H. Lindsay Company is one of a handful of Boston-based firms still trading wool. We have developed a specialty line of wool for handcrafters, artists and unique uses in a wide range of quantities. Spinning, felting and dollmaking are some of the most popular uses. We also supply wool to the commercial wool industry. TEXTILE INDUSTRY 34

Zeilinger Wool Co. is a processor of sheep wool, angora goat hair (mohair), rabbit hair (angora), llama, alpaca, dog hair, and other exotic animal fibers. We can turn your own fibers, such as wool, into comforters, mattress pads, bed pillows, quilts, batting for felting and crafting. All additional fibers can be processed for spinning, weaving and custom yarns.

RAW MATERIALS Sheep Approximately 90 percent of the world's sheep produce wool. One sheep produces anywhere from 2 to 30 pounds of wool annually. The wool from one sheep is called a fleece, from many sheep, a clip. The amount of wool that a sheep produces depends upon its breed, genetics, nutrition, and shearing interval.

The Manufacturing Process The major steps necessary to process wool from the sheep to the fabric are: shearing, cleaning and scouring, grading and sorting, carding, spinning, weaving, and finishing. Shearing

Sheep are sheared once a yearusually in the springtime. A veteran shearer can shear up to two hundred sheep per day. The fleece recovered from a sheep can weigh between 6 and 18 pounds (2.7 and 8.1 kilograms); as much as possible, the fleece is kept in one piece.

Machine Shear

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Grading and sorting

Grading is the breaking up of the fleece based on overall quality. In sorting, the wool is broken up into sections of different quality fibers, from different parts of the body. The best quality of wool comes from the shoulders and sides of the sheep and is used for clothing; the lesser quality comes from the lower legs and is used to make rugs.

Scouring Wool taken directly from the sheep is called "raw" or "grease wool." It contains sand, dirt, grease, and dried sweat (called suint); the weight of contaminants accounts for about 30 to 70 percent of the fleece's total weight. To remove these contaminants, the wool is scoured in a series of alkaline baths containing water, soap, and soda ash or a similar alkali. The byproducts from this process (such as lanolin) are saved and used in a variety of household products. Rollers in the scouring Scouring Machine machines squeeze excess water from the fleece, but the fleece is not allowed to dry completely.

Carding

Next, the fibers are passed through a series of metal teeth that straighten and blend them into slivers. Carding also removes residual dirt and other matter left in the fibers. Carded wool intended for worsted yarn is put through gilling and combing, two procedures that remove short fibers and place the longer fibers parallel to each other. Carding Machine From there, the sleeker slivers are compacted and thinned through a process called drawing. Carded wool to be used for woolen yarn is sent directly for spinning. After being carded, the wool fibers are spun into yarn. Spinning for woolen yarns is typically done on a mule spinning machine, while worsted yarns can be spun TEXTILE INDUSTRY 36

on any number of spinning machines. After the yarn is spun, it is wrapped around bobbins, cones, or commercial drums. Spinning

5 Thread is formed by spinning the fibers together to form one strand of yarn; the strand is spun with two, three, or four other strands. Since the fibers cling and stick to one another, it is fairly easy to join, extend, and spin wool into yarn. Spinning for woolen yarns is typically done on a mule spinning machine, while worsted yarns can be spun on any number of spinning machines. After the yarn is spun, it is wrapped around bobbins, cones, or commercial drums.

Spinning Machine

Weaving

6 Next, the wool yarn is woven into fabric. Wool manufacturers use two basic weaves: the plain weave and the twill. Woolen yarns are made into fabric using a plain weave (rarely a twill), which produces a fabric of a somewhat looser weave and a soft surface (due to napping) with little or no luster. The napping often conceals flaws in construction. Worsted yarns can create fine fabrics with exquisite patterns using a twill weave. The result Weaving Machine is a more tightly woven, smooth fabric. Better constructed, worsteds are more durable than woolens and therefore more costly.

Plain Weave

Twill Weave

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Finishing

7 After weaving, both worsteds and woolens undergo a series of finishing procedures including: fulling (immersing the fabric in water to make the fibers interlock); crabbing (permanently setting the interlock); decating (shrinkproofing); and, occasionally, dyeing. Although wool fibers can be dyed before the carding process, dyeing can also be done after the wool has been woven into fabric.

PROCESS LAYOUT

Shearing

Sheep are sheared once a yearusually in the springtime.

Grading and sorting

Grading is the breaking up of the fleece based on overall quality. In sorting, the wool is broken up into sections of different quality fibers, from different parts of the body.

The wool is scoured in a series of alkaline baths containing water, soap, Scouring and soda ash or a similar alkali to remove contaminants The fibers are passed through a series of metal teeth that straighten and Carding blend them into slivers. Thread is formed by spinning the fibers together to form one strand of Spinning yarn; the strand is spun with two, three, or four other strands. Woolen yarns are made into fabric using a plain weave . Worsted yarns Weaving can create fine fabrics with exquisite patterns using a twill weave. After weaving, both worsteds and woolens undergo a series of finishing Finishing procedures including dyeing.

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WOOL PRODUCTION FLOWCHART

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X. REFERENCES [1]Shaikh, Dr. Tasnim et. al.,Viscose Rayon: A Legendary Development in the Manmade Textile. Vol.2.Gujarat. India.2012 [2]Corbman, Bernard P. Textiles: Fiber to Fabric, 6th ed. McGraw-Hill, 1983. [3]Hollen, Norma, Jane Saddler, Anna Langford, and Sara Kadolph. Textiles, 6th ed. Macmillan, 1988. [4]Winter School Notes on Man-made Fibers, IIT Delhi, Vol.II. [5]Lunenschloss, J. and Albrecht , W.; Nonwoven Bonded Fabrics, 1985. [6]Needles, Howard. L;Textiles Fibers ,Dyes and Finishes.

http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Wool.html#ixzz2LUWIBFD4 http://www.flickriver.com/photos/baalands/sets/72157629201173668/ http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-wool.htm http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Rayon.html#b#ixzz2Ljt2Q6o6 http://www.teonline.com/knowledge-centre/manufacturing-process-rayon.html http://www.ehow.com/about_6462598_rayon-fabric-information.html#ixzz2Ltc8DapM http://www.bambooindustry.com/blog/bamboo-fiber.html http://www.lenzing.com http://web.archive.org/web/20100331124255/http://ohioline.osu.edu/hygfact/5000/5538.html

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