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25
Refers to the prevailing pressure in the air around us.
The pressure variation in the atmosphere is usually due
to the changes in density & elevation.
There is variation of density from point to point even
when the atmosphere is at rest.
When there is air movement, there will be even greater
variation in pressure. The variation of pressure at the
atmosphere is very complicated as the atmospehere is
not static.
It varies somewhat with changing weather conditions,
and it decreases with increasing altitude.
It is important to measure the P
atm
as it affects the
measurement of pressure in fluids.
26
At sea level, average atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa
(abs), 14.7 psi (abs), or 1 atmosphere (1 bar = 1x10
5
Pa).
This is commonly referred to as standard atmospheric
pressure.
For most engineering purpose, the atm pressure is
taken as 1 bar, which is equal to approximately 100kPa.
It can also be expressed as 10.3 m of H
2
0 column or
760 mm of mercury in terms of equivalent Hg column.
The total pressure in the liquid can be expressed either
as absolute or gauge pressure depending how the
atmospheric is treated
27
Pressure measurements are generally
indicated as being either absolute or
gauge pressure.
When we mention pressure, it implies
gauge pressure.
Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the
atmosphere, and therefore indicate as
gauge pressure.
Gauge pressure is often used in
engineering, because it is the reading
on manometers.
On the other hand, there are also
others pressure measuring devices
that use gage pressure, which is
measured relative to atmospheric
pressure. This gauge is widely used
for steam and compressed gases.
Figure : Bourdon tube
pressure gauges
28
Is the pressure measured above
or below the atmospheric
pressure (i.e. taking the
atmospheric as datum).
In other words, the atmospheric
pressure on the gauge scale is
marked as ZERO.
Can be positive or negative.
The pressure above atmosphere
is called the gauge pressure
while pressure below
atmosphere is called ve
pressure or vacuum pressure.
A negative gauge pressure is
also known as vacuum pressure.
29
For liquid, P = gh + constant (h= depth or
distanced measured from the free surface
to downwords)
When h=0, P= pressure at the surface=
atmospheric pressure = P
atm
Thus, P = gh + P
atm
For practical purposes, P
atm
is taken as
datum. The pressure measured above P
atm
is
called the gauge pressure.
P
gauge
= gauge pressure = gh
The pressure in a liquid is usually taken as
gauge pressure.
30
abs gauge atm
Actual pressure at a given point is called the absolute
pressure.
When pressure is measured relative to absolute zero pressure,
it is called absolute pressure.
Is the pressure equal or the sum of atmospheric & gauge
pressure.
Absolute zero pressure, which is the lowest possible pressure.
Therefore, an absolute pressure will always be positive.
A simple equation relating the two pressure measuring system
can be written as:
31
Pressure below atmospheric
pressure are called vacuum
pressure,
Gauge pressure is referred to
as vacuum or suction
pressure when it is negative.
Gauge Pressure:
p
gauge
= p
absolute
- p
atm
Vacuum Pressure:
p
vacuum
= p
atm
- p
absolute
32
P
gage
=P
abs
- P
atm
P
vac
=P
atm
- P
abs
33
A container is filled with a fluid at a gauge
pressure of 200 kN/m
2
. If the
atmospheric pressure is 100kPa, what is
the absolute pressure in the container?
(Answer: 300kPa)
34
Determine the gauge and absolute
pressure at a depth of 10m in a tank filled
with water. The atmospheric pressure is
100 kN/m
2
.
(Answer: P for gauge = 98.1kPa,
P for absolute = 198.1kPa)
35
Fluid pressure can be determined by
various means and devices depending on
the types of fluid. Some of the common
devices used are:
36
37
A mercury barometer is used to measure
Atmospheric pressure.
A simple barometer consists of an
inverted glass tube (>760mm long) filled
with mercury with its open end is
submerged in a mercury container.
p
atm
= gh + p
vapor
The vapor pressure in the glass tube is negligibly small, hence
the atmospheric pressure is simply given by the height of the
mercury column.
p
atm
=
Hg
gh
38
The level in the tube is generally 760mm
at sea level. Calculate the atmospheric
pressure where SG for mercury is 13.6.
Answer: 101.4kPa
39
p
atm
=
Hg
gh
Used to measure the pressure of
liquids in container/ conduits which
are under pressure.
It is the simplest form of a pressure
measuring device.
It has a vertical tube connected to
the container in which the pressure
is needed.
The pressure head of the fluid
column indicates the pressure of the
container:
p
A
= gh
where p
A
is the gage pressure at point A
within the container.
40
41
The disadvantages of piezometers are:
(1) Cannot measure vacuum pressure
since air would be sucked into the
container through the tube.
(2) The measured pressure should be
reasonably low, otherwise a very
long vertical tube is needed.
Compute the pressure of oil in a piezometer if the
pressure head in the conduit is given as 75mm, and
density of the oil is 850kg/m
3
.
Answer: 625.4Pa.
42
A manometer makes use of two or more
liquids with different specific gravity.
The choice of manometer fluid depends on
the pressure range to be measured.
It is an important device for measuring
pressure differences.
For high pressures to be measured, fluid
with high density will be used. (i.e:?)
For low pressures to be measured, fluid with
low density will be used. (i.e.?)
43
The tube connecting the fluid is usually
bent and not straight.
Simple U-tube Manometer
It consists of a U-tube with one end
connected to the container with an
unknown pressure and the other end
open to the known atmospheric pressure.
The fluid in the U-tube manometer can
be different from the fluid in the
container.
Differential Manometer
Tube with more than 1 bend. Enable to
measure higher pressure. Use to measure
the difference in pressure between 2
containers.
The procedure for determining the pressure inside the container is:
(1) Start from one end, and work from one fluid level to
another, up to the open end of the manometer.
(2) Remember that pressure increases linearly with depth for
a fluid at rest.
44
Consider the U-tube manometer
shown.
The pressure at point A inside the
tank is calculated as:
p
A
+
1
gh
1
-
2
gh
2
= 0
which gives:
p
A
=
2
gh
2
-
1
gh
1
Once again, gage pressure is
used in the above equation (i.e.,
the atmospheric pressure at the
open end is zero gage).
If the fluid in the tank is a gas,
then the pressure between point
1 and 2 is negligible, hence
p
A
=
2
gh
2
45
Conduits A as shown in figure
below are filled with oil at a
specific gravity of 0.75. By using
a simple U-tube mercury
manometer, what is the
pressure at A?
46
Consider the differential
manometer connected between
tanks A and B, as shown in the
figure.
The pressure will be determined
by moving from point A to point
B:
p
A
+
1
gh
1
-
2
gh
2
-
3
gh
3
= p
B
The pressure difference is
given by
p
A
- p
B
=
2
gh
2
+
3
gh
3
-
1
gh
1
The U-tube manometer also can be
used to determine the pressure difference
between two systems.
This type of manometer is called a
differential U-tube manometer.
U-Tube Differential Manometer
47
48
Conduits A and B as shown in figure below are filled with water. By
using a manometer, what is the difference pressure at A and B?
49
500mm
300mm
50
An inverted U-tube as shown in
Figure Q2(b) is used to measure
the pressure difference between
two points A and B in an inclined
pipeline through which water is
flowing. Given the difference of
level h = 0.3m, a = 0.25m and b=
0.15m. Determine the pressure
difference P
B
-P
A
if the top of the
manometer is filled with oil of
relative density 0.8.
51
Answer: P
B
-P
A
= -392.4Pa
52
Answer: P
A
-P
B
= 42.38kPa
53
The pressure difference between point A and B is given
by
p
A
+
1
gh
1
-
2
gL
2
sin -
3
gh
3
= p
B
If the gas columns h
1
and h
3
are neglected, then
p
A
- p
B
=
2
gL
2
sin
Another type of manometer is the inclined-tube manometer which is used
to measure small pressure differences between two systems (say for gases).
Used for measuring small differences in pressure.
The advantage of the inclined manometer is
that the differential reading scales along the
tube can be made large compared to a vertical
manometer for a given pressure difference,
hence improving the accuracy in reading the
scale.
54
55
Answer: P
A
-P
B
= 113.94kPa
For multi-fluid systems
Pressure change across a fluid
column of height h is P = gh.
Pressure increases downward,
and decreases upward.
Two points at the same
elevation in a continuous fluid
are at the same pressure.
Pressure can be determined by
adding and subtracting gh
terms.
2 1 1 2 2 3 3 1
P gh gh gh P + + + =
56
Be able to apply concepts in hydrostatic
pressure in determining force exerted by
fluids on plane surfaces under static
condition. (CO2-PO3)
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this topic, student should :
57
58
PRINCIPLES OF HYDROSTATIC FORCES:
There are no shear stresses present when the
fluid is not in motion
The pressure exerted by a fluid under hydrostatic
condition at any depth is equal in all directions.
This pressure acts perpendicular to an immersed
surface
Hydrostatic pressure varies linearly, increasing
with an increase in depth.
59
For fluid at rest, the force always act at right angles to the
surface.
For many applications, magnitude and location of
application, which is called center of pressure, must be
determined.
3 types :
HORIZONTAL PLANE SURFACE
VERTICAL PLANE SURFACE
INCLINED PLANE SURFACE
For horizontal plane submerged in a liquid, the pressure, P, will be equal at
all points of the surface.
This leads to the conclusion that the resultant force on horizontal surface
due to that pressure can be computed from the simple product of pressure
times the area of interest, i.e.
Force = Pressure x Area of plane
F = PA
(The resultant hydrostatic force)
This force will act vertically downward and through the center of pressure.
h
F=PA=gh.A
Figure : Resultant force on horizontal plane
60
A rectangular tank 6m long and 3m wide
contains water up to a depth of 2.5m.
Calculate the pressure and resultant
hydrostatic force on the base of the tank.
61
Answer: F = 441.45kN
h
G
b
Consider a plane vertical surface of arbitiary
immersed in liquid.
62
Let :
A Total area of the surface
G Centre of gravity of the surface
h
G
Vertical distance from liquid surface to centre of gravity
h
P
Vertical distance from liquid surface to centre of pressure
I
G
Second moment of area
h
P
G
CP
G
G
G
p
h
Ah
I
h + =
A gh F
G
=
Intensity of pressure increase with depth.
As the pressure is greater over the lower portion,
therefore, the resultant force on any immersed
surface will act at some point below h
G
The point through the resultant force acts is
known as centre of pressure
It is expressed in terms of depth from liquid
surface to the centre of pressure, h
P
.
63
G
G
G
P
h
Ah
I
h
+
64
65
66
Answer: F = 61.638kN
Consider an inclined plane submerged in a
static fluid as shown in the figure.
The resultant force F is acting
perpendicular to the plane since no shear
force is present when the fluid is at rest.
67
G
G
G
p
h
Ah
I
h + =
u sin
A gh F
G
=
An inclined rectangular gate, 1.5m by 1.0m with
water on side is shown in figure 3.3. determine
the total resultant force acting on the gate and
locate its centre of pressure, h
p
.
68
Answer: F = 35.8kN, h
p
=2.46m.
Example 2.4- vertical plate
A hollow circular plate of 2 m external and 1 m internal diameters
is immersed vertically in water, such that the centre of the plate is
2 m deep from the water surface as shown in the Figure Q2(b).
Apply the principles of hydrostatic to determine the total pressure
and depth of the centre of pressure
69
Example 2.3- October 2008
Apply the hydrostatics principles to determine the total force and
location of centre of pressure for a plate immersed in water as
shown in Figure 2(c) below.
70
2m
2.5m
3m
5.5m
water
Be able to determine force exerted by fluids
on plane surfaces and location of centre of
pressure using pressure diagram. (CO2-
PO3)
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of this topic, student should :
71
PLANE SURFACES
PRESSURE DIAGRAM
72
A Gravity Dam The Resultant Force is Acting
Perpendicular to the Dam
The Lateral Force Component on
the Projected Vertical Area A
p
Lateral Force Components
Acting on the Dam
73
Alternate approach of determining the hydrostatic force is by means of a
pressure prism
Consider a vertical plane submerged in a static fluid, as shown in the figure.
The pressure increases linearly with the depth.
One can then easily construct a corresponding three-dimensional diagram of
the pressure distribution, and such a volume is called a pressure prism.
The resultant force is the total volume of the pressure prism, that is
F
R
= Volume = 1/2 (gh) (bh)
74
Pressure prism
Use to determine hydrostatic force and the centre of pressure (hp)
75
h
h
2
gh
1
gh
2
h
2
h
1
gh
2
gh
1
h
1
Typical pressure diagram
In general, the principle involved can be simply be stated as follows:
The hydrostatic force per unit width of immersed surface is given by
the area of pressure diagram.
The resultant hydrostatic force is given by the volume of the pressure
prism.
The centre of pressure is given by the location of the centroid of the
pressure diagram.
Free water surface
Horizontal
surface
Vertical
surface
Inclined
surface
To calculate force per unit width
76
= = h gh A
PD
2
1
2
2
gh
( )
=
|
.
|
\
|
= =
B
h
hB g
B
gAh
B
F
G
2
2
2
gh
Area of pressure diagram:
Using equation force per unit width :
Method A
Method B
To calculate total force
77
= = B h gh F
2
1
2
2
B gh
= = =
2
h
hB g A gh F
G
2
2
B gh
Volume of pressure diagram:
Using equation :
Method A
Method B
To calculate centre of pressure
78
h
3
2
Centroid of pressure diagram =
Using equation :
( )
= + =
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2 6 2
2
12
3
h h h
h
B h
Bh
h
p
(from free water surface)
h
3
2
G
G
G
P
h
Ah
I
h + =
(from free water surface)
Method A
Method B
In this case, both method give the
SAME ANSWER
79
A 2m x 3m tank with vertical sides contains oil of density 900kg/m
3
to a depth of 0.8m, which floats on 1.2m depth of water as shown
below. Calculate the resultant hydrostatic force and its location on
the 3m side of the tank.
80
1
2 3
0.8m
1.2m
Oil
Water
o
g(0.8)
o
g(0.8) +
w
g(0.1.2)
Answer: F= 55.1kN, y
T
=1.344m (from the free water surface)
81
THE END
82