Genetics

=> Nucleoside = nucleobase bound to a ribose or deoxyribose sugar via a beta-glycosidic linkage => Polynucleotide = nucleic acid with many mononucleotide monomer => Antisense DNA strand = template strand = coding strand => Only animal and plants genetic materials are separate strand => centrioles are present in animal cells only, but not prokaryotic or plant cell => Coding strand = template strand => DNA ligase, helicase

Distinguish between the terms allele and gene An allele is the different form of a gene A gene is a section of DNA which is a sequence of bases that codes for a polypeptide and occupies a particular locus on a chromosome

Explain the meaning of the term recessive allele Allele that is only expressed in the phenotype of an organism if the dominant allele is absent Explain the meaning of the term homozygous Alleles of a particular gene are the same Drawing a genetic diagram Genotype of both parents shown Possible allele carried in the gametes Genotypes of offspring Corresponding Phenotype

Explain how differential gene expression could result in the specialization of cells. Explain how differential gene expression can enable cells which have the same genetic material to have very different structures and functions Correct stimulus is given to the unspecialized cells, e.g. a chemical stimulus Some genes are switched on and become active while some genes are switched off mRBA is made from the active genes only The mRNA moves to the ribosomes for translation and the ribosomes read the mRNA and the appropriate protein is synthesized Proteins control cell processes The protein can permanently alter the structure and function of the cells to become specialized

Which of the following is due to differential gene expression The rate of protein synthesis is temperature dependent false The gender of turtles is determined by the temperature of the ground in which the eggs are laid true Asexual reproduction is more rapid in bacteria if the temperature is higher false Explain why the DNA content of the cell doubles ( not asking you how, dun describe the process of DNA replication) DNA replication (1M) So that it can halve (1M) New cells will have same amount as original, therefore, original DNA content restored (1M) during cytokinesis (1M)

Explain why height shows normal distribution Height controlled by many genes and is polygenic inheritance Therefore, shows continuous variation normal distribution Describe the events that occur during prophase Nuclear envelope disintegrate Chromatin condense into visible chromosome Spindle fibre begins to form Nucleolus gradually breaks down Centrioles migrate to opposite poles

Describe anaphase of mitosis Spindle fibres contract Sister chromatids are pull apart and separate to form daughter chromosomes Kinetochore leads to move to opposite poles of the cell Contrast how the cell differ in anaphase and metaphase Sister chromatids have separated Spindle fibre shorter Clusters of chromosomes towards each pole of cell

During anaphase, the cell from the root tip did not have a nucleus but was still considered to be eukaryotic. Suggest two reasons why this cell was still considered to be eukaryotic Membrane bound organelles present, e.g. mitochondria Has 80s ribosomes (character!) Nucleus will reform Presence of cellulose cell wall

Describe the event of transcription During transcription, part of a DNA molecule unwinds and the DNA strands separate Mononucleotides line up alone template strand

By complementary base pairing Because hydrogen bonds form between the bases Mononucleotides join together by RNA polymerase Through condensation reactions and form phosphodiester bonds mRNA chain separates from DNA Describe the event of translation The particular amino acid is attached to its specific tRNA by an enzyme, thus each carrying a specific amino acid Ribosome attaches to mRNA Ribosomes move along the mRNA reading the codons from a start codon until a stop codon occurs In the ribosome, tRNAs carry its specific amino acid to ribosomes in which anticodons on tRNA is complementary to codon on mRNA, thus hydrogen bonds is formed to temporarily hold the tRNA in position Whilte held there, the amino acids of neighbouring amino acid-tRNAs complex are joined by peptide linkage. This frees the first tRNA which move back into the cytoplasm for re-use Once this is done, the ribosomes moves onto the next mRNA codon. The process continues until a stop codon occurs Explain why many different RNA molecules are found in a cell There are different type of RNA responsible for different function Each amino acid has a different tRNA Different mRNA for each protein produced

Explain how newly-made proteins end up as glycoprotein on the cell surface membrane Protein released from ribosome Enter the rER lumen Becomes packaged into rER vesicles Vesicles containing the protein move to Glogi apparatus and fuse with it Protein thus enters Golgi Protein is modified and carbohydrate added Then become packaged into secretory vesicles Glycoprotein becomes part of membrane because vesicles fuse with the cell surface membrane

Basic Molecules
Disaccharide consisting of a glucose only Maltose Polysaccharide consisting of beta glucose only cellulose Water molecules are described as dipolar Water is a good coolant because it has a high latent heat of vaporization, which means that it takes a lot of heat to change it from a liquid to a gas Water has a high specific heat capacity, which means that a lot of energy is needed to cause a small rise in its temperature One mononucleotide = phosphate + sugar + base Purine = adenine and guanine Starch amylase maltose Calcium make calcium pectate (pectin) role: sticking adjacent plants cells together and it is component of middle lamella Nitrate make amino acid, nucleic acids base Polysaccharides are polymer of glucose

Smaller peptides or amino acids dissolve whereas protein did not

Product formed when two alpha glucose join together Maltose and water (dont miss!)

Describe the structure of starch and explain why this structure makes it a suitable molecule for storing energy Starch consist of amylose and amylopectin Amylose is straight chain and spiraled and has 1-4 glycosidic linkage Amylopectin is branched and 1-4,1-6 glycosidic linkage Amylopectin is branched, there is many ends therefore it is easily hydrolyzed Starch have compact structure, leading to more glucose in a smaller space in a cell Moreover, it is insoluble leading to it is not diffusing out of the cells and have little osmotic effect Common features found in disaccharide and polysaccharide: Made up of more than one monomer Glycosidic bond Contain C,H,O or hydroxyl group All contain glucose

Give three roles of water in a plant other than for pollen tube growth Photosynthesis Component of cytoplasm and sap Water as solvent Water as a transport medium Involved in thermoregulation Role in structural support Involvement in the hydrolysis Tugor changes Glycogen and protein molecules are both polymers. Explain why there is only one type of glycogen molecule but there are many types of protein molecule. Glycogen consists of one type of monomer which is glucose ( noun!) A protein consists of up to twenty amino acid. Amino acids can be arranged in many different sequence

Data Interpretation
a number of candidates struggle to grasp some aspects of the How Science Works ideas and the terminology associated with it. There was a lot of confusion between incidence, which is what the data was showing, and risk, chance and likelihood. Skills: Overall minor Terms ( bar chart or histogram):

Overall, each drink has different caffeine content (1M) Coffee has the highest and white tea has the lowest Coffee has far more caffeine than the other Cocoa has a similar caffeine content to Oolong tea Data manipulation

Terms (curve): The uptake rate of A is linear throughout Up take of B level at ______ Activity increases between pH 5 and 7 Most active at pH8 Activity drops between pH8 and 10

Compare: Rate of A and B is same for up to 30 minutes Dry mass equal in both ____ mg dm3 Increase in mass very similar in both after 150 Overall, Change in pod mass greater than shoot Both gradient decreases with increase in calcium Variety B has a great mean pollen tube length at the end Both have longest length at _____ Decrease in mortality rate is greater in men than women The decrease in men is less uniform than in women The difference is greater at the start of the time period than at the ned

Describe the effect of A on B A decreases B ( simply describe the effect) Overall, as mass of A increases, B decreases (minor) only a small increase at the beginning causes very sharp drop in B (minor) little change in B within range 1-4 (minor) concentrations above 0.04 cause little change in B (Overall) rate of decrease decrease with time Decrease is fastest up to 25 days Non-linear (1M) Correct manipulation of data

Describe the relationship between calcium ion concentration and total nitrogen uptake by the bean pods As calcium ion concentration increases so does total nitrogen uptake by pods Greatest increase in total nitrogen uptake occurs between __ and ___ Non regular increase Describe the effect of drug A It decrease blood levels of ___ in first __ day

It levels out and stays low for the rest of time period although fluctuates a little (Dont miss!) Using the information in the table above, describe the relationship between ethnic group, cholesterol levels and the percentage of the population with high blood pressure Non relationship between ethnic group and cholesterol level Higher percentage of black and African Americans have higher blood pressure than others

When a question asks for a description and an explanation of results, especially if it is also assessing QWC, then the explanation needs to be clearly linked to the description. It is best to link the sentences together with a because in between, so that there is the rst description and then the explanation, followed by the next description and the corresponding explanation.

Explain the meaning of the term correlation When one variable changes, there is also a change in an accompanying variable Distinguish between the terms causation and correlation Causation = when a change in one variable is responsible for a change in another variable Correlation: relationship between two variables such that a change in one of the variables is reflcted by a change in the other variable Describe the evidence shown in this graph that suggests there is a correlation between cigarette smoking and the number of deaths from lung cancers The shape of the two graphs is similar. Change in no of death from lung cancer similar to change in number of cigarettes smoked The changes in number of deaths is approximately the same no of years after the change in cigarette smoking consistent time lag between the changes in numbers of cigarettes smoked and the corresponding changes to the number of deaths from lung cancer.

Give two additional pieces of information that would increase the validity of any conclusions made from a study Number of people in survey Where the survey was carried out Information about their occupation Their family medical history Age Information on lifestyle Using the information in both tables, explain why this is not a valid conclusion (6BI01 June 2009) Other variables present / no information available about other variable e.g. genetics, mass of individuals, diet No information on how many tested, survey not repeated elsewhere Two values are not very different

Suggest one reason why this experiment may be unreliable Not enough data and sample observed, e.g. not enough people surveyed Data only taken from one point in time Suggest three variables that the student would need to keep constant to ensure the reliability of the data Temperature Volume of solution (Xamount) Light Measuring technique Stage of development, e.g. same number of leaves Seedling raised in same environment Seedlings being genetically similar to start with, e.g. come from same parent plants

Suggest why the experiment was carried out in a water bath at 45C To keep the temperature of the reaction constant 45C is optimum temperature of trypsin Change in temperature will affect the rate of reaction because it changes the kinetic energy of the molecules, thus change the frequency of collisions

Cell Structure
=> Cell surface membrane is present in animal, plant and prokaryotic cells => Pits are found in the cell walls of plant cells only, but not prokaryotic cells => Tonoplast may be present in plant cells only => Cell walls are found in plant and prokaryotic cells! => Rough endoplasmic reticulum ribosome, cisterna The ability of a substance to pass into a cell depends on its solubility in oil and water Explain how the results of this investigation can be explained by the fluid mosaic model Phospholipids allow fluidity and movement Fluidity allow membranes o fuse Fluidity allows protein to move Structure of phospholipid and how it contribute to the structure of cell membrane Phospholipid consisted of a glycerol bonded to one phosphate head and two fatty acid tails by ester bonds Phosphate head bears negative charge and thus hydrophilic Fatty acid tails are hydrophobic Since the orientation of molecule is in relation to water The aqueous environment is on two sides Arranged in bilayer Describe the structure of plasma membrane

It is a fluid mosaic structure Consist of phospholipid bilayer Phosphate heads point outwards Fatty acid tails pointing inwards Protein also present, channel or enzyme Cholesterol within bilayer Explain why the phospholipid molecules form a bilayer Fatty acids tails are hydrophobic So orientate themselves away from water environment Phosphate heads are hydrophilic So can interact and orientate themselves to the water environment Cytoplasm and tissue fluid is polar environment Describe the role of phospholipids in the cell surface membrane Form a phospholipid bilayer Phosphate group which is hydrophilic interacts with aqueous environment (1M) Fatty acids which is hydrophobic restricts the movement of polar molecules into or out of the cell

Explain what is meant by the term hydrophilic Can dissolve in water Suggest how oil-soluble substances crosses a membrane Substances is oil soluble Therefore can dissolve in the fatty acid part of bilayer which is the hydrophobic region Can then pass through by diffusion When using beetroot to investigate the permeability of membrane, these factors need to be kept constant Surface area of beetroot Part Age Storage Source Volume of ethanol Same wavelength and filter used in calorimeter Name a structure that can used to identify a cell as both eukaryotic cell and a plant cell Chloroplast, Large and permanent vacuole surrounded by tonoplast, cellulose cell wall Explain the meaning of the term tissue Similar cell types working together for same function. Often cells come from the same origin Give one difference between an organ and a tissue Organ has many functions, tissue has fewer Organ has many cell types and tissue while tissue has fewer

Suggest one way in which tissues and organs are similar Both have cells working together for the same functions Draw a fully labelled diagram of nucleus Nuclear envelope, double membrane! Nuclear pores shown Nucleolus shown Why do you think structure A is Golgi apparatus Several curved membrane-bound sac of decreasing size Describe the structure of a ribosome: Contains protein and rRNA. Two subunits Appropriate binding sites for mRNA (Unit 2) Proteins in a cell can be made radioactive by supplying the cell with radioactive amino acids. The movement of the radioactive protein within the cell can be traced over time. In an investigation, it was found that the quantity of radioactivity in the protein that entered the Golgi apparatus was less than that supplied to the cell. Suggest reason. Some amino acids do not enter the cell Some amino acids are not used in the protein synthesis Some protein is on ribosome, in cytoplasm or in mitochondria Some amino acids is in vesicles Some amino acids are metabolized (Unit 2) Explain why it is better to use the difference in length as the measure of seedling growth rather than just the final length Seedling could have all been different lengths to start off Final length is not a measure of growth, growth needs to take into account change and time (Unit2) Suggest why calculating the difference between final mass and initial mass of each seedling may be an even better indicator of growth than measuring length Plants grow in other dimension More likely to be an error in measuring length

Common features of prokaryotes, mitochondria and chloroplasts Circular DNA 70s ribosomes (X matrix X crista)

Double membrane

Mitochondria Yes

Chloroplasts Yes

Crista Circular DNA Matrix Glycogen granule Stalked particles

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

No Yes No No No

Diffusion Proteins acts as channel Channels can open or close by changing shape If it open, large molecules can pass through membrane down a concentration gradient Pattern: Diffusion occurring due to concentration difference (1M) Rate of uptakes decrease as the concentration gradient decreases Net uptake stops when concentration inside cell equals that outside of the cell Explain how molecules move by diffusion Kinetic energy of molecules lead to molecules move randomly Overall movement of molecules is down the concentration gradient

Explain the meaning of osmosis Movement of water through a partially permeable membrane from a region with more free water to a region with less free water (down water concentration gradient)

Suggest why there is a difference in water content of two potatoes Age Genotypes, e.g. country of origin Storage time Growth conditions Temperature Describe how the information given in the graph support that substance A crosses the membrane by diffusion At beginning, there is a concentration gradient As concentration of A decreases on outside, it increases on inside -> implies that substance A moves from outside to inside As concentration gradient gets smaller, rate of change decreases No change in concentration when equal on both sides

Compare the graph showing the diffusion and that showing active transport The rate of change in active transport would be almost linear and constant Changes would occur faster Overall movement of molecules would not stop when concentration equal Concentration inside would be greater than outside

Active transport Molecules binds to carrier protein Carrier protein change shape and move the molecules against a concentration gradient with the expense of ATP

Cardiac system
Endothelium / epithelium/ endothelial layer / endothelial layer / tunica intima Smooth muscle , elastic fibres Connective tissue Atrial systole ventricular systole diastole State two risks of treatments using statins Liver problems Kidney problems Mental health problem, e.g. depression Reduced vitamin uptake Joint problems, e.g. cramps, myositis, pain, myopathy Explain how the structure of an artery relates to its function Wide wall to withstand blood under high pressure Narrow lumen to maintain high pressure Presence of elastic fibres to allow Bessel to stretch and recoil to maintains pressure Smooth lining reduces friction Folded lining to allow artery to stretch Describe the roles of the atrioventricular valves during the cardiac cycle Valves separate atria from ventricles Valves open during atrial systole, so that blood can pass through to ventricles Closed during ventricular systole, to prevent back flow of blood up into atria and maintain pressure in ventricle Open during diastole, so that ventricles can start to fill up as atria are filling Differences between vein and capillary Veins contain more than one layer of cells and capillaries one layer Walls of veins contain connective tissue, smooth muscle, collagen and elastic tissue while capillaries do not Veins have valves Vein do not have pores but capillaries do Veins have wide lumen, capillaries have narrow lumen Give three ways in which carbon dioxide is transported in blood Dissolve As hydrogencarbonate ions Attached to haemoglobin as carbaminohaemoglobin

Advantage of double circulation over single circulation Blood flows at faster rate and higher pressure to the body Body flows at slower rate and lower pressure to the lung thus reduces risk of damage to the lungs

More efficient exchange of gases Why a fish lived in conditions of low oxygen concentration has external gills Increase surface area (1M) Increase diffusion of oxygen (1M)

Explain the presence of a respiratory pigment Pigment has a high affinity for oxygen Takes up oxygen at low partial pressure

Explain why this insect does not need blood vessels to transport its blood around the body Large surface area to volume ratio All cells are very close to the heart Diffusion is fast enough for exchange of nutrients, gases and waste Low metabolism Movement of blood back into the heart is fast enough Describe the blood clotting process There is a cascade of events leading to blood clotting (1M) Clot formation is stimulated when there is damage to blood vessel Damage exposes collagen fibres to which platelet attach The platelets release a clotting factor called thromboplastin which is an enzyme As a result, blood clotting process is triggered In the presence of calcium and vitamin K, thromboplastin converts inactive prothrombin into active enzyme called thrombin Thrombin is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of the soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin, which forms a network of fibres, trapping cells , platelet and debris to make clot Suggest ways that can reduce risk of dying form CVD Reduce energy intake BMI decreases if energy expenditure greater than intake Diet should have reduced cholesterol levels cholesterol has been associated with high blood pressure and atherosclerosis Diet should have reduced saturated fat reduces blood LDL Woman could increase the amount of exercise weight decrease if energy expenditure greater than intake. Also, exercise help maintain a healthy heart and reduce blood pressure Diet should have reduced salt high salt associated with high blood pressure Moderate alcohol intake --- high alcohol associated with high blood pressure Describe the structure of an alveolus Consists of flattened epithelial cell Surfactant-secreting cell Alveolus is surrounded with collagen Surrounded with capillaries Presence of macrophages Suggest three reaons for why the number of deaths from coronary heart disease decrease

Better screening Better treatment More exercise being takne Changed diet Less alcohol intake Change in population genetics

Describe how atherosclerosis develops Damage to endothelial cells lining artery wall Inflammatory response Accumulation of white blood cells in damaged area Build up of cholesterol in damaged area Build up of calcium salts and fibrin Formation of atheroma and plaque Loss of elasticity and narrow the lumen The process is self-perpetuating

Enzyme
Describe the structure of enzyme Enzyme is a protein Tertiary structure Ref to named bonds holding structures in place between R groups e.g. disulphide bridge, hydrogen and ionic bond Ref to active site and specificity

Why enzyme in the snake venom could be involved in the blood clotting process That has active site complementary to one of the substrates in the blood clotting process Activate other enzymes or have effect on platelets triggers the clotting process ( dont missed! )

With reference to enzyme activity, explain what is meant by activation energy Energy needed for a chemical reaction to begin (1M) Enzymes reduce it (1M)

With reference to enzyme activity, explain what is meant by catalyst Increase rate of reaction Without itself being changed, thus does not use up Describe how the enzyme reaction takes place

Protein collide with enzyme and bind with the active site of enzyme Formation of enzyme- substrate complex Bonds being broken and being made or by lower activation energy In hits case, add OH group to the R group After the reaction, product is released from active site as the product no longer binds to active site because of alter structure

Explain how an enzyme breaks down the protein in the milk powder Protein collide with enzyme and bind with the active site of enzyme, enzymes-substrate complex is formed Peptide bonds broken by hydrolysis (1M) Formation of smaller peptide chains Explain how pH affects the activity of enzymes pH is determined by proton concentration In basic environment, R groups will ionized And in acidic environment, R groups will gain proton This affect the bonding between R groups, e.g. This in turns affect the shape of the protein and also the shape of active site Substrate cannot bind to active site

Biotechnology
Why somatic cells are used in genetic screening rather than germ cell These cells are easy to collect Contain diploid cells, thus any recessive allele or mutated gene will be present in them If the gamete was tested, they may not contain the recessive allele or mutated gene as they are haploid ( X half of DNA) Cells are genetically identical and have same alleles Why it is necessary to test for several recessive alleles in the screening for cystic fibrosis Cystic fibrosis results from one of a number of possible mutations of CFTR gene Testing for only one will miss other recessive alleles

Genetic screening shows that patient A probably not the carrier of cystic fibrosis. Why the probability of having a child with cystic fibrosis is low but not zero False negatives The screening program does not test for all the possible mutations that can cause cystic fibrosis Mutation may occur in the formation of the gamete. If mutation in both gametes, the child will have cystic fibrosis Mutation may occur after fertilization

In the risk analysis shown, if one of the partners is found to be a carrier then screening for cystic fibrosis may be offered to other family members. Explain why this screening is offered to other family members Other family members could be a carrier Informed choices can be made about having children if they know that they are carriers ( also the purpose of screening program) Describe how somatic gene therapy be carried out to treat disease Use of normal allele coding for the deficient protein Use of vector to introduce the gene into target cells into DNA in the nucleus. The vector is virus and liposomes (1M) and by the way of nebulizer, spray or injection (1M) When investigating the effectiveness of somatic gene therapy, what is the treatment given to control group Water/ saline/ empty liposomes, vectors only/ use of placebo Explain why stem cell B is described as pluripotent Cell B can give rise to many cell type but not give rise to embryonic cells

Explain what is meant by totipotent stem cell Totipotent stem cells can give rise to all cell types Stem cells are undifferentiated (1M) Can keep dividing (1M) Suggest one risk to the person receiving the stem cells Possible route to infection Rejection by recipient Increased chance of becoming cancerous Suggest one site where adult stem cell may be found in adult human Bone marrow of long bones, e.g. ribs

Name one method of prenatal testing of cystic fibrosis and explain how it can be used to detect cystic fibrosis Amniocentesis Amniotic fluid removed from amniotic sac of mother Because embryonic cells present in amniotic fluid and embryonic cells needed DNA can be analyzed to detect defective genes in sample Chorionic villus sampling Placental tissue removed from womb of mother Because fetal cells present in placental chorionic tissue DNA can be analyzed to detect defective genes in sample

Describe one benefit and one risk, to a pregnant woman, of prenatal testing

Gives information about abnormalities in fetus, therefore opportunity for choice, consider termination or time for preparation and treatment e.g. peace of mind Possibility of miscarriage due to procedure, potentially a healthy baby would be lost and also pose risk to mother False positive or false negative result wrong decision made

Describe ethical and social issue relating to the use of prenatal testing Fetus is living, abortion is wrong and is a murder Who has right to decide if tests should be performed Medical costs Issues relating to confidentiality of parents and child Fetus has decision rights if the test is positive, and no one has the right to make the decision for the fetus. Fetus has a right to live and this treatment is denying them the opportunity to live Not fully understanding possible risks of prenatal testing and possibility of miscarriage or harm to child If some abnormality found, possible problems with future employment, insurance.

Drug Testing
Suggest why a drug can be tested on rats before testing on humans Laboratory rats have reduced genetic variability Rats have a well-known metabolism (X human and rat are similar) No harm to human Used to look for potential adverse effect More ethical

What is done at phase 1 Tested on small number healthy individuals (1M) Low concentration and monitor safety (1M) What is done at phase 2 Drug tested on small number of patients Monitor effectiveness of treatment Explain what is meant by a double blind trial and suggest why it is important Some people with new drug and some without new drug. Use of placebo which is sugar-coated dummy pill Doctors and administer do not know who is on new drug or who is not To see if new drug works better than placebo Reduces bias

Seed Bank

Suggest two reasons why the seeds need to be dried and then stored in cold conditions Inhibits germination because low tem slows down enzymes reaction Slows down rate of microbial activity Therefore, prolongs seed survival Drying reduces freezing effect

Suggest why seed germination is tested at regular intervals To check seed viability and germination success Allows new seeds to be produced because stored seeds may need replacing due to decay or death

ZOO
Give two ways in which zoos help to conserve endangered species = the roles of zoos in conserving endangered animals Captive breeding program to encourage endangered species to breed, so that their numbers increase, and reduce the risk of extinction. Subsequently, some individuals can be released into the wild or protected areas, such as national parks, to main or re-establish wild breeding populations. The genetic diversity of the species thus can be maintained Reintroduction program endeavor to release captive bred individuals back into the wild so that natural breeding populations can be maintained or re-established Scientific research zoos, universities can work tgt on projects that are of benefit to the conservation of animals, including control of disease that are reducing populations, behavioural studies to further appreciate the needs of animals in captivity, Development of techniques to further improve breeding success Education Inform all age group who visit zoo of various conservation issues including the illegal trade in certain animal products, the need to main biodiversity, and introduce captive bredding program including success story Describe how zoos maintain the genetic diversity of endangered species Breeding program careful selection of mate, allowing only to mate with a different individual to previous mating and only allowing those with different genes to mate Use of genetic testing and record keeping studbooks Outbreeding Reintroduction to the wild

Plant
Describe and explain how xylem is adapted for the transport of water and support in a plant Hollow tubes and end walls broken down ( no living contents) Allow vertical movement of columns of water Waterproof material keeps water in the vessels and less water lost Pores allow sideways movement of water Lignin + extra cellulose strength

Rings and spirals strength and flexibility Xylem tissue consists of pits, sclerenchyma, lignin, parenchyma, and vessel

Suggest how calcium ions contributed to the change in mass in the shoot of the bean plants More middle lamella which is made of calcium pectate Helps uptake of other ions

Suggest the form in which the nitrogen was supplied in the watering solution Ammonium ion or nitrate

Why nitrogen uptake lead to dry mass increase Great nitrogen uptake Nitrogen is used in synthesis of amino acid Amino acids used to synthesize protein Greater protein content Give one similarity and one difference between xylem vessels and sclerenchyma Similarity: both for support, both contain lignin, both associated with vascular bundles, both dead Differences: Only xylem vessels transport water and mineral ion. Position within vascular bundle is different. Only xylem has open ends.

Human Reproductive System

Sperm: Flagellum Overall shape is streamlined Acrosome Sperm cell has less cytoplasm than oocyte

Oocyte: Zona pellucida Cortical granules More cytoplasm

Explain what is meant by the term implantation

Blastocyst embeds into endometrium Describe the process of spermatogenesis During spermatogenesis, a diploid cell called a primary spermatocyte divides in meiosis I to form two secondary spermatocytes. Each of these then divides in meiosis II, forming four haploid spermatids, which mature into spermatozoa.

When a sperm cell reaches an egg cell, enzymes are released from the head of the sperm. Explain the reasons for the release of these enzymes Enzyme digest zona pellucida therefore sperm can get through to egg cell Contact with receptor on zona pellucida causes acrosome to rupture Describe what happens in the egg cell once the sperm cell nucleus has entered it Meiosis II is completed Male and female chromosomes come together Cortical granules released from the cell surface membrane and bind with zona pellucida then thicknes and hardens Describe the changes in the female gamete from the point when a sperm releases its digestive enzymes to the point when the two nuclei fuse Jelly layer hydrolyzed Egg cell membrane penetrated by sperm and sperms nucleus enters the egg cell Meiosis II is completed Cortical granules in egg fuse with egg cell surface membrane and release enzymes Zona pellucida hardens to prevent polyspermy Egg nucleus envelop breaks down Spindle forms Function of fertilization To produce a zygote and produce original complement of genetic material which is diploid To allow mixing of genes which allow genetic variation Explain why it is important that the sperm has a nucleus that is haploid = function of ferilisation Has half the required the chromosome complement So at fertilization, full complement of chromosomes is restored (diploid number) Allow mixing of alleles for genetic variation Describe and explain how human egg cell is adapted for its function Haploid nucleus so that diploid number restored at fertilization Food store as liquid droplets supplies energy and nutrients for division Large cell size and large surface area increased chance of fertilization Cortical granules to prevent polyspermy Release of chemical attract sperm Membrane with sperm receptors on surface to allow sperm to bind

Much mRNA present to allow early translation of transcription factors

Plant Reproductive System

In the second fertilization, the other male gamete nucleus fuses with two polar nuclei forming a triploid structure, this is called triploid endosperm nucleus Suggest one stimulus cause the pollen tube to grow towards the micropyle Water Chemical Gravity

The tip of the growing pollen tube releases digestive enzymes into the style. Suggest the role of these digestive enzymes in the growth of the pollen tube Digestion of style Breaks down protein and middle lamella by hydrolysis Easier for pollen tube to grow and reduced resistance Supplies nutrients for pollen tube growth

Evolution
Three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukaryote/ eukarya Prokaryotic cell does not have golgi apparatus

Explain what is meant by the term species Species is reproductively isolated Produce offspring that are sexually viable and fertile Many features in common and some features homologous

Explain the meaning of the term genetic diversity within a species The number of different alleles (allele frequency) in a gene pool of a population. Suggest how natural selection has led to the evolution of two different forms of the same species, e.g. leopards and panthers (members of the same species) Genetic variation present in ancestral population Some with allele that are Camouflaged in its environment More likely to catch prey or prevent being preyed selective advantage Therefore, more likely to survive to adulthood and to breed Pass on allele to offspring Change in allele frequency over generations Disruptive selection Why the incidence of albinism in squirrels is much lower than human

Fewer albino squirrels survive, may be not breed so frequently or less camouflage more predation Frequency of albinism allele in squirrel population is lower chance of two squirrels with the allele less likely to mate Moreover, there is lower mutation rate in squirrels

Individuals with albinism are unable to produce the pigment melanin due to the absence of the enzyme tyrosinase. Explain why melanin cannot be produced in the absence of the enzyme tyrosinase Dihydroxyphenylalanine cannot be synthesized from tyrosine if tyrosinase is absent Precursor of melanin is dihydroxyphenylalanine and made if DHPA present Enzymes are substrate specific therefore no other enzyme will breakdown tyrosine

Uncategorized
Suggest how the use of starch, rather than plastic, may contribute to sustainability Starch is renewable resource Plastic from oil which is non-renewable resource Suggest why bioplastic is described as a more sustainable form of packaging than oil-based plastic Bioplastic made of starch which comes from plants Starch are renewable Oil-based plastic is from non-renewable resource

Bioplastic is biodegradable. Suggest one environmental advantage of using biodegradable packaging Will no accumulate or not contribute to landfill, can be decomposed