The 1960s in context The 1960s were a decade of political and social upheaval in Australia.

Young people challenged the traditional values of their parent's generation and actively opposed the decisions of the government. Women demanded equal rights and others called for racial equality and a new consideration for the environment. Many more demonstrated against the Vietnam War, conscription and the nuclear industry. Many of these protests were part of wider social movements taking place in other Western countries. Advances in communications technology meant that revolutionary ideas and voices of dissent could rapidly be transmitted and received around the world. Australia's population increased throughout the decade, as European and British migrants continued to arrive. The late 1960s also saw changes to the White Australia Policy, which permitted a small number of skilled Asian migrants to settle in Australia. Women's rights and the Pill in the 1960s In the late 1960s, many Australian women began to question the restrictive roles that society had assigned to them. Many women felt that there was more to life than raising children and taking care of the home. Others were dissatisfied at being confined to traditionally 'female' occupations like teaching, administration and secretarial work. Women marched, protested and pressured governments in a bid to gain equal rights in all spheres of life including the workplace, education, politics and sport. The contraceptive, or birth control pill was introduced in Australia in the 1960s. It had a significant impact on society, granting women greater sexual freedom and allowing them to control when and if they had children. The Pill also sparked much moral debate during the 1960s about pre-marital sex and promiscuity. Indigenous rights in the 1960s In a 1967 referendum, Australians voted overwhelmingly to recognise Indigenous peoples as citizens and allow them to be counted as part of the Australian population. This result followed a long campaign by both Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians, who demanded better rights for Indigenous people and highlighted the poor conditions in which many lived. The 60s hippie revolution Throughout the 1960s, many young people became disillusioned by what they perceived to be the shallowness and materialism of contemporary society. Towards the end of the decade, many adopted an alternative 'hippie' lifestyle. Among other elements, the hippie movement included a rebellious style of dress, a reverence for nature, Eastern spiritual philosophy and experimentation with drugs like marijuana and LSD. These radical changes in society were reflected in the new fashions, hairstyles and styles of music that emerged throughout the decade. While rock 'n' roll retained its popularity, the rise of hippie culture permeated mainstream fashion and music. The Vietnam War War broke out between communist North Vietnam and democratic South Vietnam in 1959. America and her allies, including Australia, sent thousands of troops to Vietnam in an effort to stop the spread of Communism. In total, around 50 000 Australians served in the conflict between 1965 and 1972. Many of them were conscripted, which means their military service was compulsory. Australians became divided over the issue of conscription and whether or not Australia should be involved in the war. Towards the end of the decade, thousands of people demonstrated against the government and some protests became violent. Politics in the 1960s Robert Menzies served as Australia's Prime Minister throughout the 1960s, until his retirement in January 1966. He was replaced by Harold Holt, who faced the challenge of defending Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War. On 17 December 1967, Holt went swimming at Cheviot Beach in Victoria. He was never seen again and two days later was officially presumed dead. His remains have never been found. After Holt's disappearance, John Gorton was elected as the new Prime Minister. In 1968, in the face of mounting opposition to the war, Gorton announced that no more Australian troops would be sent to Vietnam Television in the 1960s As television technology developed throughout the 1960s, the medium continued its domination as the entertainment form of choice for most Australians. By 1965, it was estimated that 9 out of 10 Australian families owned a TV set. Programs imported from overseas enjoyed massive popularity; in particular the American comedies I Love Lucy and Leave it to Beaver and the British soap Coronation Street. Locally-produced content, however, was also receiving an enthusiastic response. Hit music shows like Bandstand and Six O'Clock Rock proved popular with teenagers, while young children were tuning in to Play School and Mr Squiggle. Adults were also well-catered for. In 1961, the ABC premiered the current affairs programme Four Corners, which is still running today. Homicide, the first Australian-produced drama series, debuted in 1964, as did The Mavis Bramston Show, a satirical sketch comedy. Both attracted a huge following. Programs like The Mavis Bramston Show and Homicide were crucial turning points in Australian television history. Their success proved that local audiences wanted to see Australian-made programmes, featuring local actors and Australian humour, themes and concerns. Through television, a unique Australian identity was slowly emerging. Television and satellite technology In the late 1960s, Australian television was connected to the international satellite system. Programs could be broadcast live between capital cities and people in remote parts of the country could receive television broadcasts. Along with the rest of the world, Australians could now be involved in globally-significant televised events, like the first moon landing in 1969.

Cinema and theatre in the 1960s While television was still proving to be a major blow to cinema attendance in the early 1960s, cinemas regained some strength in the following years. In 1965 there were around 1000 cinemas in Australia, screening mostly American and British films. Cinema in the 1960s reflected the youth-driven culture of the time, catering less to the taste of families and more to the teenage 'baby boomer' crowd. Movies like Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969) and Easy Rider (1969) reflected the fashion, music and changing social values of the decade. Locally-made Australian films were in short supply throughout the 1960s and the period is widely considered to be a low point in Australian film-making. A boost in government funding at the end of the decade, however, would see an improvement throughout the 1970s. Ballet, opera and theatre became more popular in the 1960s, although they still remained a minor form of entertainment. In 1969, the musical Hair opened in Australia. Featuring nudity, drug references and 'hippy' themes, its success signified a perceptible shift in the nation's conservative social values. Radio in the 1960s Australian radio in the 1960s generally followed the format set by radio broadcasters overseas, particularly in the area of news broadcasting and music programming. Commercial radio was increasingly tailoring its programming to the youth market, filling the airwaves with upbeat, mostly imported music that was popular in the charts. Whilst popular, the overseas radio models were creating dissatisfaction amongst many minority groups in the late 1960s, who firmly believed that the current programming models did not reflect their needs. Ethnic communities, students, activists, classical music lovers may have had little in common, but in the late 1960s they were all pushing for more access to the airwaves. Music in the 1960s The rock 'n' roll craze of the 1950s and 60s was changing the way young people entertained themselves. Teenagers clad in the latest fashions would gather in dance halls, or discos, and perform dance fads like the stomp and the boogaloo. The twist, named after the popular Chubby Checker song, was especially popular. It was the first major dance style that did not require a partner, so anyone could try it. Some of the world's biggest bands toured Australia in the 1960s, including the Beach Boys, the Rolling Stones and in 1964, the Beatles. Australia was gripped by Beatle-mania as thousands of hysterical, screaming fans mobbed John, George, Paul and Ringo wherever they went. Australian music charts in the 1960s were dominated by American and British music, and local acts were strongly influenced by overseas trends. Some Australian musicians enjoyed international success. Folk outfit the Seekers were extremely popular in America and Britain, becoming the first Australian group to sell over a million records. In 1964, Jimmy Little became the first Indigenous Australian to achieve chart success, with his song Royal Telephone. By the late 1960s, the American psychedelic and acid rock movements had filtered into Australia. This music was prompted by, among other factors, Vietnam War protests and the new drug and counter-culture scene. Lyrics from this music style spoke of peace, love, freedom, social protest and civil rights - the social revolution had arrived. British influence on the Australian culture British settlers arrived in Australia in 1788 and the extent of the British influence is still evident today. The British Union Jack features predominantly on our national flag and the Queen is Australia's Head of State. British models also form the basis of Australia's legal and political systems, as well providing our national language. Up until World War II, Britain remained the dominating cultural influence in Australia. Britons also dominated the make-up of Australian society - most of Australia's citizens were either born in Britain, or had British descendants. In the years following the war, British subjects were encouraged to migrate to Australia under an 'assisted package' scheme, which helped with the cost of migrating to Australia and provided housing and employment options upon arrival. Between 1945 and 1972, over one million British migrants settled in Australia. Before 1945, many people, including Australians themselves, considered Australia to be nothing more than a British colony; a nation whose national identity was relatively indistinct from the British. During this period of Australia's history, our modes of entertainment, food, fashion, sporting culture and our social values and attitudes were largely dictated by British culture. American influence on the Australian culture One of the most significant changes to have taken place in Australian society since the end of WWII, however, has been its drift towards American, rather than British culture. As the American way of life was projected further into Australia via popular culture, it would rapidly alter the ways we spent our money, entertained ourselves, dressed and socialised. Eventually, many of our British cultural legacies would give way to new American ideals. In the decades since World War II, however, the penetration of American popular culture into Australian society has raised ongoing concerns about Australia's ability to carve out its own national identity. Local cultural products like films and music are an important way for people of a country to explore and share their common culture and heritage. Australian characters, themes and issues, however, are often outweighed by representations of the American way of life. American films and television programmes depict American people in American settings, and American music deals with American, not Australian concerns. Many people have feared that if Australians are starved of distinctly Australian cultural products, the national identity will be at risk. Reasons for American cultural dominance in the 1960s During the 1960s, American cultural influences rapidly filtered into Australia - primarily via music, cinema, and television. There are a number of historical reasons for this. America emerged from World War II as the dominant global economic power and was well-placed to export its cultural products to the world, including Australia.

At the same time, Australians in the 1960s were well-placed to receive American cultural influences. People were more affluent than ever before and communications and transport technology was advancing rapidly, enabling an easier transmission of American products and ideas into Australian society. American concepts like consumerism and material aspirations also fitted well with Australia's new pleasure-seeking suburban ideals. Music and radio Commercial radio play lists were dominated by mostly imported American and British music throughout the 1960s, quenching the teenage thirst for rock 'n' roll. The public's taste was changing, though and 1950s rock 'n' roll stars like Elvis Presley made way for the 'British Invasion'. Teenagers were infatuated with British acts like The Beatles, The Rolling Stones and The Kinks and adopted the wild fashions and hairstyles of their idols. Cinema Prior to World War II, Australia had a small but thriving film industry. After the war, however, the local film industry struggled amid an influx of mostly Hollywood-produced films. Most cinema chains were foreign-owned, and Australian films struggled to reach the screen. Local film industries are generally considered an important way for people to examine and share their own culture and heritage. Starved of local stories in the late 1960s, many people feared that Australia's cultural identity was at risk. Very few quality Australian films were produced during the 1960s. While some films were shot in Australia, many were financed by British and American interests and featured foreign stars in the leading roles. Reasons for American domination at the cinema American films dominated Australian cinemas during the 1950s and 1960s for a number of reasons. Firstly, American film-making technology was the most advanced in the world, making it possible for them to produce many more high-quality films at a faster rate than their competitors. Local production companies could not compete with the dazzling technicolour and bright, big-budget promotional campaigns of American film companies. Secondly, the abundant budgets and superior technological resources attracted the best actors, writers and directors to America. In many cases, this meant that the American creative output was of a higher standard than that of other countries. Television The first two decades of Australian commercial television were largely dominated by American comedy and drama. In 1959, the ten most popular programmes on Australian television were all American. British programmes dominated the ABC's schedules, which modelled itself on Britain's public broadcaster, the BBC. Between 1956 and1963, almost all content screened on Australian television was sourced from overseas. Of this, 83 percent was American, with the rest from Britain. Throughout the 1960s, American TV shows like Perry Mason and I Love Lucy continued to rate among the nation's favourite programmes. Many other local programmes produced during this period were based on formulas set by American programmes. Although the ABC broadcasted many Australian programs, concerns were voiced during this time about the lack of local content on Australian commercial television. In the late 1960s, the government imposed a local content quota in order to protect the Australian television industry being swamped by American products. Food and shopping Prior to the 1960s, traditional British meals, such as roast dinners, chops or sausages and vegetables, were the typical dinner for most Australians. Breakfast usually consisted of porridge, toast, eggs, or simple cereals like cornflakes. Food was usually purchased from specialist vendors - bread from a baker, vegetables from a greengrocer, meat from a butcher and other staple items like sugar and flour from a local corner store. By the 1960s, new American-inspired shopping centres and supermarkets had become common, particularly in the newly-built suburbs. These contained a number of shopping facilities under one roof and markedly changed Australian shopping habits. In the 1960s, American-style, convenient, pre-prepared foods like frozen French fries, and entire frozen dinners became available. These foods were particularly attractive to time-poor women who had recently joined the paid workforce, but were still responsible for the preparation of family meals. In 1968, Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) opened its doors. Kentucky Fried Chicken was Australia's first American-style takeaway store and would soon be followed by other fast food chains. These fast food restaurants would significantly alter Australia's eating habits. The quest for an Australian identity While the British and American influence has played a major role in defining the shape of Australia that we know today, a number of other influences have contributed to the development of the Australian identity. As settlers in an unfamiliar land, the Australian identity was long bound to the stereotype of the tough, heroic bushman who fought to tame a difficult landscape. Australian values like 'mateship', 'fair go' and the 'Aussie battler' emerged as a result of this myth. Throughout the prosperous post-war years, however, a new Australian ideal emerged, and Australians were thought to be part of a more laidback culture that enjoyed the 'good life'. As migrants arrived in Australia over the decades, they introduced new stories, traditions and perspectives to Australian culture. The traditional concepts of an Australia as a white British colony, or a land of struggling bush-dwellers, no longer seemed to fit with the diverse new reality of society. As Indigenous peoples were finally acknowledged as the original owners of the land, the role of Indigenous values in the construction of a true Australian identity had become apparent. As such, the Indigenous and migrant influence has intervened in the American and British effect on Australian culture.

As Australian society adapted to changing cultural influences across the decades, whether they be British, American, Indigenous, Asian or European, the national identity continually evolved in response. In the face of globalisation, however, the future of Australia's unique national identity was increasingly challenged by the development of a global culture. Television and satellite technology In the late 1960s, Australian television was connected to the international satellite system. Programs could be broadcast live between capital cities and people in remote parts of the country could receive television broadcasts. Along with the rest of the world, Australians could now be involved in globally-significant televised events, like the first moon landing in 1969. Cinema and theatre in the 1960s While television was still proving to be a major blow to cinema attendance in the early 1960s, cinemas regained some strength in the following years. In 1965 there were around 1000 cinemas in Australia, screening mostly American and British films. Cinema in the 1960s reflected the youth-driven culture of the time, catering less to the taste of families and more to the teenage 'baby boomer' crowd. Movies like Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969) and Easy Rider (1969) reflected the fashion, music and changing social values of the decade. Locally-made Australian films were in short supply throughout the 1960s and the period is widely considered to be a low point in Australian film-making. A boost in government funding at the end of the decade, however, would see an improvement throughout the 1970s. Ballet, opera and theatre became more popular in the 1960s, although they still remained a minor form of entertainment. In 1969, the musical Hair opened in Australia. Featuring nudity, drug references and 'hippy' themes, its success signified a perceptible shift in the nation's conservative social values. Radio in the 1960s Australian radio in the 1960s generally followed the format set by radio broadcasters overseas, particularly in the area of news broadcasting and music programming. Commercial radio was increasingly tailoring its programming to the youth market, filling the airwaves with upbeat, mostly imported music that was popular in the charts. Whilst popular, the overseas radio models were creating dissatisfaction amongst many minority groups in the late 1960s, who firmly believed that the current programming models did not reflect their needs. Ethnic communities, students, activists, classical music lovers may have had little in common, but in the late 1960s they were all pushing for more access to the airwaves. Music in the 1960s The rock 'n' roll craze of the 1950s and 60s was changing the way young people entertained themselves. Teenagers clad in the latest fashions would gather in dance halls, or discos, and perform dance fads like the stomp and the boogaloo. The twist, named after the popular Chubby Checker song, was especially popular. It was the first major dance style that did not require a partner, so anyone could try it. Some of the world's biggest bands toured Australia in the 1960s, including the Beach Boys, the Rolling Stones and in 1964, the Beatles. Australia was gripped by Beatle-mania as thousands of hysterical, screaming fans mobbed John, George, Paul and Ringo wherever they went. Australian music charts in the 1960s were dominated by American and British music, and local acts were strongly influenced by overseas trends. Some Australian musicians enjoyed international success. Folk outfit the Seekers were extremely popular in America and Britain, becoming the first Australian group to sell over a million records. In 1964, Jimmy Little became the first Indigenous Australian to achieve chart success, with his song Royal Telephone. By the late 1960s, the American psychedelic and acid rock movements had filtered into Australia. This music was prompted by, among other factors, Vietnam War protests and the new drug and counter-culture scene. Lyrics from this music style spoke of peace, love, freedom, social protest and civil rights - the social revolution had arrived. In the late 1960s, many Australian women began to question the restrictive roles that society had assigned to them. Many women felt that there was more to life than raising children and taking care of the home. Others were dissatisfied at being confined to traditionally 'female' occupations like teaching, administration and secretarial work. Women marched, protested and pressured governments in a bid to gain equal rights in all spheres of life including the workplace, education, politics and sport. The contraceptive, or birth control pill was introduced in Australia in the 1960s. It had a significant impact on society, granting women greater sexual freedom and allowing them to control when and if they had children. The Pill also sparked much moral debate during the 1960s about pre-marital sex and promiscuity. Indigenous rights in the 1960s In a 1967 referendum, Australians voted overwhelmingly to recognise Indigenous peoples as citizens and allow them to be counted as part of the Australian population. This result followed a long campaign by both Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians, who demanded better rights for Indigenous people and highlighted the poor conditions in which many lived. The 60s hippie revolution Throughout the 1960s, many young people became disillusioned by what they perceived to be the shallowness and materialism of contemporary society. Towards the end of the decade, many adopted an alternative 'hippie' lifestyle. Among other elements, the hippie movement included a rebellious style of dress, a reverence for nature, Eastern spiritual philosophy and experimentation with drugs like marijuana and LSD. These radical changes in society were reflected in the new fashions, hairstyles and styles of music that emerged throughout the decade. While rock 'n' roll retained its popularity, the rise of hippie culture permeated mainstream fashion and music.

The Vietnam War War broke out between communist North Vietnam and democratic South Vietnam in 1959. America and her allies, including Australia, sent thousands of troops to Vietnam in an effort to stop the spread of Communism. In total, around 50 000 Australians served in the conflict between 1965 and 1972. Many of them were conscripted, which means their military service was compulsory. Australians became divided over the issue of conscription and whether or not Australia should be involved in the war. Towards the end of the decade, thousands of people demonstrated against the government and some protests became violent. Politics in the 1960s Robert Menzies served as Australia's Prime Minister throughout the 1960s, until his retirement in January 1966. He was replaced by Harold Holt, who faced the challenge of defending Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War. On 17 December 1967, Holt went swimming at Cheviot Beach in Victoria. He was never seen again and two days later was officially presumed dead. His remains have never been found. After Holt's disappearance, John Gorton was elected as the new Prime Minister. In 1968, in the face of mounting opposition to the war, Gorton announced that no more Australian troops would be sent to Vietnam. Rising hemlines and the mini-skirt The 1960s saw the appearance of the mini-skirt. Up until that time, skirts and dresses in Australia finished sensibly at the knee. New soaring hemlines created huge controversy when they first appeared, exposing centimetres of thigh never before seen in public. At the Melbourne Cup in 1965, English model Jean Shrimpton created controversy by wearing a synthetic white shift dress with a hem high above her knees. She did not wear stockings, gloves or a hat. Shrimpton's outfit was considered scandalous, and made headlines around the world. By the end of the decade, however, shift dresses and mini-skirts had become widely accepted. Mini-skirts represent more than just a fashion landmark of the decade - they have become an icon of the general culture of rebellion that characterised the 1960s. Young people were rejecting the social standards of the past and so too was their fashion. Many devotees of the feminist movement of the 1960s also saw the mini-skirt as a claim to the right of women to proudly display their bodies as they wished. 1960s Fashion icons Throughout the 1960s, a number of famous people sported distinct fashion styles that were copied all over the world. British teenage supermodel Leslie Hornby, also known as Twiggy due to her stick-thin figure, was a fashion idol to young girls everywhere. Her short, boyish haircut and leggy, waif-like frame graced the covers of every major fashion magazine. While 1960s fashion was largely youth-driven, fashion icons also dictated the style of older women. Throughout her career, movie star Audrey Hepburn wore simple, flat shoes, three-quarter length pants, and plain black shift dresses. Her clothing style and her beehive hairdo, would be copied by millions of women worldwide. Jacqueline Kennedy, wife of US President John F. Kennedy, became widely known for her beauty, grace and elegant style of dress. Her many public appearances popularised pearl necklaces, the pillbox hat (a small hat with a flat top and straight sides) and simple, big-buttoned suits. 1960s 'Hippie' fashion Towards the end of the 1960s, the hippie movement had arrived in Australia. Many young people had become dissatisfied with the prevailing mainstream social values, considering them to be shallow and materialistic. Others strongly opposed Australian involvement in the Vietnam War. Whatever their motivation, many young people began embracing the values of peace, love and freedom and sought an alternative way of life. Many people embraced communal living and a nomadic lifestyle, explored Eastern religions, experimented with drugs and adopted a rebellious style of dress. Clothing styles and fabrics were inspired by non-Western cultures, such as Indian and African. Natural fabrics and tie-dyed and paisley prints were also popular. Many people handcrafted their own clothes and accessories and personal items were often decorated with beads and fringes. Bare feet or leather sandals were typical hippie fashion and flowers and peace signs became symbols of the movement. Both men and women let their hair grow long and men commonly grew facial hair. The hippie movement also influenced other clothing styles. Denim jeans, which had remained a staple wardrobe item for many young people throughout the decade, were inspired by hippie fashion. New styles of denim jeans emerged, such as the bell-bottomed, tie-dyed, marbled and painted jeans. Clothing fabrics in the 1960s 1960s fashion was influenced by the excitement surrounding space exploration and the first moon landing. Innovative synthetic materials like polyester, plastic, PVC and vinyl enjoyed huge popularity throughout the decade. New blended fabrics were also developed, mixing man-made fibres with natural materials like cotton and wool. Prompted by the animal rights movement, new fabric technology also produced the first artificial fur and leather fabrics. Improved fabrics and mass production techniques meant that clothes could be produced much faster and more cheaply than ever before. This, coupled with quickly changing teen fashion fads, meant that clothes were also discarded more quickly than before.