PROJECT ID: CEET/O9/02

KIGALI INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY INSTITUT DES SCIENCES ET TECHNOLOGIE DE KIGALI
Avenue de lArme, BP3900 Kigali- Rwanda

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY A PROJECT REPORT ON

ANALYSIS OF THE USES OF LIGHT CONCRETE, NORMAL COCRETE AND HEAVY CONCRETE IN RWANDA

Submitted by: MANIRAFASHA Amos (REG. NO: GS20050571) Under the guidance of Mr.And NGARAMBE

Submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the award of BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ENVIRONMENT TECHNOLOGY

SEPTEMBER, 2009

KIGALI INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY INSTITUT DES SCIENCES ET DE TECHNOLOGIE DE KIGALI Avenue de l'Arme, B.P. 3900 Kigali, Rwanda

FACULTY OF ENGENEERING DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Project Work entitled ANALYSIS OF THE USES OF LIGHT CONCRETE, NORMAL COCRETE AND HEAVY CONCRETE IN RWANDA is a record of the original work done by MANIRAFASHA Amos (REG.No: GS20050571) in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Bachelor of Science Degree in Civil Engineering and Environmental Technology of Kigali Institute of Science and Technology during the Academic Year 2008.

.. Andr NGARAME Project Supervisor

G. Senthil KUMARAN HEAD, Dept. of CE&ET

Submitted for the Project Examination held at KIST on September 2009

DECLARATION
I,MANIRAFASHA Amos hereby declare that this research ANALYSIS OF THE USES OF LIGHT CONCRETE, NORMAL COCRETE AND HEAVY CONCRETE IN RWANDA for the award of Bachelor of Science Degree in Civil Engineering and Environmental Technology is my original work and has never been presented anywhere else for the same purpose. All sources I have used and quoted have been acknowledged as complete references.

.. MANIRAFASHA Amos REG NO 20050571

.. Andr NGARAME Project Supervisor

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DEDICATION
This research project is dedicated to: Almighty God, My beloved father KANYANZIRA Flicien, My beloved mather MUKARUZIMA Spciose My Brothers and sisters, All my Colleagues, All my friends.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am deeply intended to almighty God who has guided me through the whole period of my studies. My sincere thanks are due all friends and colleagues who helped me in oneway or another. I am very grateful to all members of my family for their support and advice. My special thanks are addressed to the Government of Rwanda for its appreciable policy of promoting education at all levels. Again my sincere acknowledgements go to entire administration of KIST and the whole academic staff. My sincere gratitude goes to my supervisor, Mr. Andr NGARAMBE for his technical and wise advice, suggestions and corrections that made this research project fruitful. Finally I express my gratitude to each one who directly and indirectly contributed to make my studies successful today.

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ABSTRACT
Ttis project is the study of the light concrete, normal concrete and heavy concrete which are used in different construction in RWANDA. The uses of lightweight aggregate and heavy concrete in concreting are possible in construction to day in RWANDA. A systematic imvestigation was undertaken to determe the availability of lightweight aggregate, normal weight aggregate and heavy weight aggregate; their application and the advantages of uses light concrete, normal concrete and heavy concrete. To identify the characteristics of lightweight aggregate, normal weight aggregate and heavy aggregate; and to know why normal concrete is more popular compare to other types of concrete. After, characterize the lightweight aggregate, normal weight aggregate and heavy aggregate; then compare the uses of light concrete, normal concrete and heavy concrete in RWANDA. Therefore the results show that the normal concrete is more useful because of more frequent of normal weight aggregate.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
C E R T I F I C A T E .......................................................................................................... i DECLARATION ................................................................................................................ ii DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................. iv ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ v TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................... vi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................ ix NOMENCLATURES AND SYMBOLS LIST .................................................................. x LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. xi LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... xi Chapter1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Problem statement ..................................................................................................... 1 1.3 Objectives of the project ........................................................................................... 2 1.4 Scope of the project .................................................................................................. 2 1.5 Justification of the project ......................................................................................... 2 1.6 Methodology ............................................................................................................. 3 Chapter 2. LITERATURE RIVIEW ................................................................................... 4 2.1 History of concrete.................................................................................................... 4 2.2 Properties of Concrete............................................................................................... 5 2.3 Applications of Concrete .......................................................................................... 7 2.4 Types of cement ........................................................................................................ 8 2.5 Admixtures ................................................................................................................ 9 2.6 Types of aggregate .................................................................................................. 11 2.6.1 Lightweight aggregate ..................................................................................... 11 2.6.2 Normal weight aggregate ................................................................................. 12 2.6.3 Heavyweight aggregate .................................................................................... 12 2.6.3.1 Characteristics of heavy aggregate ............................................................... 13 2.7 Fresh concrete ......................................................................................................... 14 2.7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 14 vi

2.7.2 Workability ...................................................................................................... 14 2.7.3 Shrinkage ......................................................................................................... 15 2.7.4 Creep ................................................................................................................ 16 2.7.5 Advantages and disadvantages of concrete...................................................... 16 2.8 Behavior of hardened concrete ............................................................................... 17 2.8.1 Strength ............................................................................................................ 17 2.9 Light concrete ......................................................................................................... 21 2.9.1 Definition ......................................................................................................... 21 2.9.2 Quality control ................................................................................................. 22 2.9.3 Concrete Strength............................................................................................. 22 2.9.4 Moisture Contents ............................................................................................ 23 2.9.5 Production considerations ................................................................................ 23 2.10 Normal concrete .................................................................................................... 24 2.10.1 Characteristics of normal concrete................................................................. 24 2.10.2 Advantages & the disadvantages of normal concrete .................................... 25 2.11 Heavy concrete...................................................................................................... 25 2.11.1 Characteristics of heavy concrete .................................................................. 25 2.11.2 Compressive strength ..................................................................................... 26 2.11.3 Mixing and curing .......................................................................................... 26 2.12 Concrete in road pavements ...................................................................................... 27 Chapter 3. MATERIALS AND ANALYSIS.................................................................... 28 3.1 Materials ............................................................................................................... 28 3.1.1 Ordinary Portland cement ................................................................................ 28 3.1.2 Aggregate ......................................................................................................... 28 3.1.4 Water ................................................................................................................ 29 3.1.5 Admixture ........................................................................................................ 30 3.2 ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................. 31 3.2.1 Ligh concrete ................................................................................................... 31 3.2.2 Normal concrete ............................................................................................... 33 3.2.3 Heavy concrete................................................................................................. 33 3.2.4 Comparison of light , narmal and heavy concrete ........................................... 34

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Chapter 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ..................................................................... 36 4.1 Comparison of uses of lightweight concrete, normal concrete and ........................ 38 heavy concrete in RWANDA ................................................................................. 38 4.2 Discussion ............................................................................................................... 38 Chapiter. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ................................................ 39 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................. 39 RECOMMENDATION ................................................................................................ 40 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 41 APPANDICES .................................................................................................................. 42

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials PCC: Portiland Cement Concrete BS: British Standard CA: Coarse Aggregate FA: Fine Aggregate CIMERWA: Cimenterie du Rwanda ELECTROGA: Etablissement Public de Production de Transport et de Distribution dEau et de Gaz KIST: Kigali Institute of Science and Technology OPC: Ordinary Portland Cement RWF: Rwandan franc SFAR: Student Financing Agency in Rwanda W/C: Water Cement ratio L.C: Light concrete N.C: Normal concrete H.V: Heavy concrete Aggr.:Aggregate SCC: Self-consolidating concrete Fe3O4: Magnetite BaSO4: Barites AASHO: V : volume P : maximum load applied on a single aggregate h : distance

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NOMENCLATURES AND SYMBOLS LIST

kg: kilogram g: gram m3: cubic meter MPa: Mega Pascal KN: kilo Newton Me: Fineness Modulus

22 : mean compressive strength of aggregate

W/B: Water binder ratio E :Modulus of Elasticity &: and %: percentage t: Temperature
O

C: Degree celcius

mm: millimeter mm2: millimeter square

LIST OF TABLES
Table2.1 Common types of concrete admixtures ............................................................. 10 Table 3.1 Quality of aggregate ......................................................................................... 29 Table.3.1 Comparison of light , normal and heavy concrete ............................................ 35 Table 4.1 Availability of aggregate in Rwanda ................................................................ 36 Table 4.2 Availability of concrete in RWANDA ............................................................. 37

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 The effect of the aggregate type on compressive strength .............................. 19 Figure. 2.2 Stress-strain relationship for concrete ........................................................... 20 Figure 2.3 Different modulus of alacticity ........................................................................ 20

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Chapter1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction

Concrete is a mixture of cement, water, and aggregates with or without admixtures. Cement and water form a paste that hardens owing to chemical reactions between the cement and water. The past acts as a glue, binding the aggregates, composed of a sand and gravel or crushed stone, into a solid rocklike mass. The quality of the paste and aggregate dictates the engineering properties of concrete construction. Paste quality are directly related to the amount of water used in related with the amount of cement. Less water used, the better the quality of the concrete. Reduced water content results in improved strength and durability and reduced permeability and shrinkage. concrete is the most suitable material for construction, since it can withstand whatever compression forces, moreover it is workable and durable material, can be formed to any shape you like, also it is some how cheap materials, as disadvantages , I would say that it require special care and precautions during casting otherwise it could cause cracks and failure. Concrete is one of the most versatile, durable and cost-effective building materials known to man. It is also environmentally sustainable, with green credentials that outperform both steel and timber. To make concrete, appropriate amounts of dry ingredients are thoroughly blended together. Next, enough water is added to make a stiff but workable mixture. Concrete for home use in sidewalks, walls, and basement floors usually contains one part cement, two parts sand, and three parts stone or gravel.

1.2 Problem statement

It has been observed that they are three different types of concrete used in different types of construction in different area, same are expensive other are not available in our country. It is in such way that the study entitled Analysis of the uses of Normal concrete, Light weight concrete and Heavy concrete in RWANDA have been proposed in order to

do the analysis of the uses of all three types of concrete in RWANDA, and to know why some types of concrete are not used. Also, another problem is that may be in RWANDA we use normal concrete only because the other types of concrete are not known, this analysis will discover why.

1.3 Objectives of the project

Main objectives The main objective of this project is to do the analysis of the normal concrete, light concrete, and heavy concrete used in RWANDA. Specific objectives To know the uses of normal concrete. To know the uses of light concrete. To know the uses of heavy concrete. To compare the availability of normal, light and heavy concrete.

1.4 Scope of the project

My project is based on the analysis of the uses of normal, light and heavy concrete. The contents required for each type of concrete: Cement Aggregate Water and Admixture.

1.5 Justification of the project

This project will be helpful to the Government of RWANDA through the authorities in charge of infrastructure to improve the uses of concrete in construction. Also to conduct another research regarding any other type of concrete used in RWANDA. And helpful to any other who want to use any type of concrete. 2

Finally this project is very helpful in such a way that it helps me to increase my knowledge in concrete.

1.6 Methodology
The methodologies used to achieve the intended objectives of this work are: Documentation: Library and internet Field investigation and Questionnaire.

Chapter 2. LITERATURE RIVIEW 2.1 History of concrete

Concrete is a material used in building construction, consisting of a hard, chemically inert particulate substance, known as an aggregate (usually made from different types of sand and gravel), that is bonded together by cement and water. The Assyrians and Babylonians used clay as the bonding substance or cement. The Egyptians used lime and gypsum cement. In 1756, British engineer, John Smeaton made the first modern concrete (hydraulic cement) by adding pebbles as a coarse aggregate and mixing powered brick into the cement. In 1824, English inventor, Joseph Aspdin invented Portland Cement, which has remained the dominant cement used in concrete production. Joseph Aspdin created the first true artificial cement by burning ground limestone and clay together. The burning process changed the chemical properties of the materials and Joseph Aspdin created a stronger cement than what using plain crushed limestone would produce. The other major part of concrete besides the cement is the aggregate. Aggregates include sand, crushed stone, gravel, slag, ashes, burned shale, and burned clay. Fine aggregate (fine refers to the size of aggregate) is used in making concrete slabs and smooth surfaces. Coarse aggregate is used for massive structures or sections of cement. Concrete that includes imbedded metal (usually steel) is called reinforced concrete or ferroconcrete. Reinforced concrete was invented (1849) by Joseph Monier, who received a patent in 1867. Joseph Monier was a Parisian gardener who made garden pots and tubs of concrete reinforced with an iron mesh. Reinforced concrete combines the tensile or bendable strength of metal and the compressional strength of concrete to withstand heavy loads. Joseph Monier exhibited his invention at the Paris Exposition of 1867. Besides his pots and tubs, Joseph Monier promoted reinforced concrete for use in railway ties, pipes, floors, arches, and bridges. [7] The use of concrete dates to many ancient civilizations. The Romans, in particular, used concrete for everything from buildings to the cores of aqueducts. The Romans were also among the first to experiment with mixing additives into their concrete. They understood

that mixing it with certain things would make it more water-resistant and less likely to crack under pressure. Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) has arrived, but vibration still prevails and still follows principles described in a two-part series from March-April 1959. Explaining the fundamentals is never outmoded; the subject of this "primer" was reprised in a June 2002 Concrete Basics column titled "To Improve Placement, Understanding Vibration Is Key." Concrete is still known today for its durability and longevity. As with any building material, it does have its share of completely acceptable alternatives. Wood is often designed to be load-bearing, particularly in foundations, and can be treated to withstand the negative effects of moisture and termites. Steel is both sturdy and costeffective, and can be ideal in areas infested by insects. Insulated steel panels are also often used instead of concrete in the construction of walls. [4]

2.2 Properties of Concrete

After learning briefly about the history of concrete, let us focus upon the properties of concrete. Concrete is an artificial building material whose production differs from application to application. Amongst general properties of concrete, we must understand that concrete should possess certain physical and chemical properties, tensile strength, low-level of permeability to avoid moisture and retain chemical and volume stability. Concrete essentially has a high level of compress ional strength, while the tensile strength of concrete is relatively very weak. As concrete can crack under its own weight, it needs to be reinforced. It is generally reinforced using steel bars or fibre and iron mesh. To reduce the tensile strength of concrete, it is also pre-stressed with the use of steel cables. The deciding factor for strength is also inherently related to the proportion and ratio of water and cement, the type of cement used and the strength of used aggregate. Generally, concrete made using lower water-cement ratio makes a stronger concrete than when higher ratios are used. It is noticed that concrete made out of rough broken rock pieces is much stronger than concrete made using smooth pebbles. The reason is that the material should not result into more surface bondage area as this will increase the 5

quantity of bondage, which is cement, resulting in weaker concrete. It is known that limestone possesses higher bonding properties than conventionally used gravel. Normally, a 28-day compressive strength testing is done to achieve desired workability. The 28-day test for compressive strength is achieved by determining the right quantity of cement required in water cement ratio. In structures like arches, vaults where shapes and structures with internal forces require concrete. Workability of concrete means the ability of a concrete to fill the mould appropriately, producing the desired work without plummeting the quality of concrete. Concrete workability is achieved with the water ratio, shape and size of aggregate and the level of hydration. It is observed that workability can be considerably improved by increasing the quantity of water, or with usage of plasticizer. More water content can lead to bleeding and segregation, which can result in poor quality concrete formation. Curing is a process that keeps the concrete intact by providing an appropriate environment. It is considered that good curing ensures a moist environment for hydration. This steady hydration results in low level of permeability, thus increasing concrete strength and quality. Concrete also needs to be protected from shrinkage. As concrete has low thermal expansion co-efficient, this means that it cannot handle repetitive expansion and shrinkage. If there is no external force used for expansion, it can result in sizeable force acting against it, resulting in shrinkage and cracking of structure. As concrete grows older, it goes on shrinking due to internal forces caused within the material. Cracking of concrete begins at micro level. Normally, concrete is kept in a wet state to allow easy moulding when required. Hydration and hardening of concrete can lead to shrinkage and cracking when it has not yet developed the tensile strength. It is important to reduce stress before curing. Freezing of concrete before the curing is complete can seriously hamper the process of hydration. This can also decrease the concrete strength and weaken and damage the concrete.

Creeping is described as constant deformation of a material owing to internal stress taking place in the material. The amount of reinforcement of concrete structures ensures minimal shrinkage, creep and cracking. These general concrete properties of concrete are taken care of during building of concrete. Depending upon the end application, concrete is accordingly treated for maximum strength and durability. Good concrete has to satisfy performance requirement in plastic or green state and also the hardened state. The concrete should be workable and free segregation and bleeding. In its hardened state concrete should be strong, durable, and impermeable. It should have minimum dimensional changes. The properties and performance of concrete are dependent to a large extend on the characteristics and properties of the aggregates themselves. In general, an aggregate to be used in concrete must be clean, hard, strong, properly shaped and well graded. The aggregate must possess chemical stability, resistance to be abrasion, and to freezing and thawing. They should not contain deterious material which may cause physical or chemical change, such as cracking, swelling, softening or leaching. One of the most popular concrete used is Portland cement, mineral aggregates and water. Concrete often solidifies as the cement hydrates and glues all the other components together. It has a high compressive strength and general uses of concrete include pavements, fences, gates, walls and more. In old times, concrete was often referred to as liquid stone. Sometimes external stabilizers are included to concrete to give it desired characteristics. [6]

2.3 Applications of Concrete

Concrete has been used for construction since ancient times. Modern day concrete application include dams, bridges, swimming pools, homes, streets, patios, basements, balustrades, plain cement tiles, mosaic tiles, pavement blocks, kerbs, lamp-posts, drain covers, benches and so on?. It is interesting to note that over six billion tons of concrete is 7

produced each year, and is the second most widely used substance. Concrete is specific to different applications like rebuilding, mending and construction. Concrete building components in different sizes and shapes are also made before hand and later applied. They include wall panels, doorsills, beams, pillars and more. Post-tensioned slabs is a preferred method for industrial, commercial and residential floor slab construction. Ready mixed concrete is durable and hard wearing and is used for variety of applications owing to its crack-resistance and durability. Situ concrete is cast in place, on site. Precast concrete finds application in concrete certain walls, exterior cladding and structural walls, as it monolithic and can be easily used for two-way structural systems. It is also adjustable to post tensioning and easily adapts to any building shape. Controlled-density fill is used as structural fill, foundation pillar, pavement base an pipe bedding. It is also known as flowable mortar. The life expectancy of concrete flooring materials is much more than other flooring material. It is used to enhance concrete applications and to add colour and texture to interiors, driveways, pathways and patios. Fiber cement is made using a mixture of sand, cellulose fibers and cement. It has a woodlike appearance, is durable and used for decorative shapes and trim application. Vegetative roofs are used in residential societies, office buildings, hospitals, schools, recreational facilities, shopping centers and airports. Concrete is used to provide prolonged building benefits by functioning as thermal mass, acoustical barrier and durable structure. Other Applications Beams, drain tiles, piers, steps, Post, Beam and Deck ,Pilasters and round column forms Brickledge application, High Performance Admixtures ,Masonry ,Soil solidification. [9]

2.4 Types of cement

1. Ordinary Portland cement Ordinary Portland cement 33 Grade-Is 269: 1989 Ordinary Portland cement 43 Grade-Is 8112: 1989 Ordinary Portland cement 53 Grade-Is 12269: 1987 8

2. Rapid Hardening Cement 3. Extra Rapid hardening Cement 4. Sulphate Resisting Cement 5. Portland Slag Cement 6. Quick Setting Cement 7. Super Sulphated Cement 8. Low Heat Cement 9. Portland Pozzolana Cement

-Is 8041: 1990 _ -Is 12330: 1988 -Is 455: 1989 -Is _ -Is 6909: 1990 -Is 12600: 1989 -Is 1489 (Part I) 1991 (fly ash based) -Is 1489 (part II) 1991 (Calcined Clay based)

10. Air Entraining Cement 11. coloured Cement: White Cement 12. Hydrophobic Cement 13. Masonry Cement 14. Expansive Cement 15. Oil Well Cement 16. Rediset Cement 17. Concrete Sleeper grade Cement 18. High Alumina Cement 19. Very High Strength Cement [1]

-Is 8042: 1989 -Is 8043: 1991 -Is 3466: 1988 _ _ -Is 3466: 1988 -IRS-T 40: 1985 -Is 6452: 1989

2.5 Admixtures
Admixture are the materials other than the basic ingredients of concrete cement,water, and aggregate; added to the concrete mix immediately before or during mixing to modify one or more of the specific properties of concrete in the fresh or hardened state. [2]

Table2.1 Common types of concrete admixtures Admixture

Accelerator

Function
i. More rapid gain of strength ii. More rapid stting

Typical compound
Calicium chloride Sodium sulphate Sodium aluminate Sodium silicate Sodium carbonate Potassium hydroxide

Applications
i. Normal rate of strength at low t ii. Shorter stripping times. iii. Plugging of pressure leaks iv. concreting sprayed Maintain at

Disadvantages
i. possible cracking due to heat evolution. ii. Possibility of corrosion embedded reinforcement May bleeding promote of

Set-retarders

Detalyed setting

Hydroxylatedcarboxylic acids, sugers

i. high t

workability

ii. Reduce rate of heat evolution iii.Extend placing times Water-reducing accelerator Increased workability with faster strength Water-reducing Retarders Increased workability and delayed setting Air-entraining agents Entrainment of Mixture of sugers or Hydroxylatedcarboxylic acids lignosulphonate Wood resins, fasts, Increase durability of frost without increasing cement content, concrete Water-proofers i. prevention of water entering capillaries concrete of from Potash waxes soaps, Reduce permeability, Reduce staining, Watertighteness surface butylstearate petroleum cellular Carefull contol of air content and time mixing necessary air into concrete lignosulphonate and gain of Mixture chloride lignosulphonate of calcium and Water-reducers with strength development Water-reducers with slower loss of workability. faster

Risk corrosion

of

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ii. concrete plasticizers (Water-reducing)

Reduced of Calcium and sodium lignosulphonate

of without i.

structures using Higher with Retardation high dosages Tendency segregate Premature stiffening under certain conditions cement to at

permeability Increased workability

very low w/c ratio workability strength unchanged ii. Higher strength with workability unchanged iii.Less for same strength and workability

Super plasticizers Super-waterredusers

Geatly increseased workability

Sulphonate malamineformaldehyde resin, Sulphonated resin, naphthaleneformaldelyde and acid amides Mixtures of saccharates

i. Water-reducers, but over a wide range ii. Facilitae of

Tendency segregate

to

May increase rate of loss of workability

production

flowing concrete

2.6 Types of aggregate

2.6.1 Lightweight aggregate
The lightweight aggregates having unit weight up to 12KN/m3 are used to manufacture the structural concrete and masonry blocks for reduction of self-weight of structure. Light weight aggregate can be classified into two categories namely natural light weight aggregates and artificial light weight aggregates. [2] Natural lightweight aggregate: Pumice Datomice Scoria

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Volcanic cinders Sawdust Rice husk Artificial light weight aggregate: Artificial cinders Coke breeze Foamed slag Bloated clay Expanded shale and slate Sintered fly ash Exfoliated vermiculite Expanded partite Thermo Cole beads

2.6.2 Normal weight aggregate

The commonly used aggregates; sand and gravels, crushed stone which have specific gravities between 2.5 to 2.7 produced concrete with unit weight ranging from 23 to 26 KN/m3 and crushing strength at 28 days between 15 to 40 Mpa. [2]

2.6.3 Heavyweight aggregate

Some heavyweight aggregate having specific gravities ranging from 2.8 to 2.9 and unity weights from 28 to29 KN/m3 such as magnetite (Fe3O4), and barites(BaSO4) and scarp iron are used in the manufacture of heavy weight concrete which is more effective as radiation shield. Concrete having unit weight of about 30KN/m3, 36KN/m3 and56KN/m3 can be produced by using magnetite, barites and scarp iron, respectively. The compressive strength of these concrete is of the order of 20 to25 Mpa. The cementaggregate ratio varies 1:5 to 1:9 with a water-cement ratio between 0.5 to 0.6. The produce dense and crack-free concrete. The main drawback with these aggregates is that they are not suitably graded and hence it is difficult to have adequate workability without segregation.

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2.6.3.1Characteristics of heavy aggregate

Structural properties like strength and stiffness Resist to abrasion With the aggregate react with the hydrated Portland cement paste. The thermal conductivity of the aggregate might be an issue in lightweight concrete used for insulation, and the coefficient of thermal expansion of the aggregate also is issue of the pcc will be subjected to a large range of service temperature. The roughness or smoothness of the aggregate plays a role in the workability of fresh pcc. The gradation of the aggregate is also of some importance. According to size of aggregate a. Fine aggregate It is the aggregate most of which passes through a 4.5 mm IS sieve and contains only so much coarse material as is permited by the specifications. Sand considered to have a lower size limit of about 0.07mm. For increased workability and for economy as reflected by use of less cement, the fine aggregate should have a rounded shape. The purpose of the fine aggregate is to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate and to act as a workability agent. . b. Coarse aggregate The aggregate most of which are retained on the 4.75 mm IS sieve and contain only so much of fine materials ar is permitted by the the specifications are termed coarse aggregates. As with fine aggregate, for increased workability and economy as reflected by the use of less cement, the coarse aggregate should have a rounded shape. Even though the definition seems to limit the size of coarse aggregate, other considerations must be accounted for. When properly proportioned and mixed with cement, these two groups yield an almost voidless stone that is strong and durable. In strength and durability, aggregate must be equal to or better than the hardened cement to withstand the designed loads and the effects of weathering. It can be readily seen that the coarser the aggregate, the more economical the mix. [2] 13 are divided into two types as follows:

2.7 Fresh concrete

2.7.1 Introduction
The performance requirements of hardened concrete are more or less well defined with respect to shape and strength. To achieve these objectives economically, the fresh concrete, in addition to have suitable composition in terms of quality and quantity of cement, aggregate and admixtures, should satisfy a number of requirement form the mixing stage till is transported, placed in formwork and compacted. The requirement may be summarized as follows. (i) (ii) The mix should be able to produce a homogeneous fresh concrete from the constituent materials of the batch under the action of the mixing forces. The mix should be stable, in that it should not segregate during transportation and placing when it is subjected to forces during handling operations limited nature (iii) The mix should be cohesive and sufficiently mobile to be placed in the form around the reinforcement and should be able to cast into require shape without losing continuity or homogeneity under the available techniques of placing the concrete at a particular job. (iv) The mix should be amenable to proper and thorough compaction into a dense, compact concrete with minimum voids under the existing facilities of compaction at the site.

2.7.2 Workability
The diverse requirements of mixability, stability, transportability, placeability and compactibility of fresh concrete are referred to as workability. The workability of fresh concrete is thus a composite property. We can define workability as that property of freshly mixed concrete or mortar which determines the homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed, and compacted. Every job requires a particular workability. The concrete which is considered workable for mass concrete foundation is not workable for concrete to be used in roof construction and vice-versa.

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Sometimes the terms consistency and plasticity are used to denote the workability of a concrete mix. The consistency of the mix really means the wetness of the mix, and a wetter mix need not have all the above desired properties. Factor affecting workability: Water content: Water content in a given volume of concrete, will significant influences on the workability. The higher the water content per cubic meter of concrete, the higher will be the fluidity of concrete, which is one of the important factors affecting workability. Mixing proportion: Aggregate/cement ratio is an important factor influencing workability. The higher agg/cement ratio, the leaner is the concrete. Size af aggregate: The bigger the size of the aggregate, the less in the surface area and hence less amount of water is required for wetting the surface and less matrix or paste is required for lubricanting the surface to reduce internal friction. Shape of aggregate: The shape of aggregates influences workability in good mesure. Surface texture: The influence of surface texture on workability is again due to the fact that the total surface area of rough textured aggregate is more than the surface area of smoof rounded aggregate of same volume. Grading of aggregate: This is one of the factors which will have maximum influence on workability. A well graded aggregate is the one which has least amount of voids in a given volume. Use of admixtures: Of all the factor mentioned above, the most important fact which affects the workability is the use of admixture. [1]

2.7.3 Shrinkage
The concrete is always subjected to changes in volume which affect long-term strength and durability, this change in volume cause cracks in concrete. One of the important factors that contribute to the cracks in concrete is that due to shrinkage. Two types of shrinkage are recognized, namely plastic and drying shrinkage.

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-Plastic Shrinkage: the hydration of cement causes a reduction in the volume of system of cement plus water to an extent of about 1 per cent of volume of dry cement. This contraction is plastic shrinkage -Drying Shrinkage: the shrinkage that takes place after the concrete has set and hardened is called drying shrinkage and most of it takes place in the first few months.

2.7.4 Creep
The increase in strain in concrete with time under sustained stress is termed creep. The shrinkage and creep occur simultaneously and they are assumed to be additive for simplicity. When the sustained load is removed, the strain decreases immediately by an amount equal to elastic strain at the given age. This instantaneous recovery is then followed by gradual decrease in strain, called creep recovery which is a part of total creep strain suffered by the concrete. The rate of creep decreases with time and time the creep strains attained at a period of five years are usually taken as terminal values. While 80 to 85 per cent shrinkage strains occur in six months, only about 75 per cent of creep strains occur in twelve months. All the factors which influence shrinkage influence creep also in similar way.

2.7.5 Advantages and disadvantages of concrete

a. advantages: Concrete is economical in the long run as compare to other engineering materials. Concrete possess a high compressive strength, and the corrosive and the weathering effects are minimal. Concrete can even be sprayed on and filled into fine cracks for repairs by the granting process.The concrete can be pumped and hence it can be laid in the difficult positions also. It is durable and fire resistant and requires very little maintenance. b.Disadvantages: Concrete has low tensile strength and hence cracks easily. Therefore concrete is to be reinforced with steel or meshes. Fresh concrete shrinks on drying and hardened concrete expands on wetting.

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Concrete under sustained loading undergoes creep resulting in the reduction of prestress in the prestressed concrete construction. Concrete expands and contracts with the change in temperature. Concrete is not entirely impervious to moisture and contains soluble salts which may cause efflorescence. Concrete is liable to disintegrate by alkali and sulphate attack. Lack of ductility inherent in concrete as material is disadvantageous with respect to earthquake resistant design. [2]

2.8 Behavior of hardened concrete

The behavior of hardened concrete can be characterized in terms of its short-term (essentially instantaneous) and long-term properties. Short-term properties include strength in compression, tension, bond, and modulus of elasticity. The long-term properties include creep, shrinkage, behavior under fatigue, and durability characteristics such as porosity, permeability, freeze-thaw resistance, and abrasion resistance

2.8.1 Strength
The strength of concrete depends on a number of factors including the properties and proportions of the constituent materials, degree of hydration, rate of loading, method of testing and specimen geometry. The properties of the constituent materials which affect the strength are the quality of fine and coarse aggregate, the cement paste and the paste-aggregate bond characteristics (properties of the interfacial, or transition, zone). These, in turn, depend on the macroand microscopic structural features including total porosity, pore size and shape, pore distribution and morphology of the hydration products, plus the bond between individual solid components. Concrete composition limits the ultimate strength that can be obtained and significantly affects the levels of strength attained at early ages. Two dominant constituent materials that are considered to control maximum concrete strength are coarse aggregate and paste characteristics. The important parameters of coarse aggregate are its shape, texture and the maximum size. Since the aggregate is generally stronger than the paste, its strength is not a major factor for normal strength concrete; However, the 17

aggregate strength becomes important in the case of higher-strength concrete or lightweight aggregate concrete. Surface texture and mineralogy affect the bond between the aggregates and the paste as well as the stress level at which microcracking begins. The surface texture, therefore, may also affect the modulus of elasticity, the shape of the stressstrain curve and, to a lesser degree, the compressive strength of concrete. Since bond strength increases at a slower rate than compressive strength. Tensile strengths may be very sensitive to differences in aggregate surface texture and surface area per unit volume. Using the aggregates for the mix proportions of high strength concretes, they also found close correlations between the mean compressive strengths of the aggregates and the compressive strength of the concretes, ranging from 35 to 75 MPa (5,000 to 10,700 psi), at both 7 days and 28 days of age. The mean compressive strength of the aggregate is calculated as:

22 is the mean compressive strength of aggregate V is the volume of a single aggregate determined using Archimedes's principle after the over dried weight is measured P is the maximum load applied on a single aggregate h is the distance between the two opposite load points of P In a study by Lindgard and Smeplass [1993] six aggregate types with different strength and rigidity were tested: dehydrated bauxite, quartzite, quartz-diorite (as reference), gneiss/granite, basalt and limestone. All the aggregates except gneiss/granite were crushed. Fig. 2.1. shows the effect of the aggregate type on compressive strength. The difference between the highest and the lowest strengths is approximately 40%. The authors noted, however, that the bauxite and the basalt aggregates were porous and capable of absorbing significant amounts of mixing water, thus reducing the effective W/CM from 0.30 to 0.24 and 0.27 respectively.

18

Figure 2.1 The effect of the aggregate type on compressive strength It is generally accepted that the most important parameter affecting concrete strength is the W/C ratio, sometimes referred to as the W/B (binder) ratio. Even though the strength of concrete is dependent largely on the capillary porosity or gel/space ratio, these are not easy quantities to measure or predict. The capillary porosity of a properly compacted concrete is determined by the W/C ratio and degree of hydration. Most high performance concrete are produced with a W/C ratio of 0.40 or less. The practical use of very low W/C ratio concretes has been made possible by use of both conventional and high-range water reducers, which permit production of workable concrete with very low water contents. [11] The direct tensile strength is difficult to obtain. Due to the difficulty in testing, only limited and often conflicting data is available. It is often assumed that direct tensile strength of concrete is about 10% of its compressive strength. A set of typical tensile stressstrain curves and modulus of elasticty are shown in Fig. 2.2 & Fg. 2.3 [2]

19

fo

ff

Stress

strain

Figure. 2.2 Stress-strain relationship for concrete An equation representing the stress and stain curve completely should satisify the following conditions: i. at=0, =0 ii.at=o, =o iii.at=f, =u

Stress

A Tangent B Initial tangent Secant

Strain

Figure 2.3 Different modulus of alacticity

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2.9 Light concrete

2.9.1 Definition
There are differing definitions for concretes that can be produced with lightweight aggregates. Low-density concrete generally is produced with partite or vermiculite aggregates, rarely exceeds (800 kg/m3). Structural lightweight concretes are typically produced with expanded shales, clays, slates and slag. They can also be made with pumice or scoria, which are naturally occurring volcanic aggregates. By definition, structural lightweight concretes have a minimum compressive strength of (17.2 Mpa) and an air-dried unit weight of (1,440 to 1,850 kg/m3). Moderate strength concretes fall somewhere in between low-density and structural lightweight concrete. For comparison, normal-weight concretes have a typical dry unit weight of (2,300 to 2,400 kg/m3). Advantages of using lightweight aggregates The primary advantage of using lightweight aggregates to precasters is the reduction of product weight. Reduction in weight can lead to improved economy of structural components because there will be less dead load for the structure to support. Also, as mentioned previously, this may significantly affect the way in which products can be shipped.. Another reason to consider using lightweight aggregates is that sometimes the dead load of a product is near or above the capacity of the crane being used at a plant. With lightweight aggregates, it may be possible to reduce the weight of the product so that special cranes would not be necessary, or to produce larger sections than would be possible with normal-weight concrete. Also, a reduction in crane movements may be realized since longer reaches are possible with lighter loads. Lightweight aggregates can also provide unique and potentially useful properties to concrete besides reduced weight. Lightweight concrete is thermally efficient. With warmer walls, there is less risk of condensation. Lightweight concrete is fire-resistant. Because lightweight aggregates have already been pre-fired, they are stable and do not decompose in high temperatures. This is ideal for building components or refractory products.

21

Lightweight concrete absorbs energy well. With the addition of fiber reinforcement and even foaming agents, an extremely lightweight concrete could be produced and used for such products as highway impact attenuators or sacrificial blast-resistant barriers. With reduced weight, lightweight concrete will have a correspondingly reduced hydrostatic pressure on formwork. This is useful when casting large, custom products. Also, water that has been absorbed into the porous structure of lightweight aggregates is said to provide additional water for internal curing. [5]

2.9.2 Quality control

To assure uniform quality, manufacturers should ensure that gradations and dry, loose unit weight of the lightweight aggregates are consistent. Reports including this data can usually be obtained from the aggregate supplier. If this is not the case, plant personnel should do the tests themselves. Variation in either the aggregate gradations or the dry, loose unit weight generally requires adjustments to the mix proportions in order to produce uniform concrete. In addition, both unit weight and slump testing of the fresh concrete should be performed frequently in order to verify consistency of the mix constituents and the concrete itself. Slumps should be as low as possible while remaining sufficiently easy to place, consolidate and finish. [5]

2.9.3 Concrete Strength

Lightweight concretes generally have what is called a strength ceiling. This is the maximum compressive or tensile strength a certain mix can obtain despite improvements to the cementations materials. This limiting strength is dependent on the strength of the lightweight coarse aggregate and/or the quality of the contact zone and bond between the aggregate and the surrounding cement paste. It is possible to achieve a slight increase in strength by reducing the maximum size of coarse aggregates. Given that these limits exist, it should be noted that structural lightweight concrete strengths compare favorably with that of normal-weight concretes in the 3,000 to 5,000 psi-range. [5]

22

2.9.4 Moisture Contents

Highly absorptive lightweight aggregate should be wetted at least 24 hours prior to use, allowing time for the porous aggregate to become fully saturated. Wetting aggregate may be a logistical challenge depending on the weather, with freezing a possibility in cold weather and moisture loss in the hot weather. However, one benefit of wetting is that it helps keep the aggregate particles from segregating during handling. It is not recommended that dry lightweight aggregate be directly batched and mixed because the aggregate particles can continue to absorb water from the mix. This can cause the mix to segregate or stiffen before it can be placed. Because of the high variability of aggregate moisture contents, water-cement ratios are generally not specified for lightweight concretes. Calculation of water-cement ratios is hampered by the uncertainty of the total amount of water contained in the aggregates. [5]

2.9.5 Production considerations

It may be necessary to extend mix times for lightweight concrete compared with conventional concrete to ensure that all of the mix constituents are properly mixed. Greater variations in workability should be expected, compared with conventional concrete with the same slump. Along those same lines, the amount of air-entraining admixture necessary to produce a constant amount of air content could also vary widely. Consult your admixture supplier for more information. Depending on the porosity and the degree of the aggregate angularity, the concrete could be more difficult to place and finish. In some cases it is possible for the aggregate and the other mix constituents to separate, allowing the lightweight aggregate particles to float toward the concrete surface. Overworking the concrete can also cause the mix to segregate. This situation can be remedied by adjusting the aggregate gradation to reduce the size of the larger aggregates, adding natural sand or other filler materials. Although this is the opposite problem encountered with self-consolidating concrete, where the goal is to keep aggregates suspended in the mix, it is likely that similar rheological mix enhancements can help stabilize the mix.

23

As with other conventional concrete mixes, ease of placement can be enhanced by including air entrainment if not already a part of the mix design. Air entrainment also reduces bleeding and segregation and improves durability. Finally, lightweight concretes may have an increased tendency to experience drying shrinkage and creep (strain increase over long periods of time with a constant load). Steam curing effectively reduces the likelihood of both drying shrinkage and creep. The decision to use lightweight aggregates in order to economize transportation costs is one that requires you to take into account many variables. Although not every project is a good candidate for the use of lightweight aggregate, some projects definitely are. In addition, some of the more unique properties that lightweight aggregates offer could enhance specialized products, whether they are fire-resistant, blast-resistant or other insulating products. Its good to keep your options open and be ready to take advantage of opportunities that allow you to boost your plants income. Ultimately, only you can decide if your products should lose some weight. As with our own diet, if you wish to lose weight, you must be patient and should expect some trial-and-error in finding the right combination of what works best. [5]

2.10 Normal concrete

2.10.1 Characteristics of normal concrete
Normal concrete or ordinary concrete is a mixture of fine aggregate, water, cement and coarse aggregate. All components of ordinary concrete are mixed together until they become a paste, which surrounds the voids in aggregate during its fresh concrete. Compressive strength depends upon water, the cement ratio and the quality of the cure cycle. According to the ACI code, the compressive strength of the concrete is obtained from the standard test cylinder 6-in(150mm) diameter by 12-in(300mm) high measured at 7,14 and 28 days of age before testing. After 28 days of water curried or placed in a constant temperature room to obtain 100% of humidity. For normal weight concrete, the value of shrinkage is 0.003 when the specimen after casting is submerged in water not less than 7 days. To avoid high shrinkage in the concrete, we have to consider proportional size of aggregate, water-cement ratio and humidity. [4] 24

2.10.2 Advantages & the disadvantages of normal concrete

As most a construction of material in Concrete our has the life following is advantages: compression.

1. Concrete can handle the compression stresses 10 times more than the tension and the loads 2. Concrete is a brittle material which gives the advantage to make a rigid structure. 3. Easy to handle over specially now there is plants that give you ready mix concrete. Disadvantages: 1. Concrete is weak in handling tension. 2. Because concrete is a brittle material the strength upon shear must be checked. 3. Needs another material to reinforce it against excessive shear and tension. [5]

2.11 Heavy concrete

2.11.1 Characteristics of heavy concrete
A heavy material such as concrete is capable of buffering a large part of the free heat gains, such as solar radiation and heat. Concrete can therefore decrease energy consumption as well as improve thermal comfort. A taskforce of three principal organisations related to concrete construction has investigated and documented the advantages of heavy buildings. Energy balance calculations were undertaken for buildings of heavy and lightweight construction in various European climates, for both residential and office circumstances. The results show that a solid residential building requires 2-7% less bought energy for heating compared to a building of lightweight construction. This has significant economical and environmental impacts. Where cooling is required, the energy savings are even larger and cooling facilities can be avoided altogether in many heavy buildings. The advantages are further increased if the effect of thermal mass is actively taken into account in the building design. An information database of the role of concrete in energy efficient buildings including a portfolio of energy efficient concrete buildings has been compiled. [9]

25

2.11.2 Compressive strength

The inclusion of heavy aggregate in concrete does not increase the concrete strength as previously expected to reflect their characteristics of higher strength and density. This can attribute to the cracking types, which takes place as the crack propagating in the paste. This can observed by testing results of compressive strengths that an increase of iron ore and iron shot amount makes a little growth in concrete strength. In fact an inclusion of 40% of heavy aggregate in volume only raises the compressive strength up to 5% higher than the strength of regular concrete. To investigate the effect of metallic aggregate on the mechanical properties of heavy concrete, the mixture of concrete are designed with a unique water to cement ratio W/C equal to 0.48, and 0%,1o%, 20%, 40% and 48.8% of metallic aggregate in volume in the testing program. The latest mixture has been used in same nuclear power plants. It is noted that the amount of iron shot is fixed at 9.2% for all mixture while the iron ore is varied, therefore the unity weight of concrete increase with the increase of metallic aggregate content. And it is noted that some admixtures such as water reducers and superplastizer and not advisable in the mixture of heavy concrete in order to ascertain to the minimum requirement of water which supplies sufficient amount of hydrogen atoms. [9]

2.11.3 Mixing and curing

The procedure for mixing heavy concrete is similar to ordinary concrete. In a typical mixing procedure, iron shot are mixed first, followed by cement and then water, as some as mixing of regular concrete. However due to higher specific gravities of both iron ore and iron shot, too much compacting vibration that can lead to segregation has to be avoided. Trial mix for each mixture has been engaged until a good workability and sufficient strength gain achieved. In the mean time air content for each mix, which could provide useful data to figure out the amount of voids. All concrete specimens were cast in molds for one day and then placed in water for 28 days prior to testing; the specimens for cracking analysis were placed in air for another three days before the process of precracking and dying. [10]

26

2.12 Concrete in road pavements

Some pavement designers assume "average concrete" properties in their calculations without any information about which aggregates, cement, pozzolans, or mixture proportions that the con- tractor will use later on the job. Concrete properties of particular importance to pavement design are: E (Modulus of Elasticity), strength, thermal expansion, shrinkage, creep, heat generation, and durability (physical and chemical reactivity). A good pavement designer should also be a concrete expert. At the AASHO Road Test, there were two distinctive failure modes. The very thin pavements failed with continuous edge pumping that caused edge cracking that coalesced into a longitudinal edge crack. The thicker pavements failed by joint pumping that caused transverse cracking starting particularly in the traffic leave side of the joints. The data from both were averaged together in the road test analysis to develop a performance equation. Even so, of the 84 pavement test sections greater than 8 in (200 mm) in thickness, only seven sections had a serviceability index of less than 4.0 at the end of the testing. In fact, only three sections could actually be considered as having failed. Hence, one can conclude that even though the AASHO data is the best that we have, it hardly predicts failure of the thicknesses of pavement that are now being built. [10]

27

Chapter 3. MATERIALS AND ANALYSIS 3.1 Materials

3.1.1 Ordinary Portland cement
The OPC used in this project was manufactured at MASHYUZA in CEMERWA factory, BAMBURI in KENYA and HIMA in UGANDA. This kind of cement from MASHYUZA made with three basic raw materials such as: lime stone, quartz and clay. The two first are found at MASHYUZA quarry, the raw pulps concentration is: 70% of lime stone; 155 of quartz and 5% of clay soil. The cement samples produced was tested in national laboratory to determine its physical properties such us fineness, setting time, standard consistency, soundness, density and compressive strenght. The role of Ordinary Portland Cement is to bind materials together.

3.1.2 Aggregate
The aggregates are used primarily for the purpose of providing bulk to concrete, to increase the density of the resulting mix. The aggregate is frequently used in two or more sizes. The most important function of the fine aggregate is to assist the mixture, in producing workability and uniformity to fresh concrete. It also assists the cement paste to hold the coarse aggregate, particles in suspension. The source of aggregate is not difficult in this country. That sand was free from deterious materials. Take a sample of different aggregate from different area in RWANDA and results from national laboratory are: GIHARA, BUGESERA, GITI CYINYONI, KARONGI, MUKUNGWA, GATUMBA, MUSANZE and RUSINE River.

28

Table 3.1 Quality of aggregate

Aggregate Specific gravity Water absorption (%) GIHARA BUGESERA GITI CYINYONI KARONGI MUKUNGWA GATUMBA MUSANZE 2.92 2.70 2.89 2.97 0.52 1.62 0.3 0.2 1.71 1.57 1.64 1.75 1.51 1.4 1.52 1.52 2.71 2.67 2.64 0.4 0.14 0.32 bulk density (g/m ) 1.64 1.62 1.61
3

uncompacted bulk (g/m3) 1.48 1.48 1.45 density

According to their unit weight are classified flowing: Normal weight aggregate, Lightweight aggregate and Heavy weight aggregate. And According to size of aggregate are divided into two types as follows: fine aggregate and coarse aggragate.

3.1.4 Water
Water is used in concrete to react with cement and thus causing it to set and harden, also facilitates mixing, placing and compacting of fresh concrete. It is also used for washing the aggregates and for curing purposes. Water used for both mixing and curing should be free from injurious amount of deterious materials. The quality of water is important because impurities in it may interface with setting of the cement may adversely affect the strength of concrete or cause staining of its surface. And the quality of water is covered by clause saying that water should be fit for drinking. The source of that water used in this project was water distributed by ELECTROGAZ

29

3.1.5 Admixture
3.1.5 1.Definition Admixture are the materials other than the basic ingredients of concrete, cement, water and added to the concrete mix immediately before or during mixing one or more of the specific properties of concrete in the flesh or hardened state. [2] 3.1.5 2 Sika latex Sika latex is generally added to the clean mixing water within the range 1:1-1:4. for all application a part from sprayed on renders a bonding coat of sika latex: water(1:1) mixed with fresh cement and sand (1:1) should be brushed into the prepared surface. Sub sequent mortar application must be carried out whilst the bonding coat is still wet. Application and limitation Rendering, floor toppings should be allowed to cure correctly. Protect the applied mortar from frost exposure. Avoid excessive air-entrainment through over mixing. Do not use neat sika latex or sika latex with water as bonding agent. Especially always add cement and sand. Minimum application temperature is +5 C Clean all tools and application equipment with water immediately after use. 3.1.5 3. Sikatop Designed for use on concrete, mortar, and masonry substates. Easily applied by brush, roller, or spray equipment. This fine textured, abrasion-resistant coating is used for protection against deicing salts and for damp proofing/water proofing.

30

3.2 ANALYSIS
3.2.1 Ligh concrete 3.2.1.1 Properties of structural
Concrete can be produced with density which are 25 to 40 percent lower but with strengths equal to the maximum normally achieved by ordinary concrete. Characteristics of lightweight concrete Low density: the density of the concrete varies from 300 to 1200 kg/m3. High strength: cellular concrete has high compressive strength in relation to its density. The strength of aerated cellular concrete is about 15 to 20 percent of its compressive strength. Due to much higher strength to mass ratio, the cellular concrete floor and roof slabs are approximately one quarter the weight of normal reinforced concrete slabs. Thermal insulation: the insulation value of light weight concrete is about 3 to 6 times that of bricks and about 10 times that of other concrete. A 200 mm thick and wall of aerated concrete of density 800kg/m3 has the same degree of insulation as a 400 mm thick brick wall of density 1600kg/m3. Fire resistance: light weight has excellent fire resisting properties. Its thermal conductivity makes its suitable for protecting other structures from the effects of fire. Shrinkage: light weight concrete is subjected to shrinkage but to a limited extend. Sound insulation: sound insulation in cellular concrete is normal not as good as in dense concrete. Repairability: light weight products can be easily sown, cut drilled or nailed. This makes construction easier. Speed of construction: with the adoption of prefabrication is possible to design the structure on the concept of molecular which ensure of faster rate of construction. Economy: due to light weight and high strength to mass ratio of cellular concrete products, their use results in lesser consumption of steel.

31

Quality control: a better quality control is exercised in construction of structure with light weight concrete products owning to the use of factory made units.

3.2.1.2 Applications of lightweight concrete

Different uses of light weight concrete can summarized as follows: As load bearing masonry wall using cellular concrete blocks As precast floor and roof panels in all types of buildings As a filler wall in the form of precast reinforced wall panels in multistoried building. As partition walls in residential, institutional and industrial building. As in situ composite roof or floor slabs with reinforced concrete grid beams. As precast composite wall or floor panels, and As insulation cladding to exterior walls of all types of buildings, particularly in office and industrial building. These are many advantages of having low density. -It helps in reduction of dead load -It increases the progress of building and lowers haulage and handling costs. -It will result in considerable economy. -Lower thermal conductivity And one of the disadvantages of conventional concrete is the high self weight of concrete. Basically there is only one method for making concrete light. This is achieved in actual practice by 3 different ways. By replacing the usual mineral aggregate by cellular porous or light weight aggregate. By introducing gas or air bubbles in mortar. This known as aerated concrete. By omitting sand fraction from aggregate. This is called no-fines concrete.

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3.2.2 Normal concrete

Normal concrete or ordinary concrete is a mixture of fine aggregate, water, cement and coarse aggregate. Density of normal concrete is in the order of 22 to 26 KN/m3. Application of normal concrete As load bearing masonry wall using concrete blocks As precast floor and roof panels in all types of buildings As a filler wall in the form of precast reinforced wall panels in multistoried building. As partition walls in residential, institutional and industrial building. As in situ composite roof or floor slabs with reinforced concrete grid beams. As precast composite wall or floor panels.

3.2.3 Heavy concrete

Heavy concrete having unit weight of about 30KN/m3 to 57KN/m3 and produced by using heavy weight aggregate. Application of heavy concrete

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The most common use of high-strength concrete is for construction of high-rise buildings. At 969 ft (295 m), Chicago's 311 South Wacker Drive uses concrete with compressive strengths up to 12,000 psi (83 MPa) and is the tallest concrete building in the United States. [7] Heavy aggregate is some times desired when structure such as pcc walls and floor are constructed and radiation shielding is important. One common example is in hospitals where X-Ray facilities might be enclosed in heavy weight pcc walls so that the radiation used there in does not escape and pose a threat to other building occupants. A few examples of heavy weight aggregate are iron slugs and steel bar bearings.

3.2.4 Comparison of light , narmal and heavy concrete

By definition lightweight concrete is lighter ther normal-weight concrete. This 25 to 35% weight reduction affords architects and engineers considerable design flexibility and substantial cost savings to the owner. The reduction in unit weight provides less dead load, resulting in improved seismic structural response and permits the use of longer spans, thinner sections, and smaller size structural members, less reinforcing steel and less costly foundations. Because lightweight concrete has greater tire resistance than normal-weight concrete, required tire ratings are achieved with thinner floor sections, further reducing the dead load and enhancing the advantages. All of this adds up to more efficient structural systems with less material being used, which in turn improves the long-term sustainability of the concrete industry and the environment. Concrete is made lighter primarily by replacing the "heavy" normal weight aggregate with lightweight aggregate and by maintaining air entrainment at about 6%. The primary difference between high-strength concrete and normal-strength concrete relates to the compressive strength that refers to the maximum resistance of a concrete sample to applied pressure. Although there is no precise point of separation between high-strength concrete and normal-strength concrete, the American Concrete Institute defines high-strength concrete as concrete with a compressive strength greater than 6000 psi (41 MPa)

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Table.3.1 Comparison of light , normal and heavy concrete

Light concrete Compressive strength N/mm2 on cubic samples Density(KN/m3) Cost Aggreagate Transport use 14.40 to 18.4 Cheap Lightweight aggr. Easly (low weight) reduction of the dead load of structure 22.4-24.0 Medium Difficult and Normal use Greater than 25 Expensive Difficult Protection eradiation, against rigid 9 to 88 Normal concrete 10 to 60 Heavy concrete Greater than 60 up to 115

Normal weight aggr. Heavy weight aggr.

Some reasons of Insulation,

pavement of roads.

35

Chapter 4:

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 4.1 Availability of aggregate in Rwanda Types of aggregates Lightweight aggregate Quantity Medium Examples Volcanic cinders, Sawdust and Rice husk Sources Northern province, Western southern province, province carpentry workshop, and eastern province

Normal weight Aggregate

High

Sand, crushed

gravel, In all province stone, In all rivers

coarse aggregate,

Heavy aggregate

weight Low

Crushed rock with All province high density.

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Table 4.2 Availability of concrete in RWANDA

Types concrete

of availability

Compressive strength

Aggregates used

Observation

Lightweight concrete

Low

Volcanic cinders

Some dont know the different of L.C and N.C and they confuse plain concrete& L.C.

Normal weight More 99% concrete

16.5 -25 Mpa

Sand, crushed coarse

Gravel, It has observed stone, that used province. in normal all concrete are more

aggregate.

Heavy concrete

weight low

crushed stone (dolerite)

We

need

other for heavy

cement making concrete.

37

4.1 Comparison of uses of lightweight concrete, normal concrete and heavy concrete in RWANDA

I found that 99% of concrete used in RWANDA are normal concrete because of availability of normal aggregate in all region of country, and is known by many people, and are not very expansive. And other concrete are not known by many people and they confuse plain concrete and light concrete. By example lightweight aggregate are available in RWANDA but are not used in all construction use only in construction of road. But they are an absence of cement used in heavy concrete in RWANDA. When you want to use them there is one way of getting that cement, is to import in other countries have successful for production of that cement or CIMERWA should produce cement that have strength grade more than 32.5 especially for highter grade concretes, it means the use of heavy concrete are very expensive.

4.2 Discussion
Data received from different companies show that they dont know the difference between Lightweight concrete, Normal weight concrete and Heavy concrete. They name concrete according to the quantity of cement used in mixing ratio of cement and aggregate; when they use low quantity of cement in cement/aggregate ratio the concrete produced is Lightweight concrete. And when they use more quantity of cement means that concrete produced is Heavy concrete. By example: Lightweight concrete 1:3:5 Normal concrete Heavy concrete 1:2:4 1:1:2

But all types of concrete used are Normal concrete, because they use normal weight aggregate with at different mixing ratio and differents size;

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Chapiter 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION
The research conducted during this work has increasing our understanding in several areas related to the lightweight concrete, normal concrete and heavy concrete . The conclusions that could be made from the results are: Some site dont know the difference between light concrete, normal concrete and heavy conrete. They know that the type of concrete depends on the mixing ratio of cement and aggregates; when use more quantity of cement means that heavy concrete, and when use low quantity is lightweight concrete. Lightweight concrete should be used in different areas in our contry because of availability of lightweight aggregate in all area of RWANDA and are not expensive and the compressive strength is not as great as ordinary concrete, but it weathers just as well. Among its advantages are less need for structural steel reinforcement, smaller foundation requirements, better fire resistance and most importantly, the fact that it can serve as an insulation material! Als heavy concrete should be used in our contry because of their advantages by example some time they dont need to be reinforced,

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5.2 RECOMMENDATION
Analysis of light concrete, normal concrete and heavy concrete it helps different clients to differenciate these three types of concrete and facilitate the selection of type of concrete used. It is recommended the Ministry of education to encourage the final year students by helping them executing what they have discovered in order to improve our technology in Rwanda. It is recommended to the government authorities to sensitive the population on the use of Light concrete as new building material for making walling blocks on the market industry, since it might be cheap and easily made in the country. In view of the following on some special concrete its recommended to be used in development contries like RWANDA such us heavy concrete in order to reduce the damaged roads cause damage to vehicles, reduce their fuel efficiency and lead to passenger discomfort. The rigid pavements or the concrete roads, on the other hand, provide smooth drive consistently over long period of time The bitumen roads, although incur lower initial cost, end up costing more in comparison with concrete roads, on account of higher maintenance requirements. life and minimum maintenance costs. The concrete roads offer special advantages in city in terms of their capacity to withstand heavy traffic loads, long service

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REFERENCES
[1] M.S SHETTY and S.CHAND (2005), Concrete Technology Theory and Practice, Technical Advisor, MC Bauchemie Pvt Ltd [2] ML GAMBHIR (1995), Concrete Technology, Second edition [3] Neville A.M. (1963), Properties of Concrete Technology, Sir Isaac and Pitman sons Ltd London. [4] www.wikipedia.org/wiki/compressive strength (2007) [5] e- mail info@esci.org.www.esci.org [6] htt:/// www.cement.org/bosic/concrete products_histrenght.asp [7] http://cr4.globalspec.com/thread/42583/Concrete-beams-for-ceiling [8] http://www.tfhrc.gov/structur/hpc/hpc2/ack.htm [9] http://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/julaug98/concrete.htm [10] http://www.spancrete.com/products.php

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APPANDICES

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43