PROFESSORS NOTES

vers 1.1

24.1 ACTIVE FILTERS AND FREQUENCY PROFILES: All circuits have a frequency response characterized by the mix of reactive components and active devices. In some instances, we merely analyze the frequency character of the circuit, and assess it to see if it will accomplish our signal processing requirement. But in other instances we desire to command the circuits frequency behavior, and define the frequency character, or frequency profile of the circuit. In most instances we define frequency profiles in terms of amplitude pass functions. There are four basic types: 1) 2) 3) 4) Lowpass Highpass Bandpass Band stop

These are represented by figure 24.11.

|T| (dB)

lowpass

|T| (dB)

highpass

log10 f

log10 f

|T| (dB)

bandpass

|T| (dB)

bandstop

log10 f

log10 f

Figure 24.11: Basic frequency profiles Intermediate and highfrequency profiles use small components, capacitances in pF, inductances in H. Components are small and compact. Profiles are readily accomplished by means of judiciouslyconstructed RLC networks. The principal concern in highfrequency profiling is the effect of the circuit parasitics on the poles and zeros. Parasitics include leakage paths, wiring inductances, and fringing capacitances. Frequency profiles in excess of 500 MHz may use resonant cavities or artificial crystals to define their frequency character.

240

At lower frequencies, typically associated with audio systems, biological interface systems, or feedback control systems, components may be large and cumbersome, and therefore techniques have been developed in which active drivers are used to replace components or reconfigure a circuit into one which may be cast into integratedcircuit form. These types of circuits are called active filters. An active filter is a frequencyresponsive network driven by one or more active drivers. The typical driver is an opamp, or one of its cousins. The frequencyresponsive network consists of resistances and frequencyactive components. Typically, the active driver is used to eliminate one of the more cumbersome types of frequencyactive components, such as the inductances. For these profiles, one or more characteristic frequencies are usually necessary to define the stop and passband edges. Edge and amplitude definitions are represented by figure 24.12, for the four basic profiles

')(*' %$& 

 

')(*' %$& .-   

 

!"#

 





#

!

+,-

6 87:9;,<>=? ')(5' ')(*'

6 7A@> B,C=?

%$& 
 0

 %$& 4  .- 0  - +,

 !3 #-3

 




#-3

!3

!,1

- 6
D 7AE?
+F

#21

#21 /-

!,1 +,-

6 +7AEG- 

Figure 241.2. Edge and amplitude definition of the four basic frequency profiles. Note that for bandpass and bandstop profiles, we must provide parameters to characterize both edges, unless the profiles are symmetric. For frequency profiles of order greater than 2, the passband will (usually) include a ripple amplitude, as illustrated by figure 241.3.

241

Figure 24.13. Example of amplitude definition: The 4thorder Chebyshev filter profile. A great deal of attention has been given to active filter techniques, and so many filter types and constructs are identified in terms of names or descriptions. We will not attempt to survey all the different types, except to say that there are usually enough options to satisfy normal profiling and signalhandling requirements. In most instances these will be tabulated, and we may take table values, load and go, and construct the circuit, provided we have enough knowledge and perspective so that we may make a wise choice of technique. Lowpass and highpass filter types, such as Chebyshev, Thompson, Elliptic, Butterworth, etc, are standard and well characterized. They are based on the roots of polynomials and strict mathematical conditions. Normalized versions of these type filters, for a variety of circuit representations, are compiled in tables associated with particular types of common active ladders. Biquadratic Circuits: One of the most basic frequency profiles is the class of functions in which the transfer function T(s) is a ratio of two quadratics in s (= j ), otherwise called a biquadratic form. The general from of the biquadratic function is: T

N 2s 2  N 1s s 2  s 0  Q

 

N0


2 0

(24.11)

Table 24.11 shows the type of magnitude response that results for different numerator functions. Note that the denominator function is always of the form: D(s)

s2

0

2 0

(24.12)

We sometimes call equation (24.12) the characteristic function, since it defines a frequency  0 that is characteristic of the peak, and bandpass factor Q, known as the quality factor of the quadratic function. The peak occurs naturally for the bandpass function, for which N2 = N0 = 0, and N1  0

242

Table 24.11: Characteristics of the biquadratic pass functions

Type

Coefficients

(Normalized) function

|T| response

lowpass

N0

T N2 = 0, N1 = 0

s2

2 0

2 0


highpass

N2

0 T

N1 = 0, N0 = 0

s 2
0

2 0

bandpass

N1

0 T

N2 = 0, N0 = 0

s2

s s

Q Q

2 0

bandstop N2

N1 = 0 T

0, N0

s2

s2 s

2 0

2 0

allpass N2

N1

0 T

0, N0

s2 s2

s s

Q Q

2 0 2 0

Note that if we make the choice N1 =  T

0/Q,

then we have, for the bandpass function, s s

s2

Q Q

2 0

(24.13)

which is a normalized form of the bandpass function since |T| = 1 when = 0 . This is a convenient form to illustrate the meaning of the qualityfactor Q. Its response is identified by figure 24.13.

243

  

Figure 24.13. Biquadratic bandpass function If we analyze equation (24.13) to find the frequency at which |T|  solutions: 1

2 (= 3dB level), we find that there are four



2Q

2Q

1 

4Q 2

(24.14)

Of these solutions, the only ones which are greater than zero are:



2Q

2Q

1 

4Q 2

and



2Q

2Q

1 

4Q 2

The difference,   , represents the resonance width at 3dB, and will be:

 

 

 

so that the quality factor Q represents the sharpness of the quadratic resonance peak, as Q 

 

(24.15) 1

The resonance peak also manifests itself for the lowpass and highpass quadratic functions when Q  sketches in table 24.11 indicate this behavior.

2 . The

244

EXAMPLE 24.11: We usually have interest in singleamplifier biquadratic circuits since they yield relatively simple building blocks for use in series profiles. The SallenKey circuit shown by figure 24.14 is such an example.



  C2

Figure 24.14: SallenKey singleamplifier biquad. This is a biquadratic lowpass circuit. Nodal analysis at v1 and v+ gives: v 1 (G 1
 

G2


sC 1)


v OsC 1


v IG 1

v  G2


v  (G 2

sC 2)

v 1G 2

Using vo = K v+ , ( where K = 1 + RB /RA ), gives: vO vI



GG K 1 2 C 1C 2 


G 2(1  K) C2


G1


G2
 

C1

G 1G 2 C 1C 2 

(24.16)

Typically we let C1 = C2 = C and G1 = G2 = G, in which case we get: vO vI



K s 0(3


2 0

K)


2 0

(24.17)

where 

= G/C = 1/RC. Note that (24.17 is of the lowpass form.

For this case we see that Q = 1/(3 K), and it is necessary that the feedback ratio RB /RA < 2 for stability. Since the ratio G2 /C2 is consistent throughout equation (24.16), we may taper the SallenKey biquad by selecting C2 =  C1 =  C and G2 =  G1 =  G. This modification does not change the characteristic frequency  0 , but will change the form of the expression for quality factor to tapered form Q


1  (2


K)

(24.18)

245

EXAMPLE 24.12 A more general circuit form, the 2integrator loop, can produce most, if not all of the basic biquadratic functions. For this reason, it also may be called a statevariable filter. The generalized twointegrator loop is shown by figure 24.15.

1 vi

+1/Q

n2 v0

s v1

0
0 s v0

v2

2 0 v 2 s 0

Figure 24.15: Twointegrator loop, general schematic. where the integrator component usually is the inverting Miller integrator,

s =

The basic feedback circuit consists of two integrator elements and one invertersumming element in a series loop. Analysis of the circuit of figure 24.15 shows that the output of the summing circuit will be: v0

1 Q

s  v0

2 0 2

v0

 n 2v i

(24.19)

for which, collecting like terms in v0 and vi . v 0  s2

  0  Qs 2 n 2s 2v i 0
n s2

(24.110)

Resolving equation (24.110), we see that the transfer function from vi to vo with then be of a highpass form: v0 vi
2 s2 s Q  0    2 0

(24.111)

From equation (24.110) and the relationship between stages we see that: v1 vi

v0 vi

bandpass

v2

 s 2  v i 

2 0

v0

lowpass

which is why we identify this type of circuit as a statevariable filter, since it provides the three basic biquadratic functions, lowpass, highpass, and bandpass. Other biquadratic functions, such as the notch and the allpass can be created from sums of these functions, usually by means of an extra summing element. For example, if we add an extra amplifer to perform the sum v3 then the function v3 vi 1 1 1 v i  n 2Q v i  1  n 2Q v i  v v

2 s2  0 s2 s Q   0 is created. This is the notch, or bandstop function.

2 0

246

A circuit implementation of the twointegrator loop is shown by figure 24.16. The implementation gives results which are the same as equation (24.19), with

  R1   R2 R3 1 R 1   R2  R1 1  1 Q  R2 R3 R1  
n2 R3

(24.112a)

(24.112b)

Figure 24.16. Twointegrator loop circuit implementation. Variations of the twointegrator loop exist. For example, the TowThomas statevariable form is shown by figure 24.17. In this implementation of the circuit, a simple inverter circuit is used to achieve the polarity necessary for the feedback function, and one of the integrators is replaced by a lossy integrator, for stability. Nodal analysis gives: v2  and v2
3 2  G 1  sC 1 v 1  G1  sC 1 v 2  4  v 3  sC 2 v 2

(24.113)







Figure 24.17: The TowThomas statevariable filter

247

Resolving the transfer function in terms of v2 and v1 , (eliminating v2 ) we get v2 v1 s2 G 4G 3 C 1C 2 sG 1 C 1 G 2G 4 C 1C 2

(24.114)

which is lowpass. At node v2 , using equation (24.111), we get v2 v1 which is bandpass.

s2

sG 3 C 1 sG 1 C 1 G 2G 4 C 1C 2

(24.115)

The TowThomas circuit is well accepted because it has a good tuning algorithm. The algorithm is as follows: 1. R2 may be adjusted to set 0 . Typically, we let C1 = C2 = C and R2 = R4 = R. Then 0 = 1/RC 2. R1 can then be adjusted to define Q without changing 0 . Then Q = R1 /R. 3. R3 can then be adjusted to define amplitude without affecting either Q or 0 . Then |Apeak | = R1 /R3

We can add a fourth opamp as an inverter/summing stage, such that v4 (v 1 v 2)

then, using equation (24.113), we get v2 v1

v1 1 v2 v1 s2
2

s(G 1 G 3) C 1 G 2G 4 C 1C 2 sG 1 C 1 G 2G 4 C 1C 2 s

(24.115)

If G1 = G3 , then equation (24.115) is of the form of a notch filter function. If G3 = 2G1 , then equation (24.115) is of the form of an allpass function.

24.2 TRANSFORMATION AND RESCALING OF FREQUENCY PROFILES: In defining a frequency profile, it is usually appropriate to mark a frequency about which the rest of the profile will fall. This frequency typically will be at a symmetry point, a corner, a peak, or a valley. However, this frequency may be elected from anywhere within the profile, since it is only used as a reference point. For those profiles that have been standardized, for which placement of poles and zeros are defined according to a specific mathematical criterion, tables are available, just a matter of tracking them down. These tables may either identify the specific poles and zeros, or if a particular type circuit construct is used, may tabulate values of components. Values are tabulated in normalized form, i.e. for a reference frequency 0 = 1 r/s, and it is up to the user to rescale values according to his/her need.

In identifying the rescaling process we will direct our attention primarily to RC circuits since it is possible to recast most of our circuits, regardless of complexity, into RC form by use of active filter techniques. The process of rescaling is relatively simple if only one type of frequencydependent component is present, which in this case would be capacitances. For RC circuits the frequency profile is defined in terms of the poles and zeros that are given entirely by RC time constants. Using normal network techniques, a transfer function T(s) for any given circuit is constructed in terms of either admittances or impedances, as indicated by figure 24.21. It can be a simple ratio, or it can be a complex mess, but the frequency characteristics are entirely the result of the frequency characteristics of these basic admittance (or impedance) terms. Therefore we rescale the response T( ) by merely rescaling the individual frequencyactive terms, using a uniform rescaling process.

248

For example, consider the simple, singletime constant RC lowpass circuit indicated by figure 24.21a. We let the reference frequency be the 3dB corner frequency = 1/RC. And for the normalized case, for which 0 = 1 r/s, the we might have normalized values of R and C to be R = 1 and C = 1 F.

(a)
R0 = 1 C0 = 1

(b)
R1 = 1 C1 = 1 F

= 1 r/s

YC = 0C0 = 1C1

= 1 Mr/s

G0 sC 0

G0

G1 sC 1

G1

1 r/s

1 Mr/s

Figure 24.21 Frequency rescaling: Frequencydependent components (in this case, capacitances) are rescaled to yield the same response at a new frequency. We see that the same profile is created at a new frequency 1 , as indicated by figure 24.21(b) if we just rescale the frequencydependent component C such that it has the same admittance behavior at the new corner frequency as it did at 0 . If we increase the new frequency by a factor of 10, the capacitative admittance will increase by a factor of 10, just as it did when the corner was at 0 = 1 r/s.

By requiring that the admittance be the same at the new reference frequency 0 we then have

as it was at the old reference frequency (24.21)

C1

C0

which will produce the same profile at new frequency

as it did at

0,

provided C1 is rescaled by the factor

0/ 1.

However, since = 1/RC we also realize that the frequency corner could also have been rescaled by an appropriate rescaling of the resistance(s). This rescaling can only be accomplished independently of the capacitance rescaling by mathematically removing the frequencydependence from the capacitances and passing it to the resistances. This mathematics can be accomplished by examining the transfer function, and noting that if we rewrite the transfer function of the RC lowpass function, and multiply it by the factor s/s, we can lift the frequency dependence from the capacitances, e.g. T(s)

G1 G1

sC 1

R1

1 sC 1 1 sC 1

s s

sR 1

1 C1 1 C1

With transfer function and components thus changed, we may rescale to yet a new frequency

by means of (24.22)

R2

R1

where R1 = R0 . Equation (24.22) rescales only the resistance. Capacitances does not rescale during this process, so that C2 = C1 . What is evident from this twostep process is that we may rescale both the frequencyactive components (capacitances) and the frequencypassive components (resistances) independently of one another by passing through an intermediate rescaling frequency 1 . The entire transformation takes us from an intiial frequency 0 to a final frequency

249

, with the sole purpose of frequency 1 being to rescale one type of component, usually capacitances, to a more convenient magnitude scale, such as F, as indicated by figure 24.21. Continuing the example given with figure 24.21, we may desire to have the same STC lowpass profile fall at 2 = 2 kr/s, for which we would rescale the value of resistance, R0 , by equation (24.22) to the new value:

R2

R1

10 6 10 3

500

while the capacitance has (already been) rescaled to:

C2

C1

C0

1 10 6

1F

1 F

We can, of course, take this same process and apply it to a circuit in which we have many resistances and capacitances, for which the entire set of resistances and capacitances will be rescaled according to an initial frequency 0 , a final frequency f , and an intermediate frequency M . The rescaling algorithm for RC circuits, in general, may be taken from equations (2421) and (24.22), as:

Cf

Ci

Rf

Ri

(24.23)

where {Ci , Ri } are the initial values of the set of the set of resistances and capacitances, and {Cf , Rf } are the final values, and where M is the intermediate rescaling frequency. As indicated by the example, the rescaling frequency M is usually chosen to rescale one type of component, usually capacitances, to a more convenient scale value. It may be defined by taking one of the capacitances and defining a final value for this capacitance, in which case M will be given by:

C i1 C f1

(24.24)

where Ci1 and Cf1 represent the initial and final values of the selected capacitance.

24.3 THE RCCR TRANSFORMATION As we investigate the set of pass functions, we find that the fundamental profile is lowpass. We can derive other pass functions by means of frequency transformations. One of the frequency transformations is a simple complementary transformation. Low and highpass functions are complementary about their 3dB corners, inasmuch as the 3dB corner represents the frequency at which the reactive impedance is equal to the nonreactive impedance. We can see the complementary behavior by comparing the RC (=singletimeconstant) (STC) circuit for low and highpass circuit forms:
C R R C

Figure 24.31: The RCCR transformation.

250

Note that when |1/j C| = R, then the transfer function becomes v2 v1

1 2 1 p
1
2 2 1

(24.31)

where p1 = 1/RC. This frequency represents the corner frequency of the Bode magnitude plot, a reference frequency at which the transfer function has the value 3 dB. As we increase the frequency , the magnitude of the transfer function will change, corresponding to whether the reactive impedance decreases the ratio (lowpass) or increases it (hipass). RCCR conversion, in which a lowpass function is transformed to a highpass function with the same corner, must follow the impedance effects, referenced to that point at which they are equal, which is the 3dB level. If we desire to invert the impedance effects, we must change the gender of the components centered at the frequency at which the effects balance. This transformation is achieved when the impedance of each reactive component is equal to the impedance of an equivalent nonreactive component, and conversely. The transformation must then occur for: R

C
k k

1
3dB

Ck Rk

(24.32) (24.33)

1
3dB

where R, C represent the replacement values of resistance and capacitance, respectively.

24.4 RLC LADDER CIRCUITS As indicated by section 24.3 we find that it is appropriate to base our circuits on the lowpass frequency profile and then apply a transformation to take us to another profile. If we examine lowpass profiles in the general sense, we perceive lowpass filters as being those which suppress all frequencies above a bandedge. After we have surveyed at some of the basic filters, e.g. one with a single resistance and capacitance, we find that the bandedge may be relatively soft. Many times we would like the cutoff edge to be much more abrupt, or to have other features, such as uniform phase shift of pulse signals above and below the edge. We get more abrupt cutoff if we add more poles, via additional reactive components. Rolloff is accomplished by the increase of the order of the rolloff profile. The rolloff is approximately (20 dB/decade order ). As an example we consider the 5thorder Chebyshev profile, which has a very abrupt cutoff, on the order of 100 dB/decade, accomplished by placing poles and zeros according to the Chebychev functions. We will not undertake any of the discipline and entertainment associated with network analysis of the circuit, but will assume that tabulated results for placement of poles and zeros, as ordained by many previous analyses of this profile, are reasonable and accurate. The Chebyshev profile and many other profiles can be straightforwardly implemented by means of the doublyterminated RLC ladder, as shown by figure 24.41. The figure shows a 5thorder ladder. Note that it has five (5) frequency active components. And since the inductances are in series and the capacitances in parallel, we should recognize that this configuration is of lowpass form. By judicious choice of component values, poles and zeros may be defined such that this circuit is a 5thorder Chebyshev profile.
R1 L2 C3 L4 C5 L6 R7

Figure 24.41. Example of (5thorder) doublyterminated ladder.

251

It might be noted that RLC ladder circuits are favored for frequency profiling since the circuit is relatively insensitive to small variations of component values, a statement that we will not prove, but merely accept these types of circuits as a robust and are a convenient baseline. For active filter implementation we prefer that some component types, usually the inductances, be converted to equivalent active forms. As we will see, the doublyterminated ladder lends itself readily to component transformations, and to transformations into other type pass functions, As indicated by tables 24.41, and 24.42, doublyterminated RLC lowpass filter profiles are readily available in tabulated form. The tables are invariably based on a normalized corner frequency of 0 = 1 r/s.

Table 24.41: Table of doublyterminated RLC ladder values for normalized Butterworth lowpass response.
1 C1 L2 C3 L4 C5 Ln 1

n 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 n

C1 1.414 1.000 0.7654 0.6180 0.5176 0.4450 0.3902 0.3473 0.3129 L1

L2 1.414 2.000 1.848 1.618 1.414 1.247 1.111

C3 1.000 1.848 2.000 1.932 1.802 1.663

L4

C5

L6

C7

L8

C9

L10

0.7654 1.618 1.932 2.000 1.962 1.879 1.782 C4

L1

0.6180 1.414 0.5176 1.802 1.247 1.962 2.000 1.975 L5

L3 C2 C4

0.4450 1.111 0.3902 1.532 1.782 L7 1.000 0.3473 1.414 0.9080 0.3129 C8
Ln 1

1.663 1.879 1.975 C6

1.000 1.532 0.9080 1.414 C2

1

L3

L9

C10

252

Table 24.42: Table of doublyterminated RLC ladder values for normalized Chebyshev lowpass response.

1 C1

L2

L4 C5 C3 R2

C1

L2

C3

L4

C5

L6

C7

L8

R2

(A) Ripple = 0.1 dB 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0.84304 1.03156 1.10879 1.14681 1.16811 1.18118 1.18975 0.62201 1.14740 1.30618 1.37121 1.40397 1.42281 1.43465 0.73781 1.00000 0.73781 1.00000 0.73781 1.00000 0.87781 0.73781

1.03156 1.77035 1.97500 2.05621 2.09667 2.11990

0.81807 1.37121 1.51709 1.57340 1.60101

1.14681 1.90280 2.09667 2.16995

0.86184 1.42281 1.58408

1.18118 1.94447

(B) Ripple = 0.5 dB 3 5 7 1.5963 1.7058 1.7373 1.0967 1.2296 1.2582 1.5963 2.5408 2.6383 1.2296 1.3443 1.7058 2.6383 1.2582 1.7373 1.00000 1.00000 1.00000

(C) Ripple = 1.0 dB 3 5 7 n 2.0236 2.1349 2.1666 L1 0.9941 1.0911 1.1115 C2

1

2.0236 3.0009 3.0936 L3

1.00000 1.0911 1.1735 C4

L1 C2 L3 C4

2.1349 3.0936 L5

1.1115 C6

2.1666 L7
Ln R2

1.00000 1.00000 C8 R2

253

24.5 RLC:CRD TRANSFORMATIONS: Circuits such as that shown by figure 24.41 can be implemented in active form using only resistances and capacitances by executing a mathematical transformation of the circuit into one in which each type component has an equivalent. If we desire to transform an RL circuit into an RC equivalent, then it is necessary to multiply the the numerator N(s) and the denominator D(s) of the transfer function by 1/s. This process is represented by figure 24.51.

(a)

R sL


1 s 1 s

= R/L

transformation:

(b)
R

R sL

R s R s L

1 sC 1 sC
R

R 1/C L R

= 1/RC

Figure 24.51 Transformation process in which the LR circuit is transformed into an equivalent RC circuit. In this process we note that the L is transformed into an R and the R is transformed into a C. The same characteristic frequency 0 results provided that the magnitude of R is the same as the magnitude of L and the magnitude of C is the same as the magnitude of 1/R. This type transformation is of the form RL:CR But when we have RLC circuits, the transformation must include all three type components and we cannot eliminate the inductance L unless we define a new component derived from capacitance C. The technique is called the RLC:CRD transformation and is much like the RL:CR transformation, except C is transformed into an active equivalent = D. Otherwise for the transformation R is transformed into an equivalent C, L is transformed into an equivalent R. For the RLC:CRD transformation we imply that R C, L R, and C D. The transformed circuit is represented by figure 24.52.
C1 R2 D3 R4 D5 C7 R6

Figure 24.52. Same circuit as figure 24.41, (RLC doublyterminated ladder), transformed into CRD form. If the same transformation as used for the LR:RC in which numerator and denominator components are are multiplied by 1/s is applied to and RLC circuit, then each capacitative impedance must be transformed into a component of frequency behavior: 1 sC 1 s 1 s 2C 1 s 2D

254

The strangelooking component, D, therefore depends on frequency as the square of s. This response is of the form of a frequencydependent negative resistance. It is naturally an active component, and may be implemented by means of the GIN (generalized immitance network) circuit, as shown by figure 24.53 (below).

Z IN



  !   #"
 
 

 

Figure 24.53. GIN configured as frequency dependent negative resistance (FDNR) Evaluate this thing and you will find that the GIN component has an admittance proportional to the square of the frequency. The magnitude of its admittance is |Z D|

$&%('

$&%('

C 2C 6R 5
2.

This component will have the measure of a negative resistance with magnitude proportional to '

RESCALING: As indicated by previous sections, tabulated frequency profiles, such as the Chebyshev are always given for normalized at frequency ' 0 = 1 r/s and must be rescaled to the frequency of interest. For RLC:CRD transformations we might note that the resistances will be transformed into capacitances. In prototyping of circuits, we often select a given value of capacitance, particularly if it is used more than once, and let it determine the scaling factor. It is convenient, so let us so do. Capacitance magnitudes will be transformed from a starting value of resistance according to C = 1/R. As capacitances, rescaling will take place after the transformation, for which

'

1 Ri

$*'

Cf

where ' M is the intermediate scaling frequency and ' f is the desired (final) characteristic frequency of the given circuit. Using this value of scaling frequency all capacitances will scale according to Cf

$ ''

M f

1 Ri

(24.51)

Equation (25.51) may be used to get values for all of the capacitance in figure 24.42. Note that we must use ' f , the frequency in rad/sec, since the profiles are always normalized in terms of the unity radian frequency ' 0 = 1 r/s. Since L + R , all inductances will be transformed and rescaled to resistances. Frequency rescaling must take place before before they are transformed into resistances, for which: Rf

$ ''

0 M

Li

(24.52)

255

Equation (24.42) may be used to get values for all rescaled resistances represented in figure 24.43. The FDNR magnitude must rescale both before and after transformation. Before transformation, the magnitude rescales as ( 0/ M). After transformation, the magnitude rescales as ( M/ f)2. The rescaled value of D is then

Df

M f

Ci

(24.53)

You might take note that the rescaling of the FDNR using equation (24.53) is equivalent to transforming its internal components C2 , C6 , and R5 , in terms of transformations that are the same as those of equations (24.51) and (24.52). Usually it is of benefit to elect these internal capacitances to be of the same value as those external to the FDNR. ******************************************************************************************** EXAMPLE 24.41 RLC:CRD Transformation for an LP5C1 profile. Let us develop the RLC:CRD transformation for a typical case: 5thorder lowpass singleamplifier Chebyshev configuration with 1 dB ripple. The values for the Rs, Ls and Cs shown in figure 24.54, were taken from table 24.42(C) and correspond the the 5thorder Chebyshev profile with 1 dB ripple for which the break frequency = 1 r/s. Since these component values are defined in terms of characteristic frequency 0 = 1 r/s, they are in unit measures of Farads, Henries, and ohms, representing unwieldy sizes of components, at best. The circuit must be renormalized (rescaled) to a characteristic frequency f and components rescaled to more realistic magnitudes.

1.0

2.1349 1.0911

3.0009 1.0911

2.1349 1.0

Figure 24.54: 5thorder 1 dB Chebychev doublyterminated ladder.

If we make a direct RLC:CRD transformation, without changing the characteristic frequency, we end up with a circuit of the form shown by figure 24.55.
1.0

2.1349

3.0009

2.1349 v2

v1

RA = 33 1.0

RB = 40

Figure 24.55: Normalized (

= 1 r/s ) FDNR implementation of figure 24.54

256

Note that we must include resistances RA and RB to accommodate low frequencies and provide a DC path for the non inverting terminals of the opamps. The values selected are such that R >> 0 C and such that

v2 v1

0.5

RB RA

R2

R4

RB

(24.45)

so that the transfer gain is 0.5 when f << f0 . Now we must rescale the values of capacitance and resistance so that the same profile is located at the designated characteristic frequency. Our process is greatly simplified by the fact that the table values are based on an equaltermination resistance configuration. It is often convenient to choose a final value of capacitance, from which we can define the scaling factor. It is usually also worthwhile to let this capacitance value be used everywhere within the circuit, particularly is we intend to build it, rather than just entertain ourselves with the mathematics. And it is often convenient to develop a spreadsheet to detail the renormalization process and the rescaled values of the components, and this is shown by figure 24.57. In this example we chose to define the profile with break frequency at f0 = 10 kHz and to define the circuit such that a final value of capacitance C = 1050 pF was used everywhere. This value of capacitance was used because we had a box of about 10,000 capacitances of this particular size on hand. The results, after making the necessary rescaling transformations using equations (24.51), (24.52), and (24.53), are shown by figure 24.56.

1050 v1 500

32.36

45.49

32.36 v2

1050

1050

10 10

10 1050 10

606

16.54 1050

16.54 1050

Figure 24.56: FDNR implementation of figure 24.54 for corner frequency 10kHz and all capacitances selected as 1050 pF. All resistance values are in k .

257

Figure 24.57: Spreadsheet matrix for the 5thorder lowpass Chebyshev response In the calculation matrix we did not identify the (intermediate) scaling frequency M . In this case it is defined by our choice of capacitance value, C = 1050 pF, for which, according to equation (24.51), we have:

where R1 = 1 , this case. If everything has been done properly, a SPICE analysis of this circuit will look something like that shown by figure 24.58

C
M

R1

1050pF

(2

10 4)

.066mr s

258

Figure 24.58. 5thorder lowpass Chebyshev response

24.6: BANDPASS IMPLEMENTATIONS FROM LOWPASS RLC LADDER Because of its relative insensitivity to component variations, the doublyterminated RLC ladder is favored as a means of defining higherorder polynomial profiles. The 3rdorder doublyterminated RLC ladder is represented by figure 24.61

R1

L2 C3

L4 R5

Figure 24.61. Example of 3rdorder doublyterminated ladder.

259

From the placement of components, its evident that this ladder has lowpass behavior, since the inductances pass low frequencies and the capacitance will block low frequencies. Almost all standard frequency profiles are defined in terms of lowpass forms. In order to transform the RLC ladder from lowpass into a bandpass filter we have to shift the frequency origin. The transformation that will achieve this shift is illustrated by figure 24.62.

L BW

BW L 2 0

C BW

BW C 2 0

Figure 24.62. Transformation necessary for lowpass to bandpass. where 0 is the characteristic (center) frequency of the bandpass profile, and BW is the 3dB passband width, as illustrated by figure 24.63

|T|

BW

Figure 24.63. Bandpass characteristics

The LPBP transformation effectively shifts the point which we call zero frequency to some reference frequency 0 . The RLC ladder becomes a little more complicated but, in our favor, a fairly standard equivalent circuit technique is available for realizing circuits of this or any RLC type form. The technique called leapfrog simulation of a ladder, and is illustrated by figure 24.64.

260

Y1 V1 + V2

Y3 + V4

Y5 V6

RLC Ladder

Z2

Z4

Z6

V1

TY1

TZ2 V2

TY3

TZ4 V4

TY5

TZ6

V6

Leapfrog equivalent

Figure 24.64. Leapfrog techniques for simulation of a (RLC) ladder For a ladder construction, as indicated by figure 24.64a, network analysis gives us the set of equations:

I1 V2 I3 V4 I5

Y 1 (V 1 Z 2 (I 1 Y 3 (V 2 Z 4 (I 3 Y 5 (V 4

V 2) I 3) V 4) I 5) V 6)

(24.61a) (24.61b) (24.61c) (24.61d) (24.61e)

Each of these equations represents a transfer function relationship, and can be expressed as such:

V I1 V2 V I3 V4 V I5

T Y1 ( V 1 T Z2(V I1 T Y3 ( V 2 T Z4(V I3 T Y5 ( V 4

V 2) V I3) V 4) V I5) V 6)

(24.62a) (24.62b) (24.62c) (24.62d) (24.62e)

In each case we see that the righthand side of these transfer functions makes use of a simple difference of two inputs. To our great satisfaction we see that each of these inputs is available on the lefthand side, with exception of only V1 , which is THE input. If we instead write the difference as addition of a negative, then we may find it to be advantageous to set up our set of equations accordingly. For example:

V2

T Z2[(

V I1)

V I3]

(24.63b)

261

provides us one of the inputs (V2 ) that is needed in equation (24.62a). Now we see that equation (24.63b) needs a term (VI1 ). Therefore we might rewrite (24.62a) as: ( V I1)

T Y1 [ V 1

V 2)]

(24.63a)

If we continue with this approach through the whole list of transfer functions then we will have the set:

V I1 V2 V I3 V4 V I5

T Y1 [ V 1 ( T Z2[( V I1) T Y3[( V 2) T Z4[ V I3 ( T Y5 [ V 4 (

V 2)] V I3] V 4] V I5)] V 6)]

(24.63a) (24.63b) (24.63c) (24.63d) (24.63e)

This set of equations is exactly the equivalent of the circuit of figure 24.64b. Note that the transfer functions alternate in sign as we progress through the circuit. The only aspect of leapfrog circuits that creates any complication is the signs of each of the impedance/admittance terms TZk or TYk , respectively, in the string. In some cases, inverting stages must be inserted into the leapfrog string to ensure correct sign. The form of the RLC ladder when converted to bandpass, is of the form shown by figure 24.65.

R1 VI VO

TY1

TY3

R5

TZ2

Figure 24.65. 3rdorder RLC ladder converted to bandpass form The components enclosed by the dashed lines each represent an impedance or admittance term that can be realized by a biquadratic circuit. The secondorder function for each of these component groupings is identified by Figure 24.66. Note that, for the leapfrog realization, the series RLC string must relate to an admittance term whereas the parallel RLC, (LC if R not present) string must relate to an impedance term.

262

s2

(1 L)s (R L)s 1 LC

Figure 24.66a. RLC series admittance function

(1 C)s (1 RC)s 1 LC

s2

Figure 24.66b. RLC parallel impedance function

C L

(1 C)s s2 1 LC

Figure 24.66c. LC parallel lossless impedance function

Figure 24.66. Subcircuits and equivalent (secondorder) impedance/admittance functions. All of these RLC strings can be realized by an active circuit, with transfer function suitable for the leapfrog realization by use of the DelyannisFriend singleamplifier biquad. The normalized Friend circuit ( 0 = 1 r/s) and equivalent transfer function(s) are shown by figure 24.67. The two configurations presented are those suitable to the impedance/ admittance functions of figures 24.66a and 24.66c.









T(s)

s2

2kQs (1 Q)s

Figure 24.67a. Friend circuit and transfer function needed for RLC realizations


   

 

T(s)

k (1 2Q 2) Q  s s2 1




Figure 24.67b. Friend circuit and transfer function needed for LC (lossless) realizations.

Figure 24.67. DelyannisFriend biquadratic forms appropriate for realization of RLC circuits.

263

If the input of either of these configurations is also used as a summing point, then the modification shown by figure 24.68 must be made to the input node of the circuit. The transfer function is not affected as long as the parallel combination of the set of input resistances add up to R = 1 (or G = 1).

    

T(s)

s2

2kQs (1  Q)s 

Figure 24.68. Friend circuit with summing at input

Using the Friend circuit to realize impedance and admittance functions, the bandpass 3rdorder ladder given by figure 24.65 can be implemented in leapfrog form, as represented by figure 24.69.
! , & !#"%$'& !#,-& !./0"1, &32 !#"%$ & ()$ &+* :   !.5/6, 2 * : !#, * !4"%$ *  : /6;=<>& B CED%F :GIH C-J8K+LM /?;=A * /?;@<@7  "%$ * * !4"%$ * ()$ * * !#,%7 !.5/6,)7 2 !4"%$ 7 !4"%$87 ()$ 79* 

Figure 24.69. Leapfrog Implementation of 3rdorder Chebychev bandpass

Note that the required impedance characteristics can be selected by appropriate choices of k1 , k2 , and k3 , and Q1 , Q2 , Q3. Since Q1 , Q2 , Q3 all define capacitances, it is convenient to to choose Q1 = Q2 = Q3 , which will make all capacitances equal. Note that the inverter/sum stage has arbitrary resistance values, the only requirement being that they be equal. An example of a bandpass filter for f0 = 10 kHz and BW = 5 kHz is represented by figure 24.612. The bandpass filter is developed from the 3rdorder 1dB ripple lowpass Chebyshev doublyterminated ladder shown by figure 24.610. and its bandpass realization, shown by figure 24.611.

264

2.0236

2.0236 1 0.9941

Figure 24.610. 3rdorder 1dB Chebyshev doublyterminated RLC ladder

1.0 R1

4.0472 L2

0.2471 C2

4.0472 L4 0.503 C3 L3

0.2471 C4 R5 1.0 VO

VI

1.9882

Figure 24.611. Bandpass realization of the normalized 3rdorder 1dB Chebyshev doublyterminated ladder. For these values 0 = 1 r/s and BW = 5kHz/10Khz = 0.5. Resistances are in ohms and capacitances are in Farads. This realization was achieved by the component transformation shown by figure 24.62.

ANALYSIS: When we compare transfer functions in figure 24.67 to the circuit transfer functions in figure 24.66, we see that Q1 = L2 /R1 = 4.0472/1.0 = 4.0472. Since L4 = L2 and R5 = R1 , then Q4 also = 4.0472. Comparing numerators for the transfer function of figure 24.67b to the impedance function of figure 24.66c, as needed to realize stage TZ2 , we see that

1 C

k 2(1

2Q 2 2) Q 2

(24.64)

We have flexibility of electing k2 and then finding Q2 , or electing Q2 and then finding k2 . As noted earlier, it is of considerable convenience to the qualification process to let Q2 = Q1 = Q4 = 4.0472, since this choice will give us a circuit for which all capacitances are equal. Using this choice for Q2, then 1 C3 1 k2 0.0603 8.341 1.9882 Q ) (1 2Q 2 2 2

with the choices of Q made equal, all capacitances will be equal. Furthermore, specification of Q will also let us specify several of the resistances. Other resistances are determined by requiring that numerator of the transfer function for figure 24.67a be equal to the admittance numerator of figure 24.66a. This circuit is needed to realize stage TY1 . Stage TY3 has identical requirements except that it does not need to be used as a summing point. This requirement gives

2Q 1 k 1

1 L2

1 4.0472

(24.65)

Since Q1 = 4.0472, we get k1 = 0.0305. Likewise we get k3 = 0.0305. Now we have defined all of the values of k and Q, which is sufficient to define all of normalized values of resistance and capacitance. The leapfrog circuit, with normalized values of resistance and capacitance, is shown by figure 24.612.

265

32.85
0.1235

0.1235

32.85 1.065

0.1235

65.52

0.1235

16.61

0.1235

65.52

32.85

0.1235

65.52

1.064 1

1.03 32.76

Figure 24.612. Example normalized circuit values for C3 bandpass profile,

= 1, BW = 0.5.

Note that a summing inverter is embedded in between TY1 and TZ2 to accommodate the necessary sign change. Note that resistance r is arbitrary, and we do not need to rescale it to some inconvenient value. The last step is to rescale capacitances and resistances such that the circuit is implemented at the required characteristic frequency. RC rescaling, when set by a final value of capacitance Cf , is accomplished by determining an intermediatescaling frequency M such that

(C i C f)

(24.66)

Since the circuit is developed in terms of 0 = 1 r/s, then the intermediate frequency is just M = Ci /Cf . In the example case, for which we have elected Cf = 1050 pF from initial value Ci = 0.1234 F, we find M = 0.1175 Gr/s. The resistance values will then scale according to Rf

R i(

(24.67)

where f is the final desired frequency. If we apply this rescaling to the values in figure 24.612 we end up with the final design for an f0 = 10 kHz and BW = 5 kHz, as given by figure 24.613. For convenience, we let r = 10 k since it is not necessary to scale this value.

61.4
1050

1050 1050

61.4 1.99

1050

122.8

31.0

1050

122.8

61.4

1050

122.8

1.99 1.87

1.93 61.4

Figure 24.613. EXAMPLE FINAL DESIGN: Bandpass implementation for 3rdorder 1dB Chebyshev doublyterminated ladder when f0 = 10 kHz and BW = 5 kHz. Since Q1 = Q2 = Q3 , the scaling factor was chosen such that all capacitances would be 1050 pF. All resistance values are in k .

266

RECIPE FOR ANALYSIS: 1. Starting with figure 24.610, execute an LPBP transformation and develop values for a figure of the form of 24.611. 2. From figure 24.611, develop the appropriate values for Q , Q2 , Q3 and k1 , k2 , k3 , such that all capacitances will be equal. Using these values implement the normalized design, of the form of figure 24.612.

3. Choose a value of capacitance. Then determine scaling frequency define the final circuit, such as that given by figure 24.613.

and resistance values necessary to

Create a table showing the renormalization process and the rescaled values of the components. You may find that a spreadsheet is useful for executing this process. In the spreadsheet which I created, I arranged all of the final values of resistances and capacitances to fall in a column, which could then be exported and printed for use as an input file to PSPICE. An example of a spreadsheet generator is shown by figure 24.614.

Figure 24.614. Spreadsheet generator. The values shown are those used to develop the circuits shown by figures 24.611, 24.612 and 24.613.

267

4. Check analysis with SPICE. For the BP3C1 form, the output is shown by figure 24.615

Figure 24.615. Typical SPICE output for 3C1 bandpass filter. Opamps were assumed to be ideal.

268

269