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Lecture Outlines

Physical Geology, 12/e

Plummer & Carlson
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Time and Geology

Physical Geology 12/e, Chapter 8

The Age of the Earth

Prior to the 19th century, accepted age of Earth based on religious beliefs
~6,000 years for Western culture (Biblical) Old beyond comprehension (Chinese/Hindu)

James Hutton, thefather of geology, realized geologic processes require vast amounts of time Charles Lyell popularized Huttons concepts in book Principles of Geology
Uniformitarianism/actualism: same processes operating in past are operating at present - The present is the key to the past

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Time and Geology

Relative time scale:
Original horizontality Superposition Lateral continuity y Cross-cutting relationships Unconformities and disconformities Correlation

Absolute time scale

The standard geologic time scale Radiometric age dating

The Key to the Past

Uniformitarianism Geologic processes operating at present are the same processes that have operated in the past Present Present is key to the past past Catastrophism Opposes uniformitarianism: Non-geologic explanation for observed information Relative Age versus Numeric (Absolute) Age

Relative vs. Numerical Age

Relative age - the order of events or objects, from first (oldest) to last (youngest)
Determined by applying simple principles, including original horizontality, superposition, lateral continuity, cross-cutting relationships, inclusions, unconformities, and correlation of rock units and fossils

Numerical age - the age of events or objects, expressed as a number or numbers

Determined using radiometric dating (determining how much radioactive decay of a specific element has occurred since a rock formed or an event occurred)

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Relative Age Determination

Contacts - surfaces separating
successive rock layers (beds)

Formations - bodies of rock of

considerable thickness with recognizable characteristics allowing them to be distinguished from adjacent rock layers

Original horizontality - beds

of sediment deposited in water are initially formed as horizontal or nearly horizontal layers

Principles Used to Determine Relative Age

Original Horizontality Superposition
In a sequence of undisturbed sedimentary rocks, the oldest layers are on the bottom,, the youngest on the top.

Relative Age Determination

Superposition - within an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary or volcanic rocks layers get younger rocks, from bottom to top Lateral continuity - original horizontal layer extends laterally until it tapers or thins at its edges

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Relative Age Determination

Cross-cutting relationships - a
disrupted pattern is older than the cause of the disruption
Intrusions and faults are younger than the rocks they cut through

Baked contacts - contacts between

igneous intrusions and surrounding rocks, where surrounding rocks have experienced contact metamorphism

Inclusions - fragments embedded in

host rock are older than the host rock

Principles Used to Determine Relative Age, continued

Cross-cutting Relationships

disrupted pattern is older than the cause of disruption.

Geologic History Movie

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Relative time scale

What features can we see here that help us read a sequence of events?

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Animation

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Time and Geology

Relative time scale:
Original horizontality Superposition Lateral continuity y Cross-cutting relationships Unconformities and disconformities Correlation

Absolute time scale

The standard geologic time scale Radiometric age dating

Unconformities
Unconformity - a surface (or contact) that represents a gap in the geologic record f y - an unconformity y Disconformity in which the contact representing missing rock layers separates beds that are parallel to each other Angular unconformity - an unconformity in which the contact separates overlying younger layers from eroded tilted or folder layers

Types of Unconformities:
1. Disconformity

Animation

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2. Angular unconformity

Wheres the unconformity?

Wheres the unconformity?

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Unconformities
Nonconformity - an unconformity in which an erosional surface on plutonic or metamorphic rock has b been covered db by younger sedimentary or volcanic rock
Plutonic and metamorphic rocks exposed by large amounts of erosion Typically represents a large gap in the geologic record

3. Nonconformity

Correlation
Correlation - determining the time-equivalency of rock units
Within a region, a continent, between continents

Physical continuity
Physically tracing a continuous exposure of a rock unit Easily done in Grand Canyon

Similarity of rock types

Assumes similar sequences of rocks formed at same time Can be inaccurate if very common rock types are involved

Correlation by fossils
Fossil species succeed one another through the layers in a predictable order (faunal succession) Similar fossil assemblages (groups of different fossil species) used

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Correlation Between Rock Units

Physical Continuity Similarity of Rock Types Superposition Correlation by Fossils

Correlation by Fossils

Principle of Faunal Succession Index Fossil Fossil Assemblage

Time and Geology

Relative time scale:
Original horizontality Superposition Lateral continuity y Cross-cutting relationships Unconformities and disconformities Correlation

Absolute time scale

The standard geologic time scale Radiometric age dating

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Standard Geologic Time Scale

Geologic Time Scale

Standard geologic time scale
Worldwide relative time scale Subdivides geologic time based on fossil assemblages Divided into eons, eras, periods, and epochs

Precambrian - vast amount of time prior to the Paleozoic era; few fossils preserved Paleozoic era - old life
appearance of complex life; many fossils

Geologic Time Scale

Mesozoic era - "middle life"
Dinosaurs abundant on land Period ended by mass extinction

Cenozoic era - "new life"

Mammals and birds abundant We are currently in the Recent (Holocene) Epoch of the Quaternary Period of the Cenozoic Era Most recent ice ages occurred during the Pleistocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period

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Numerical Age Dating

Numerical dating - puts absolute values (e.g., millions of years) on the ages of rocks and geologic time periods
Uses radioactive decay y of unstable isotopes Only possible since radioactivity was discovered in 1896 Radioactive isotopes decay in predictable manner, depending on the half-life (time it takes for a given amount of radioactive isotope to be reduced by half)

RADIOACTIVE DECAY

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Combining Relative and Numerical Ages

Radiometric dating gives numerical
time brackets for events with known relative ages
I Individual di id l layers l may be b dated d t d directly di tl Radiometric dating of units above and below brackets age of units in between

Geologic Time Scale

Divided into four Eons
Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, Phanerozoic

Precambrian (all time prior to Phanerozoic) represents 87% of geologic time)

Age of the Earth

Numerical dating gives absolute age for Earth of about 4.56 billion years
Oldest age obtained for meteorites, believed to have been unchanged since the formation of the solar system Earth and rest of solar system very likely formed at this time

Geologic (deep) time is vast

A long human lifetime (100 years) represents only about 0.000002% of geologic time

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End of Chapter 8

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