(Instrumentation) Measurement of Flow of Fluids PDF

FENOMENOS DE TRANSPORTE Y MECANICA DE FLUIDOS ASPECTOS TEORICOS
Universidad Mayor Dr. Carlos Martnez Pavez - Marzo 2002

96
Captulo tomado del libro clsico de Mecnica de Fluidos Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics de
Ranald V. Giles publicado en el ao 1962 en N. York por Schaum Publishing Co.

MEASUREMENT OF FLOW OF FLUIDS

INTRODUCTION

Numerous devices are used in engincering practice to measure the flow of fluids. Velocity
measurements are made with Pitot tubes, current meters, and rotating and hotwire anemometem. In model
studies, photographic methods are often used. Quantity measurements are accomplished by means of orifices,
tubes, nozzles, Venturi meters and flumes, elbow meters, weirs, numerous modifications of the foregoing and
various patented meters. In order to apply the hydraulic devices intelligently, use of the Bernoulli equation and
additional knowledge of the characteristics and coefficients of each device are imperative. In the absence of
reliable values of coefficients, a device should be calibrated for the expected operating conditions.

Formulas developed for incompressible fluids may be used for compressibIe fluids where the
pressure differential is small relative to the total pressure. In many practical cases such small differentials
occur. However, where compressibility must be considered, special formulas will be developed and used.

PITOT TUBE

The pitot tube measures the velocity at a point by virtue of the fact that the tube measures the
stagnation pressure, which exceeds the local static pressure by w(V
2
/2g) psf. In an open stream of fluid, since
the local pressure is zero gage, the height to which the liquid rises in the tube measures the velocity head.

COEFFICIENT of DISCHARGE

The coefficient of discharge (c) is the ratio of the actual discharge through the device
to the ideal discharge. This coefficient may be expresaed as

actual flow Q in cfs
c = = (1)
ideal flow Q in cfs

More practically, when the coefficient of discharge c has been determined experimentally,

Q = gH 2 cA in cfs (2)

Where A = cross sectional area of device in square feet
H = total head causing flow, in feet of the fluid.

The coefficient of discharge may also be written in terms of the coefficient of velocity and the coefficient
of contraction, i.e.,

c = c
v
x c
c
(3)

The coefficient of discharge is not constant. For a given device, is varies with Reynolds number. The following
information will be found:

gH 2 2
Q
97
(1) Table with contains coefficients of discharge for circular orifices discharging water at about 60
F into the atmosphere. Little authoritative data are available for all fluids throughout wide
ranges of Reynolds number.

(2) Diagram which indicates the variation of c' with Reynolds number for three Pipe Orifice ratios.
No authoritative data are available below Reynols number of about 10,000

(3) Diagram which shows the variation of c with Reynolds number for three long-radius Flow
Nozzle ratios (pipe line nozzles).

(4) Diagram which indicates the variation of c with Reynolds number for five sizes of Venturi
Meters of diameter ratios of 0.500

COEFFICIENT of VELOCITY

The coefficient of velocity (c
v
) is the ratio of the actual mean velocity in the cross section of the
stream (jet) to the ideal mean velocity which would occur without friction, Thus

actual mean velocity in ft/sec
c
v
= = (4)
ideal mean velocity in ft/sec

COEFFICIENT of CONTRACTION

The coeflicient of contraction (c
c
) is the ratio of the area of the contracted section of a stream (jet) to
the area of the opening through which the fluid flows. Thus

area of stream (jet)
c
c
= = (5)
area of opening
LOST HEAD

The lost head in orifices, tubes, nozzles and Venturi meter is expressed as

Lost Head in feet of the fluid =
g 2
V
) 1
c
1
(
2
jet
2
v
(6)
When this expression is applied to a Venturi Meter, V
jet
= throat velocity and c
v
= c.

WEIRS

Weirs measure the flow of liquida in open channels, usually water. A number of empiricaI formulas
are available in engineering literature, each with ita limitations. Only a few will be listed below. Most weirs are
rectangular: the suppressed weir with no end contractions and generally used for larger flows, and the
contracted weir for smaller flows, Other weirs are triangular, trapezoidal, parabolic and proportional flow. For
accurate results, a weir should be calibrated in place under the condition for which it is to be used,

gH 2
V
0
jet
A
A
98

THEORETICAL WEIR FORMULA

The theoretical weir formula for rectangular weirs, developed in Problem 29, is

(7)

where Q = flow in cfs
c = coefficient (te be detemined experimentally)
b = length of weir crest in feet
H = head en weir in feet (height of level liquid surface above crest)
V = average velocity of approach in ft/sec,

FRANCIS FORMULA

The Francis formula, based upon experiments on rectangular weirs from 3.5 ft to17 ft long under
heads from 0.6 ft to 1.6 ft, is
(8)

where the notation is the same as above and
n = 0 for a suppressed weir
n = 1 for a weir with one contraction
n = 2 for a fully contracted weir,
BAZIN FORMULA

The Bazin formula (lengths from 1.64 ft to 6.56 ft under heads from 0.164 ft to1.969 ft) is.

(9)

where Z = height of the weir crest above the channel bottom.
The bracketed term becomes negligible for low velocities of approach.

FTELEY and STEARNS FORMULA

The Fteley and Stearns formula (lengths 5 ft and 19 ft under heads from 0.07 ft te 1.63 ft) for
suppressed weirs is.
(10)

where = factor dependent upon crest height Z (table of values required).

TRIANGULAR WEIR FORMULA is

(11)

or, for a given weir,
2 / 5
mH Q = (12)

!
"
#
$
%
&
+ =
2 / 3
2
2 / 3
2
)
g 2
V
( )
g 2
V
H ( g 2 cb
3
2
Q
!
"
#
$
%
&
+ =
2 / 3
2
2 / 3
2
)
g 2
V
( )
g 2
V
H (
10
nH
b ( 33 . 3 Q
2 / 3 2
bh )
Z H
H
( 55 . 0 1 )
H
0789 . 0
25 . 3 ( Q
!
"
#
$
%
&
+
+ + =
b 007 . 0 )
g 2
V
H ( b 31 . 3 Q
2 / 3
2
+ + =
2 / 5
H g 2
2
0
tan c
15
8
Q =
99
TRAPEZOIDAL WEIR FORMULA (of Cipolletti) is

Q = 3.367bH3
3/2
(13)

This weir has side (end) slopes of 1 horizontal te 4 vertical.

For DAMS USED as WEIRS the expression for approximate flow is

Q = mbH
3/2
(14)

where m = experimental factor, usually from model studies.
Non-uniform flow over broad-crested weirs is discussed in Chapter 10, ProbIem 52.

TIME to EMPTY TANKS by means of an orifice la (see Problem 38)

(constant cross section, no inflow) (15)

(inflow < outflow, constant crow section) (16)

TIME to EMPTY TANKS by means of weirs is calculated by using (see Problem 43)

(17)

TIME to ESTABLISH FLOW in a pipeline is

(18)

) h h (
g 2 cA
A 2
t
2 / 1
2
2 / 1
1
0
t
=
'

=
2
1
h
h
in out
t
Q Q
dh A
t
) H H (
mL
A 2
t
2 / 1
1
2 / 1
2
t
=
)
V V
V V
( in
gH 2
LV
t
f
f f
+
=
100

Figure 8-21 Venturi meter A, inlet section. B, throat section. C, outlet section. D, G, piezometer chambers. E, holes to
piezometer chambers. F, upstream pressure tap. H, liner. I, downstream pressure tap. (Builders-
Procidence Co., Inc., Procidence, R.I.)

Figure 8-22 Orifice meter.

101

102
103
104

DISCHARGE COEFIFICIENTS FOR VERTICAL SIIARP~EDGED
CIRCULAR ORIFICES

c
For Water at 60F Discharging into Air at Same Temperature

Head Orifice Diameter in inches
In Feet 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 2.00 4.00
0.8 0.647 0.627 0.616 0.609 0.603 0.601
1.4 0.635 0.619 0.610 0.605 0.601 0.600
2.0 0.629 0.615 0.607 0.603 0.600 0.599
4.0 0.621 0.609 0.603 0.600 0.598 0.597
6.0 0.617 0.607 0.601 0.599 0.596 0.596
8.0 0.614 0.605 0.600 0.598 0.596 0.595
10.0 0.613 0.604 0.600 0.597 0.596 0.595
12.0 0.612 0.603 0.599 0.597 0.595 0.595
14.0 0.611 0.603 0.598 0.596 0.595 0.594
16.0 0.610 0.602 0.598 0.596 0.595 0.594
20.0 0.609 0.602 0.598 0.596 0.595 0.594
25.0 0.608 0.601 0.597 0.596 0.594 0.594
30.0 0.607 0.600 0.597 0.595 0.594 0.594
40.0 0.606 0.600 0.596 0.595 0.594 0.593
50.0 0.605 0.599 0.596 0.595 0.594 0.593
60.0 0.605 0.599 0.596 0.594 0.593 0.593

Source: F. W. Mednugh and G. D. Johnson, Civil Engr., July 1940, p 424

105
MEDIDA DE CAUDAL DE FLUIDOS

106
CAVITATION

In designing any installation in which a centrifugal pump is used, careful attention must be paid to check to
the minimum pressure which will arise at any point. lf this pressure is less than the vapourr pressure at the
pumping temperature, viporisation will occur and the pump may not be capable of developing the required
suction head. Moreover, if the liquid contains gases, these may come out of solution giving rise to pockets of
gas. This phenomenon is known as cavitation and may result in mechanical damage to the pump as the
bubbles collapse. The tendency for cavitation to occur is accentuated by any sudden changes in the magnitude
or direction of the velocity of the liquid in the pump. The onset of Cavitation h; accompanied by a marked
increase in noise and vibration as the vapour bubbles collapse, and also a loss of head,

SUCTION HEAD

Pumps may be arranged so that the inlet is under a suction head or the pump may be fed from a tank.
These two systems alter the duty point curves as shown in the figure. 6.17. In developing such curves the
normal range of liquid velocities is 1.5 to 3 m/s, but lower values are used for pump suction lines.
For any pump, the manutacturers specify the minimum value of the net positite suction head (NPSH)
which must exist at the suction point el the pump. The NPSH is the amount by which the pressure at the
suction point of the pump, expressed as a head of the liquid to be pumped, must exceed the vapour pressure
al the liquid. For any installation this must he calculated, taking into account the absolute pressure of the liquid,
the level of the pump, and the velocity and friction heads in the suction line. The NPSH must allow for the fall in
pressure occasioned by the further accceleration of the liquid as it flows on te the impeller and for irregularities
in the flow pattern ni the pump. If the required value of NPSH is titit obtained, partial vaporisation is liable to
occur, with the result that both suction head and delivery head may be reduced. The loss of suction head is the
more important because it may cause the pump to be starved of liquid.
Consider the system shown in figure in which the pump is taking liquid from a reservoir at an absolute
pressure P
0
, in which the liquid level is at a height h
0
above the suction point of the pump. Then if the liquid in
the reservoir can be regarded as at rest, the absolute pressure head h
i
at the suction point of the pump is
obtained by applying the energy or momentum balance:

f
2
i
0
0
i
h
g 2
u
h
pg
P
h + =
107

Effect of suction head: (a) systems with suction lift and friction; (b) systems with friction losses only

where h
f
is the head lost in friction, and u
i
is the velocity at the inlet of the pump, If the vapour pressure of the
liquid is P
v
, the NPSH is given by the difference between the total head at the suction inlet and the head
corresponding to the vapow pressure of the liquid at the pump inlet

NPSH =
pg
P
)
g 2
u
h (
v
2
i
i
+
=
f 0
v o
h h
pg
P
pg
P
+ +

where P
v
. is the vapour pressure of the liquid being pumped, lf cavitation and loss of suction head does occur,
it can sometimes be cured by increasing the pressure in the system, either by alteration of the layout to provide
a greater hydrostatic pressure or a reduced pressure drop in the suction line. Sometimes, slightly closing the
valve on the pump delivery or reducing the pump speed by a small amount may be effective.

108

Problema

Se debe bombear agua termal a 90F desde un gran pozo subterrneo, a una velocidad de 7.0 ft/seg
a travs de una caera de succin.

Se desea conocer a qu altura mxima podra ubicarse una bomba (altura de succin), si las
condiciones de operacin son las siguientes:
Presin atmosfrica 14 psia
Prdida en tubera succin, en ft de agua 3.0 v
2
/2g
Presin de vapor del agua a 90F 0.7 psia

Nivel de agua justo en succin para obtener
condicin de altura mxima.
Si altura agua en A fuera 0, equivaldra a una
Presin
A
P / sobre A.
Aplicando Bernoulli ente A y B para condiciones ms desfavorables,
B
2
B B
L A
2
A A
Z
g 2
V P
H Z
g 2
V P
+ +
= + +

0 0

La presin mnima en B debe ser la presin de vapor del agua a 90 F,
B
P =0.7 psia (a esta presin el agua
empezara a hervir con lo que la bomba funcionara mal pues debe impulsar lquido y no vapor).

B
2
B
2
B
Z
g 2
V
4 . 62
144 x 7 . 0
g 2
V 3
0 0
4 . 62
144 x 0 . 14
+ + = + +

B
2
Z
4 . 62
144 x 7 . 0
2 . 32 x 2
7 x 4
4 . 62
144 x 0 . 14
=

Z
B
= 27.65 ft sobre la superficie del agua

Este valor en la prctica debe ser menor para que la bomba opere satisfactoriamente.
Observe que si la presin del vapor del agua es menor, Z
B
es mayor ( si
B
P = 0, Z
B
=29.67 ft). Si
B
P es mayor
que Z
B
es menor (
B
P = 10 psia, Z
B
= 6.19 ft).

109

Problema uso de NPSH

Una bomba centrfuga se usa para extraer agua desde un condensador en el cual el vaco es de
640 mm Hg. Para la descarga establecida, la NPSH debe ser al menos de 3 m sobre la presin de cavitacin,
igual a un vaco de 710 mm de Hg.
Considerando que las prdidas en la caera de aspiracin son de 1.5 m, calcular la mnima altura
del nivel del lquido en el condensador sobre la entrada de la bomba.

Desarrollo

Aplicando Bernoulli entre 1 y 2
0 0

g 2
V
Z
P
H
g 2
V
Z
P
2
2
2
2
L
2
1
1
1
+ +
= + +

)
g 2
V
H ( Z
P P
2
2
L 1
1 2
+ +

NPSH = Carga esttica en succin 2 carga correspondiente a la presin de vapor del lquido en (2)
g 2
V P
H Z
P
2
2 2
L 1
1
+
= +

110

+ +
=
v
2
2
2
2
L 1
1 v
2
2 2
P
g 2
v
g 2
v
H z
P P
g 2
v P
NPSH

=
v
L 1
1
P
H z
P
NPSH

+ +
=
v
2
1
1
1
P
prdida
g 2
v
z
P
NPSH

Nota:
+ > + +
=
v
2
1
1
1
2 1 1
P
prdida
g 2
v
z
P
z z z

H
L
= Prdida de carga = 1.5 m

NPSH = 3m (por lo menos)

P
1
= 760 640 = 120 mmHg = 16000 N/m
2

P
v
= 760 710 = 50 mmHg = 6670 N/m
2

= 1000 kg/m
3

g = 9.81 m/seg
2

= g = 9810 N/m
3

Reemplazando valores en expresin de NPSH

9810
6670
5 . 1 z
9810
16000
3
1
+ =

9810
16000
9810
6670
5 . 1 3 z
1
+ + =

z
1
= 3.55 m (por lo menos)
111
SINGULARIDADES Y EQUIPOS

Tomado del libro Principles of Unit Operations de Alan Foust, Leornard Wenzel, Curtis Clump, Louis Maus y
Bryce Anderson por John Wiley and Sons, Inc. , USA en 1980.

112

113

Figure 21.4. Flow patterm for en external gear pump- The two gears are rotarting in opposite directions,
as shown in the figure. A lighter-colored liquid, drawn in from the left is trapped between the rotating teeth and
the pump casing, so that it is drawn the pump outlet on the right. (Courtesry Roper Pump Company.)

Rotary pumps operate in moderate
priessure ranges and have small to medium
capacities. They are often used for metering
liquids. A few representative rotary pumps are
described below.
The simplest rotary pump is the gear
pump, An example of en external-gear pump is
given in Figure 21.4. and typical perfomance
curves for this type of pump are given in Figure
21.5. An internal-gear pump is shown in Figure
21.6.
Screw pumps may have one, two, or three
screws turning along their axis, with liquid flowing
between the screw threads and the casing. A
double-screws pump is shown in Figure 21.7.
An interesting variation of the screw pump is
the "traveling cavity" pump shown in Figure 21,8,
This pump consists of a rotor that revolves within a
stator, executing a compound movement; the rotor
is revolved about its axis while the axis itself
travels.

Figure 21.5. Performance characteristics of an external gera
pump

Figure 21.6 flow pattern for an internal gear pump. The internal gear pump has a single powered rotor, a
stationary crescent, and en idler gear that rotates as required by the main rotor. To illustrate the flow pattern, a
dark liquid is shown entering from the left, it fills the space available between the counterclockwise-rotating
main rotor, the idler, and the casing, and it moves toward the discharge. At the discharge, the dark liquid is
completely forced out by a close mesh of the rotor and the idler gear. Discharge is essentially continuous.
(Courtesy Viking pump Co.)
114

115
Figure 21.9. Centrifugal-pump impellers. (a) Straight vane single-suction closed impeller. (b) Double-suction impeller.
(c) Nonclogging impeller. (d) Open impeller. (e) Semi open impeller. (f) Mixed-flow impeller. (Courtesy Worthington
Pump, Inc.)

Figure 21.10. Volute centrifugal-pump casing.

Figure 21,12, Cutaway view of a centrifugal pump, The liquid flow in past an inducer and into the impeller, where it is
thrown outward into the volute, from where it flow out of the pump. The inducer is actually a small axial-flow impeller that
effectively reduces the required suction pressure to the pump, which is seldom incorporated except in pumps working
with a low inlet pressure, The drive shaft to which a motor would be attached, must be sealed to avoid leakage of the
pump fluid Such seals must be adjusted or replaced from time to time. (Courtesy Worthington Pump,Inc.).

116

117

118

PUMP CHARACTERISTICS

Centrifugal

Standard Turbino Propoller Rotary Receipting
(Radial Flow) (Mixed Flow) (Axial Flow) (Geor or Sam) (Piston or Plunger)

Head High,single stage- Intermediate.up to Lowupto60ft Intermediam up Highest avallable
(or discharge up to 600 ft; 200 ft to 600 psi up to 100.000 psi
pressure) multistage -
up to 6000 psi

Capacity Low(100gal/min) Intermediate,up to High,up to100,000 Low (1 gal/min) Intemediate up
(or delivered to very high 16,000 gal/ min gal/min to intermediate to 500 gal/min
flow rate) (200,000 gall/ mn)

Liquids handled Clean or dirty High solids contents Abrasive Up to high Clean; no solids
viscosity
nonabrasive

Metering or flow No No No Yes Yes
control capability

119

Figure 21.37. Two-stage jet ejector. (Courtesy Croll-Reynolds Co., Inc.)

Tabla 21.2 OPERATING RANGES OF SOME Tabla 21.2 (continued)
COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE VAMUM
PUMPS (5)
Operating Range, Operating Range,
Type of Pump mm Hg Type of Pump mm Hg

Reciprocating piston
1-stage 760-10 4-stage 760-3 x 10
-1

2-stage 760-1 5-stage 760-5 X 10
-2
Rotary pston oil-sealed 0il ejector (1-stage) 2-10
-2

1-stage 760-10
-2
Diffusion-ejector 2-10
-4
2-stage 760-10
-3
Mercury diffusion with trap
Centrifugal multistage (dry) liquid jet 760-200 1-stage 10
-1
-<10
-6
Mercury Sprengel 760-10
-3
2-stage 1-<10
-6
Water aspirator (18C) 760-15 3-stage 10-< 10-6
Two-lobe rotary blower (Roots type) 20-10
-4
Oli diffusion
Turbomolecular 10
-1
-10
-10
1-stage l0
-1
-5x10
-6

Zeolite sorption liquid nitrogen cooled) 760-10
-3
4 stage fractionating (untrapped) 5x10
-1
-10
-9

Vapor jet pumps 4-stage fractionating (trapped) 5x10
-1
-10
-12

Steam ejector Getter-ion (sputter-ion) 10
-3
-10
-11
1-stage 760-100 Sublimation (titanium) 10
-4
-10
-11

2-stage 760-10 Cryopumps (20 K) 10
-2
-10
-10

3-stage 760-1 Cryosorption (15 K) 10
-2
-10
-12

(Courtesy Croll-Reynolds Co., Inc.)
120
AGITACION

Material tomado de Chemical Engineering. Vol. Two de J. Coulson and J. Richardson, publicado por
Pergamon Press, U.K. en 1976 y de Unit Operations of Chemicals Engineering de W. McCabe y Julian
Smith, publicado por McGraw-Hill Book Co. USA en 1967.

Propelless and Turbines

For the great majority of reaction vessels, and for most operations involving liquid - liquid and to some extent
liquid-solid mixing, the most commonly applied equipment involves a propeller or a turbine in a tank. Reavell
(1)

has suggested that mixing of this type can be divided into three classes:

(a) Liquids, with or wilhout solids, which remain free floming when mixingis complete; e.g. water and salt,
acid and sand, light or medium oils.
(b) Liquids, with or without solids, which are viscous but still pourable when mixing is; complete; e.g. heavy
oils, paints, resins, syrups.
(e) Liquids, with solid which from stiff pastes; e.g core sands and binders, oild bound distempers, white
lead and oil, putties.
The usual from of equipment is a vertical cylindrical tank, with a height one and a half times to twce the
diameter, fitted with an agitator. When the thickness of the mix corresponds to class (c) above, it is necessary
for the agitator lo conform to the shape of the vessel. so that the accion correspons with that of a keneading
machine described in Chapler l. With thin liquide high-speed propellers of diameter about one-third that of the
vessel are suitable, and for thicket mixture the propeller diameter is increased and its speed reduced. Thus;
high-speed propellers are run at from 10-25 Hz and scraping agitators at speed down to 2 or even 1 Hz.

Propeller in Cylindrical Tank

If propeller is mounted centrally, there is a tendency for the lighter fluid (usually air) to be drawn in to from a
vortex and for the degree of agitati to be reduced. The fow pattern should be as indicated in Fig, 13.1, where
the stream leaving the propeller is moving with a

FIG. 13.1 Flow pattern from propeller mixer

FIG. 13.2 Flow pattern in vessel with crucifrom baffle

121
High velocity and initially in a straight line The outer part of the stream, shown as E turns back on itself and re-
enters the feed to the propeller, whilst the inner stream as at A, are much greater length. A particle in any one
stream will enter the next at the inlet side of the propeller and effective mixing occurs a considerate up and
down motion being provided The agitation is stronger near the propeller and dead spaces form al the bottom of
the tank. With this arrangement the unsupported length of the propeller shaft should not execed 2m. If the
contentns of a very large vessel are to be stirred with a propeller of this kind, a foot- bearing is essential.
Despite a considerable amount of practical experimental tation, these foot-bearings usually gve trouble, since
corrosive liquids and solvents are frequcntly used so that it is very difficult to lubricate the bearings. It has been
shown by Reavell
(1)
that the fitting of a cruciform baffle at the bottomo the vessel (Fig. 13.2) enables

FIG 13.3 Flow pattern in vissel with vertical baffles

much better dspersion to he obtained. The rotor is arranged to force the fluid upwards; this arrangement gives
much better axial flow and avoids the development of rotational movements of the liquid, The great reduction in
the side-thrust on the shaft enables longer shafts of up to 3m to be used without foot-step bearings. To
improve the rate of mixing and to minimise vortex formation, baffles are usually added. These take the form of
thin vertical strips mounted against the walls of the vessel, as shown in Fig. 13.3. They considerably increase
the power requirement, as discussed later. The off-setting of lhe agitator is anonher method of minmising
vortex formation (Fig. 13.4).

Portable Mixers

For a wide range of applcations, a portable mixer which can be clamped on the top or side of the vessel is
now used. This is commonly fitted with two propeller blades so that the bottom rotor forces the liquid upwards
and the top rotor forces the liquid downwards. this frm el unit can he supplied with about 2kW, though the size
of the motor becomes too great at higher powers. To avoid excessive strain on the armature, some form of
flexible couplings should be fitted between the motor and the main propeller shaft.

122

FIG. 13.4. Flow pattern with agitator offset from centre.

FIG. 13.5. Horizontally mounted propeller.

Units of this knd are usually driven at a fairly high rate (15Hz), and a reduction gear can be fitted to the unit
fairly easily for low speed operation.

Horizontally Mounted Propellers

A propeller mounted on a horizontal shaft, positioned eccentrically as shown in Fig. 13.5, enables the
contents of a very large tank to be stirred with a single propeller. This type of unit has been developed for very
large power inputs (20kW), though a good gland is needed where the shaft enters the vessel (Fig. 13.6),

123

TURBINE ROTORS

The ordinary propeller may be replaced by a turbine which may be open or shrouded, the latter type being
much more expensive. The flow pattern with a turbine, as shown in Fig. 13.7, Is quite different front that
obtained with a marine propeller. Turbines can be used for rather more viscous materials than propeller,
though the power consumption is much greater. In comparing a propeller and a turbine, the following featurtes
should be noted:

Propellers

(a) are self-cleaning in operation
(b) can be used at a wide range of speeds
(c) give excellent shearing effect at high speeds
(d) do not damage dispersed particles at low speeds
124

(e) are reasonably economical in powerprovided the pitch is adjusted according tothe speed
(f) by offset mounting, avoid vortex formation
(g) if horizontally mounted, require a stuffing box in the liquid, and are not effective in viscous
liquids.

Shrouded Turbines
(a) are excellent for providing circulation,
(b) are normally mounted on a vertical shaft with the stuffing box above the liquid,
(c) are effective in fluids of high viscosity,
(d) are easily fouled or plugged by sold particles,
(e) are expensive to fabricate,
(f) are restricted to a narrow range of speeds, and
(g) do not damage dispersed particles at economical speeds.

Opea Impellers:
(a) are less easily plugged than the shrouded type.
(b) are less espensive, and
(c) give a less well-controlled flow pattern.

Propellers with coil

If a coil is used in the tank to provide cooling then the geometrical arrangement commonly adopted are in FIG
13.8.This set-up is very widespread for reaction vessels in the organic chemical industry.

FIG. 13.8. Reaction vessel with jacket and coil.

Power Consumption of Agitators

In considering the speed of rotafion of an agitator, a compromise is usually made between a high speed
which gives rapid mixing and a lower speed where a smaller power is required, One or the earliest publications
in which these quantites were discussed is by Wood, Whittmore and Badger
(2)
who used a 2 m
3
vertical tank of
1-5 m diameter, fitted with a simple paddle of 100 mm x 100 mm section. Strong brine was first run into the
tank, and were then was then run in on top. The power for mixing was measured electrically, though accurated
results were to obtain because of the difficulty of assessing the power used in the belt drive and gears. Some
of their results are shown in Fig. 13.9. From cure 1, it is seen that time of stirring fell off quite stradily with an
increase in speed. The addition of four simple baffles (25mm x 100mm positioned 50mm from the wall),
reduced.
125

FiG.13.9. Power and time of mixing as function of speed for paddle agitator

the time for string but increased the power requirement (curve 2). The degree of mixing was assessed by
taking samples fromn various points and measuring their electrical conductivity. Curves 3 and 4 show the
change in power consumption at various speeds with and without baffles.
Hixson and Wilkens
(3)
measured the power absorbed by a four-bladed propeller with a 45 pitch, operating
in a cylindrical vessel. In general, they found that the power consumption per unit volume increased rapidly as
the size of the system was increased.
Stoops and Lovell
(4)
examined the power consumption of a propeller agitator under various conditions.
Thee feasible methods for the deteramination of the power required were suggested:
(a) Fitting some fom of Prony brake to the shaft between the motor and the propeller .
In this way, the mechanical power output con be masured for various conditions of operation.
(b) Placing the mixing vessel on a turn-table and determining the torque necessary to prevent its rotation.
(c) Connecting the driving shaft to the propeller by a spring or dynamometener system and measuring the
torque by the relative displacement of the two shafts.
The first method is the simplest, but they lound tbat reliable result were very difficult to Obtain as the
mechanical energy was always a small proportion of the electrical energy. The second method has been used
by White and Brenner
(5)
. but is rather difficult to apply to large: installations, The third method, although more
complicated, has been found by many workers to give the most satisfactory results. Various from of
dynamometers have been used, and these are described by Stoops and Love
(4)
and Black
(6)
.

Fluid Motion and Power Requirements

One of the problem confronting the designer of agitatingeqipment is that of deducing from experimental
work with small unit what will be the most satisfactory arrangement.
126
for a larger unit. In order to achieve the same kind of flow pattern in two units geometrical, kinematic, and
dynamic similarity must be maintained, as well as similar boundary conditions.This problem has been
discussed by a number of workers ,including Rushton et al.
(7)
and Kramers et al
(8)
. The latter authors have
madem virtually the only attempt to assess the relative merits of different arrangements of mixers. It has been
found convenient to relate the power used by the agitator te the geometrical and mechanical arrangements of
the mixer, and thus to obtain a direct indication of the change in power for any alteration to the mixer. The
general method of attack in the indicated in the following section, the nomenclature following that given in the
diagram (Fig. 13.10).

FIG. 13.10. Dimensions of agitator

For similarity in two mixing systems it is important to arrange for:

(a) Geometrical similary. This will defme the boundary conditions; corresponding dimensions will have the
same ratio.
Thus the following ratios:
; ; ; ; ; ;
D
H
D
W
D
h
D
W
D
Z
D
D
B A T
must be the same in the two system

(b) Kinematic similarity. This requires that velocities at corresponding points must haw the same ratio as
those at other corresponding points. The paths of motion must also be alike.
(e) Dynmic similarity. This requiers that the ratio of forces at corresponding points is equal to that at other
corresponding points,
lf the boundary conditions are fixed, then one variable such as power P can be expressed in terms of a
number of other independent variables:

P = f (D,,g,p,N ) (13.1)

The simplest form of function is the product of powers of the variables and then:

P = K
1
(D
n1
,
n2
,g
n3
,p
n4
,N
n5
) (13.2)

Expressing these terms on the bais of the LMT systenn of dimensions:

!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
(
)
*
+
,
-
(
)
*
+
,
-
(
)
*
+
,
-
(
)
*
+
,
-
=
5 n 4 n
3
3 n
2
2 n
1 n
3
2
T
1
L
M
T
L
LT
M
L
T
ML

127

Fig.13.11. Power number as a function of Reynolds number for a propeller mixer

Fig. 13.12. Power number as a function of Reynolds number for a turbine mixer.
128
Equating the dimensions on each side:

For: L 2= n
1
-n
2
+n
3
-3n
4
M 1= n
2
+n
4

T -3= -n
2
-2n
3
-n
5

Writing these indices in terms of n
2
and n
3
,:
n
4
=1-n
2

n
1
= 2+n
2
-n
3
+3-3n
2
, = 5-2n
2
-n
3

n
5
=-n
2
-2n
3+3

P=K
1

!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
(
(
)
*
+
+
,
-
(
(
)
*
+
+
,
-
=
3 n
2
2 n
2
3 5 1
g
DN N D
) N D ( K

3 2
n
2
n
2
1
3 5
g
DN N D
K
N D
P

!
"
#
$
%
&
!
"
#
$
%
&
(13.3)

or
N
p
=K
1
Re
b
Fr
c

In 'this analysis the Reynolds number ( ) N D
2
accounts for the viscous forces and may be regarded as
the ratio of the inertia to the viscous forces, and the Froude number (DN
2
/g) represents the influence of
gravitation. Where, as is generally the case, the viscous forces are significant then kinematic similarity will be
obtained by arranding for Re to be the same in the two systems. Rushto et al.
(7)
have given data for a
propeller (Fig. 13.1 l), by plotting Power Numberr N
p
, vs Re.
For values of Re < 300,all the data fall on a single line indicating that the froude numbhas no important
effect. Thus

Np = K
1
(Re)
b
and
b= -1
so that
P = K
1
N
2
D
3
(13.5)

where K depends on the impeller and surrounding. From marine-type three-bladed propellers; with pitch equal
to diameters, K
1
is found to have a value of about 41.
For higher values of Re, the Froude number plays a part, and separate lines are drawn for various speeds.
the Reynolds numbers was varied by using different viscosities as well as different speeds, and the slanting
lnes represent conditions of constant viscosity.
Figure 13.12 also taken from the work of Rushton, shows similar data for a 150mm diameter turbine with
six flat blades, The effect of introducing baffles is also brought out in this chart
Bissell et al.
(9)
have given the data shown in Table 13.1 for the power consumption with different baffles for
a turbine mixer situated on dameter from the bottom of a cylindrical container, and operating at a Reynolds;
numbers Re of 5 x 10
4
[ ]
3 n 2 n n 1 n n 5 n n 2
3 2 2 3 2 3 2
N g D
+ +

129
Table 13.1 Effect of Width and Number of Baffles on Power

Baffle width as % % power based on 4 baffles of 1/12 tanks diameters
Of tank diameter 1 2 3 4 5 6 baffles.
2 30 52 63 72 76 78
5.5(1/18) 40 64 78 87 92 94
8.3(1/12) 50 78 92 100 102 104
10.0(1/10) 58 82 95 103 105 106

The power requirements of a turbine mixer operating at a peripheral of 3-5m/s for different diameters is
given by the figures below in Tables 13.2, 13.3 and 13.4
(10)
. The effects of peripheral speed and viscosity of the
liquid are also given.

Table 13.2. Effect of Impeller
Diameter on Power for Turbine Mixer

Diameter Power
(in) (m) (hp) (kW)

6 0.15 0.1 0.075
10 0.25 0.3 0.224
20 0.51 1.1 0.814
40 1.02 4 2.98
80 2.04 15 11.17

Table 13.3 Effect of Liquid Viscosity on Power for Turbine Mixer
Power
(mNs/m
2
). (as porcentage of that for 1mNs/m
2
)

1 100
1,000 120
10,000 130
50,000 210

Table 13.4 Effect of Peripheral Speed on Power for Turbine Mixer

Peripheral speed Power
(m/s) (as porcentage of that for 3-5m/s)

0.66 1
1.63 10
2.79 50
3.56 100
4.57 200
6.10 520

Metzner et al.
(11)
give experimental result for viscous Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluid, agitated in vessels only
slightly grater in diameter than the impeller of the mixer.

130

Problemas Agitacin

Otro tratamiento

( ) ! .........S S , S , S Re, f
N
N
N 3 2 1
m
p
Fr
= =

S = factores de forma

Constante a y b,

Figura Recta a b

1 b 1.0 40.0
2 b 1.7 18.0
2 c 0 18.0
2 d 2.3 18.0

S
1
= D
t
/D
a
; S
2
= E/ D
a
; S
3
= L/ D
a
; S
4
= W/ D
a

S
5
= J/ D
t
; S
6
= H/ D
t

Con unidades, L, F, T, (ft, lb
f
, seg )

) LFT ( ,
g
D n N
P
1
c
5
a
3 m
Fr

=
1
2
3 2
c
3
2
FLT
T
L
F
M
T ML
g /
T
ML

= =

donde

n = RPS
D
a
= ft
= lbm/ft
3
g
c
= 32.2 lb
m
- ft / lb
f
- seg
2

P= lb
m
- ft / seg

b
N log a
m
Re
=
131

[ ]
!
"
#
$
%
&
=
stress shear
stress inertial
NRe

[ ]
!
"
#
$
%
&
=
stress inertial
stress drag
NPo

[ ]
!
"
#
$
%
&
=
stress nal gravitatio
stress inertial
NFe

Measurements of turbine. (Rushton, Costich, and Everett).
132
A typcal plot of vs. N
Re
applying to tanks fitted with centrally located vertical flat-bladed turbines with six
blades is shown in Fig.1

Figure 1. Power function vs. N
Re
for six-blade turbine. (Rushton, Costich, and Everett.)

The important shape factors are S
1
= 3, S
2
= 1.0, S
3
= 0,25, S
6
= 1.0. When baffled with four baffles, each of
width one-tenth the tank diameter (S
5
= 0.1), curve A applies, and = NPo Without baffles, curve B applies, and
the Froude number must be included in for all Reynolds numben greater than 300.
Typical curves for three-bladed propeller mixers are shown in Fig.2. For all curves the propeller is
one diameter from the bottom of the

Figure 1. Power function vs. N
Re
for three-blade turbine. (Rushton, Costich, and Everett.)
133
tank, and S
2
=1.0. Curves A and B apply for blades having a pitch of 2.0 and a tank-to-propeller ratio S
1
= 3.3.
Curve A applies to baffled tanks with four baffles, where S
5
= 0.1. Curve B applies to unbafled tanks. Curves C
and D show the effect on N
po
, of changing the scale factor S
1
, the tank-to-propeller ratio, when the pitch is
about 1.0. At low Reynolds numbers the effect of changing S
1
fade. Curve C applies where S
1
= 4.5, and curve
D where S
1
= 2.7.

134
Un agitador tipo turbina con 6 hojas esta instalado centralmente en un tanque vertical. El
estanque es de 6 ft. de dimetro; la tubera es de 2 ft de dimetro y esta posicionada 2 ft.
desde el fondo del estanque. El estanque esta lleno hasta una profundidad de 6 ft con una
solucin de 50% de soda custica a 150 F la que tiene una =12 cp y una = 93.5lbm/ft
3

la tubera funciona a 90 RPM. El estanque no posee bafles. Se desea conocer los HP
requeridos para operar el agitador.

Desarrollo

D
a
= 2 ft ; n =
60
90
= 1.5 RPS

= 12 x 6.72 x 10
-4
= 8.06 x 10
-3
lb/ft-seg

= 93.5lb
m
/ft
3
; g
c
= 32.2 ft/seg
2

69600
10 x 06 . 8
3 . 9 x 5 . 1 x 2 n D
N
3
2 2
a
Re
= =

14 . 0
2 . 32
2 x 5 . 1
g
D n
N
2
a
2
Fr
= = =

a = 1.0 ; b = 40.0

096 . 0
40
69900 log 0 . 1
m =
=

Para la curva B y Re = 69900, 07 . 1 =

seg / ft lbf 406
2 . 32
2 x 5 . 1 x 5 . 93 x 14 . 0 x 07 . 1
P
5 3 096 . 0
= =

HP = HP 74 . 0
550
406
=

135
Si el tanque anterior se acondiciona con 4 bafles cada uno de 7.5, se desea conocer
los HP requeridos.

Desarrollo

De curva A, =N
p0
=

6.0 para N
re
= 69900 y el N
fr
no ejerce influencia

seg
ft lbf
1880
2 . 32
5 . 93 x 2 x 5 . 1 x 0 . 6
gc
D n
P
5 3 5
a
3
= =

= 42 . 3
550
1880
HP = =

incremento potencia consumida es

% 362 100
74 . 0
74 . 0 42 . 3
% =
= x

D
t
= 6ft S
5
=
72
5 . 7
D
J
t
=
J = 7.5 S
5
= ~0.10
Si el mixer del primer ejemplo se utiliza con una mezcla de ltex de = 120000 cp y un
= 70 lb
m
/ft
3
calcular los HP requeridos

seg
ft lbf
2 . 5
10 x 72 . 6 x 120000
70 x 5 . 1 x 2 D
N
4
2
an
re

= =

es rgimen laminar , = N
Po
= 12.5

seg / lbf 2935
2 . 32
70 x 2 x 5 . 1 x 5 . 12
g
D n
P
5 3
c
5
a
3
= =

= 34 . 5
550
2935
HP = =

potencia independiente de si el estanque tiene o no tiene bafles. Se observa que un
incremento de 10000 en la viscosidad, produce un aumento en la potencia de solo,

% 56 100 x
42 . 3
42 . 3 34 . 5
=

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FENOMENOS DE TRANSPORTE Y MECANICA DE FLUIDOS ASPECTOS TEORICOS

Universidad Mayor Dr. Carlos Martnez Pavez - Marzo 2002

FENOMENOS DE TRANSPORTE Y MECANICA DE FLUIDOS ASPECTOS TEORICOS

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