The Immune System

6.3.1 Pathogens and Disease A pathogen is a disease causing agent. Viruses and bacteria are the most common, but fungi, protists, and some simple animals can also be pathogenic. Disease Tuberculosis Herpes Trichinosis Cysticercosis Giardia Candida (thrush) Ringworm Transmission of Pathogens Contact Cuts Droplets Food/ Water Sex InsectsPathogen

6.3.2- Antibiotics These work against bacteria, they are not anti-viral. (Viruses are defended against by vaccines.) Antibiotics

For example, penicillin

 Thus, when bacteria reproduce and build new cell walls,

6.3.3 & 6.3.4- Nonspecific Defense The body has a number of nonspecific defenses against pathogens. Immune cells are known as leukocytes (white blood cells.) 1. External- skin and mucus membranes Skin

Internal- Phagocytes and inflammation 1. Immune

2. Inflammation-

3. Widespread, severe inflammation leads to septic shock.

11.1.1- Clotting Clotting follows tissue damage. Clotting factors are released from damaged cells. This results in a cascade of reaction:

6.3.5, 6.3.6- Specific Defense and Antibodies In addition to nonspecific defense, the body also recognizes specific pathogens. A pathogen that causes a specific response

The cells that cause the specific response are known as lymphocytes: 1. B cells-

2. Helper T cells-

3. Cytotoxic T cells-

11.1.4-Antibody Production Antigens are typically parts of pathogens. The antigen is what elicits the specific defense. Antigens are presented

There are 2 MHC types-

Class 1 MHC present to Class 2 MHC present to

Steps in Antibody Formation 1. Macrophage digests pathogen, leaving the 2. Antigen (marker protein portion of pathogen) 3. MHC antigen is presented to other cells 4. Helper T cells bind to antigen 5. Activated T(h) cells secrete chemical signals 6. B cells are activated/recruited by signals 7. Plasma B cells make antibodies 8. Antibodies are specific to antigen 9. Memory B cells go into circulation for later exposure 10. Antibodies disrupt function of pathogen

(just some additional details) Antigens are presented by MHC molecules. The activated helper T cell recruits B cells Plasma B cells produce the antibodies to combat the pathogen. Some B cells will become memory cells-

 Once memory cells are present, Antibodies can work on bacteria as well as viruses, so you also gain memory of viruses.

11.1.2 & 11.1.3- Immunity Immunity arises when Memory B cells are present in the body. Active-

Natural-

Artificial Passive- body receives antibodies, Natural-

Artificial The challenge of the pathogen produces a response by the immune system. Immunity arises because B cells encounter an antigen and produce antibodies in response. B cells are generalized (stem) cells Memory cells remain after infection ends, immunity results.

11.1.6 & 11.1.7- Vaccination and its Risks A vaccine is simply a part of or an inactive form of a pathogen. After the first exposure, memory cells produce a much larger and more rapid responsemore antibodies faster.

Risks of Vaccination The benefits of vaccination include

 Some diseases may also be nearly wiped out, such as smallpox and polio. Mumps causes male infertility. Some risks do exist:

11.1.5- Monoclonal Antibodies Monoclonal antibodies allow for the production of large amounts of antibodies:

Rabies antibodies are produced because rabies usually kills a person before their own system responds. While monoclonal antibodies do not eradicate the rabies, they slow the spread until the body responds enough.

6.3.7 & 6.3.8- AIDS and HIV In 1983, a retrovirus, now called human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), had been identified as the cause of AIDS. HIV infects cells that bear CD4 molecules,

Since helper T cells are affected, this means that B cells have a diminished ability to produce antibodies. HIV resides in the lymph nodes, and is never completely destroyed by the immune system. Typically, it takes about ten years for the virus to deplete the T cells completely. When the immune system becomes compromised, a person is said to have AIDS.

HIV & AIDS Transmission HIV survives for a very very brief time outside of the body, meaning it is not contagious through everyday contact.

Social Implications Enormous amount of stigma attached to AIDS being a homosexual disease. Array of drugs used to maintain immune system is very, very expensive, health plans often avoid paying for them. Reduced sexual activity, reduced chance of finding partner, job, friends, support, etc.