Chapter 4 Basic Motivation Concepts

CHAPTER 4 - BASIC MOTIVATION CONCEPTS CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, students should be able to: 1. Outline the basic motivation process. 2. escribe Maslo!"s hierarch# of needs theor#. $. Contrast %heor# & and %heor# '. 4. ifferentiate motivators from h#giene factors. (. )ist the characteristics that high achievers prefer in a *ob. +. ,ummari-e the t#pes of goals that increase performance. .. Contrast reinforcement and goal/setting theories. 0. 12plain the *ob characteristics model. 3. escribe e4uit# theor#. 15. Clarif# the 6e# relationships in e2pectanc# theor#.

LECTURE OUTLINE
7. A. 89A% 7, MO%7:A%7O;< efinition =ppt 4> 1. Ma# be defined in terms of some out!ard behavior. a> ?eople !ho are motivated e2ert a greater effort to perform than those !ho are not motivated. 2. A more descriptive but less substantive definition. a> Motivation is the !illingness to do something and is conditioned b# this action@s abilit# to satisf# some need for the individual. b> A need, in our terminolog#, means a ph#siological or ps#chological deficienc# that ma6es certain outcomes appear attractive. c> %he motivation process is sho!n in 12hibit 4/1.

B. ;eeds and rives =ppt (> 1. An unsatisfied need creates tension, !hich stimulates drives !ithin the individual. =ppt +> 2. %hese drives generate a search for particular goals that, if attained, !ill satisf# the need and lead to the reduction of tension. $. Motivated emplo#ees are in a state of tension. a> %o relieve this tension, the# engage in activit#. b> %he greater the tension, the more activit# !ill be needed to bring about relief. 77. 1AA)' %91OA71, OB MO%7:A%7O; A. 9ierarch# of ;eeds %heor# =ppt .> 1. %he best/6no!n approach to motivation is Abraham Maslo!"s hierarch# of needs theor#. 2. 9e h#pothesi-ed that ever# human being has an internal hierarch# of five needs. a> ?h#siological needsChunger, thirst, shelter, se2, and other bodil# needs b> ,afet# needsCsecurit# and protection from ph#sical and emotional harm c> ,ocial needsCaffection, a sense of belonging, acceptance, and friendship d> 1steem needCinternal factors such as self/respect, autonom#, and achieve/ ment and e2ternal factors such as status, recognition, and attention e> ,elf/actuali-ation needsCthe drive to become !hat one is capable of becomingD includes gro!th, achieving one@s potential, and self/fulfillment $. As each is satisfied, the ne2t need becomes dominant.
$.

?art 77 %he 7ndividual in the Organi-ation

a> ,ee 12hibit 4/2 for the hierarch#. b> A substantiall# satisfied need no longer motivates. 4. Maslo! separated the five needs into higher and lo!er orders. a> ?h#siological and safet# needs !ere lo!er order and !ere predominatel# satisfied e2ternall#. b> ,ocial, esteem, and self/actuali-ation !ere categori-ed as higher/order needs and are satisfied internall#. c> %he natural conclusion is that, in times of economic plent#, almost all permanentl# emplo#ed !or6ers !ill have their lo!er/order needs substantiall# met. (. Maslo!@s need theor# has received !ide recognition, particularl# among practicing managers. a> %his acceptance is due to the logic and ease !ith !hich the theor# is intuitivel# understood. b> 9o!ever, research does not generall# validate the theor#. =1> %here is little support for the prediction that need structures are organi-ed along the dimensions proposed. =2> ;or does the prediction that the substantial satisfaction of a given need leads to the activation of the ne2t higher need seem true. B. %heor# & and %heor# ' =ppt 0> 1. ouglas McEregor proposed t!o distinct vie!s of human beings. a> One basicall# negative, labeled %heor# &. b> %he other basicall# positive, labeled %heor# '. 2. %heor# & has four assumptions. a> 1mplo#ees inherentl# disli6e !or6 and, !henever possible, !ill attempt to avoid it. b> ,ince emplo#ees disli6e !or6, the# must be coerced, controlled, or threatened !ith punishment to achieve desired goals. c> 1mplo#ees !ill avoid responsibilities and see6 formal direction !henever possible. d> Most !or6ers place securit# above all other factors associated !ith !or6 and !ill displa# little ambition. $. %heor# ' has four contrasting assumptions. a> 1mplo#ees can vie! !or6 as being as natural as rest or pla#. b> A person !ho is committed to the ob*ectives !ill e2ercise self/direction and self/control. c> %he average person can learn to accept, and even see6 responsibilit#. d> %he abilit# to ma6e innovative decisions is !idel# dispersed throughout the population and is not necessaril# the sole province of those in management positions. 4. 7mplications if #ou accept McEregor@s anal#sis. a> %heor# & assumes that lo!er/order needs dominate individuals. b> %heor# ' assumes that higher/order needs dominate individuals. (. Fnfortunatel#, no evidence confirms that either set of assumptions is valid. C. %!o/Bactor %heor# =ppt 15> 1. %he t!o/factor theor#, or the motivation/h#giene theor#, !as proposed b# ps#chologist Brederic6 9er-berg. 2. 9er-berg investigated the 4uestion, G8hat do people !ant from their *obs<H
$0

Chapter 4 Basic Motivation Concepts

$. Aesearch sho!ed people replied significantl# differentl# based on !hether the# felt good or bad about their *obs. 4. 9e isolated certain characteristics. a> 12hibit 4/$ b> ,ome internal factors such as advancement, recognition, responsibilit#, and achievement are consistentl# related to *ob satisfaction. c> 12trinsic factors such as supervision, pa#, compan# policies, and !or6ing conditions relate to *ob dissatisfaction. (. %he opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, as removing dissatisf#ing characteristics from a *ob does not necessaril# ma6e the *ob satisf#ing. a> Managers !ho see6 to eliminate factors that can create *ob dissatisfaction ma# bring about peace but not necessaril# motivationCthe# !ill be placating their !or6 force rather than motivating them. b> Conditions surrounding the *ob such as 4ualit# of supervision, pa#, compan# policies, and so on, !ere characteri-ed as h#giene factors. c> 8hen the# are ade4uate, people !ill not be dissatisfiedD neither !ill the# be satisfied. d> %o motivate people, 9er-berg suggested emphasi-ing factors associated !ith the !or6 itself or to outcomes directl# derived from it, such as promotional opportunities, personal gro!th opportunities, and so on. e> %hese are the characteristics that people find intrinsicall# re!arding. +. Criticisms of the %heor# a> %he procedure that 9er-berg used is limited b# its methodolog#. b> %he reliabilit# of 9er-berg@s methodolog# is 4uestionable. c> ;o overall measure of satisfaction !as utili-ed. d> %he theor# is inconsistent !ith previous researchD it ignores situational variables. e> 9er-berg assumed a relationship bet!een satisfaction and productivit#, but his research methodolog# loo6ed onl# at satisfaction, not at productivit#. .. Aegardless of criticisms, 9er-berg@s theor# has been !idel# populari-ed, and fe! managers are unfamiliar !ith his recommendations. 777. CO;%1M?OAAA' %91OA71, OB MO%7:A%7O; A. McClelland@s %heor# of ;eeds =ppt 11> 1. avid McClelland and others have proposed three ma*or relevant motives or needs in the !or6place, McClelland@s %heor# of ;eeds. a> %he need for achievement =nAch> is the drive to e2cel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. b> %he need for po!er =n?o!> is the need to ma6e others behave in a !a# the# !ould not have behaved other!ise. c> %he need for affiliation =nAff> is the desire for friendl# and close interpersonal relationships. 2. ,ome people have a compelling drive to succeed, but the# are striving for personal achievement rather than the re!ards of success. =ppt 12> a> %his drive is the need for achievement. b> McClelland found that high achievers differentiate themselves from others b# their desire to do things better. c> %he# see6 situations in !hich the# can attain personal responsibilit# for finding solutions to problems, receive rapid and unambiguous feedbac6 on their performance, and set moderatel# challenging goals.
$3

?art 77 %he 7ndividual in the Organi-ation

$.

4.

(. +.

d> %he# prefer !or6ing at a challenging problem and accepting the personal responsibilit# for success or failure rather than leaving the outcome to chance or the actions of others. e> 9igh achievers perform best !hen the# perceive their probabilit# of success as (5/(5. f> %he# li6e to set realistic but difficult goals that re4uire stretching themselves a little. %he need for po!er is the desire to have an impact, to be influential, and to control others. a> 7ndividuals high in n?o! en*o# being in charge, strive for influence over others, prefer competitive and status/oriented situations, and tend to be more concerned !ith gaining prestige and influence over others than !ith effective performance. %he third need is the need for affiliation. a> %his need has received the least attention of researchers. b> 7ndividuals !ith a high nAff strive for friendship, prefer cooperative situations rather than competitive ones, and desire relationships involving a high degree of mutual understanding. All three motives are t#picall# measured through a pro*ective test in !hich sub*ects respond to a set of pictures. ?redictions can be made on the basis of the relationship bet!een achievement need and *ob performance. a> 7ndividuals !ith a high need to achieve prefer *ob situations !ith personal responsibilit#, feedbac6, and an intermediate degree of ris6. =1> 9igh achievers are successful in entrepreneurial activities such as running their o!n business, managing a self/contained unit !ithin a large organi-ation, and man# sales positions. b> A high need to achieve does not necessaril# lead to being a good manager. c> %he needs for affiliation and po!er tend to be closel# related to managerial success. =1> %he best managers are high in the need for po!er and lo! in their need for affiliation. d> 1mplo#ees have been successfull# trained to stimulate their achievement need.

B. Eoal/,etting %heor# =ppt 1$> 1. Considerable evidence supports goal/setting theor#. 2. 7ntentions that are e2pressed as goals can be a ma*or source of !or6 motivation. $. ,pecific, difficult/to/achieve goals produce a higher level of output than a generali-ed goal of Gdo #our best.H 4. %he specificit# of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus. (. 7f factors such as abilit# and acceptance of the goals are held constant, !e can also state that the more difficult the goals, the higher the level of performance. +. 7f emplo#ees have the opportunit# to participate in the setting of their o!n goals, !ill the# tr# harder< a> %he evidence is mi2ed. b> A ma*or advantage of participation ma# be in increasing acceptance of the goal itself as a desirable one. c> ?articipative goals ma# have no superiorit# over assigned goals !hen acceptance is ta6en as a givenD participation does increase the probabilit# that more difficult goals !ill be agreed to and acted upon.
45

Chapter 4 Basic Motivation Concepts

.. ,tudies testing goal/setting theor# have demonstrated the superiorit# of specific and challenging goals as motivating forces. =ppt 14> 0. %here appears to be a contradiction bet!een the findings on achievement motivation and goal setting. a> 7t is not actuall# a contradiction. b> Birst, goal/setting theor# deals !ith people in general. c> %he conclusions on achievement motivation are based onl# on people !ho have a high nAch, and probabl# fe!er than 15 to 25 percent of an# countr#@s !or6force are naturall# high achievers. d> ,econd, goal setting@s conclusions appl# to those !ho accept, and are committed to, the goals. ifficult goals !ill lead to higher performance onl# if the# are accepted. C. Aeinforcement %heor# =ppt 1(> 1. A counterpoint to goal/setting theor# is reinforcement theor#. a> %he former is a cognitive approach, proposing that an individual@s purposes direct his or her actions. b> Aeinforcement theor# uses a behavioristic approach, !hich argues that reinforcement conditions behavior. 2. %he t!o theories are clearl# at odds philosophicall#. a> Aeinforcement theorists see behavior as environmentall# caused. 8hat controls behavior are reinforcersCan# conse4uences that, !hen immediatel# follo!ing a response, increase the probabilit# that the behavior !ill be repeated. $. Aeinforcement theor# ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solel# on !hat happens to a person !hen he or she ta6es some action. =ppt 1+> a> Because it does not concern itself !ith !hat initiates behavior, it is not, strictl# spea6ing, a theor# of motivation. 4. Chapter 2 introduced the la! of effect =behavior is a function of its conse/ 4uences> and sho!ed that reinforcers =conse4uences> condition behavior and e2plains ho! people learn. a> Aesearch indicates that people !ill e2ert more effort on tas6s that are reinforced than on tas6s that are not. b> But reinforcement is not the single e2planation for differences in emplo#ee motivation. c> Eoals, for instance, have an impact on motivationD so, too, do levels of achievement motivation, ine4uities in re!ards, and e2pectations. . Iob esign %heor# =ppt 1.> 1. Based upon the notion that the !or6 itself is a source of motivation. %he t!o most important theories are the *ob characteristics model, and the social information/processing model. 2. %he Iob Characteristics Model =ppt 10> a> 7n the ICM an# *ob can be described in terms of five core *ob dimensions. =1> ,6ill variet#C%he degree to !hich the *ob re4uires a variet# of different activities so the !or6er can use a number of different s6ills and talents. =2> %as6 identit#C%he degree to !hich the *ob re4uires completion of a !hole and identifiable piece of !or6. =$> %as6 significanceC%he degree to !hich the *ob has a substantial impact on the lives or !or6 of other people.
41

?art 77 %he 7ndividual in the Organi-ation

=4> Autonom#C%he degree to !hich the *ob provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the !or6 and in determining the procedures to be used in carr#ing it out. =(> Beedbac6C%he degree to !hich carr#ing out the !or6 activities re4uired b# the *ob results in the individual@s obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance. b> 12hibit 4/4 presents the model. =1> %he first three dimensionsCs6ill variet#, tas6 identit#, and tas6 significanceCcombine to create meaningful !or6. =2> Iobs that possess autonom# give the *ob incumbent a feeling of personal responsibilit# for the results and that, if a *ob provides feedbac6, the emplo#ee !ill 6no! ho! effectivel# he or she is performing. =$> Brom a motivational standpoint, the model sa#s that internal re!ards are obtained b# an individual !hen she learns =6no!ledge of results> that she personall# =e2perienced responsibilit#> has performed !ell on a tas6 that she cares about =e2perienced meaningfulness>. c> %he more that these three ps#chological states are present, the greater the em/ plo#ee@s motivation, performance, and satisfaction and the lo!er his or her absenteeism and li6elihood of leaving the organi-ation !ill be. d> 7ndividuals !ith a high gro!th need are more li6el# to e2perience the ps#chological states !hen their *obs are enriched than are their counterparts !ith a lo! gro!th need. e> %he core dimensions can be combined into a single variable, called the motivating potential score =M?,>. f> %he *ob characteristics model has been !ell researched and the evidence supports the general frame!or6 of the theor#. =1> %here is still considerable debate around the five specific core dimensions in the ICM and the validit# of gro!th need strength as a moderating variable. g> ?robable conclusions =1> ?eople !ho !or6 on *obs !ith high/core *ob dimensions are generall# more motivated, satisfied, and productive than are those !ho do not. =2> Iob dimensions operate through the ps#chological states in influencing personal and !or6 outcome variables rather than influencing the outcomes directl#. $. ,ocial 7nformation/?rocessing Model =ppt 13> a> ?eople respond to their *obs as the# perceive them rather than to the ob*ective *obs themselves. b> %he ,7? model argues that emplo#ees adopt attitudes and behaviors in re/ sponse to the social cues provided b# others !ith !hom the# have contact. =1> %hese others can be co/!or6ers, supervisors, friends, famil# members, or customers. c> A number of studies generall# confirm the validit# of the ,7? model. =1> 7t has been sho!n that emplo#ee motivation and satisfaction can be manipulated b# such subtle actions as a co/!or6er or boss commenting on the e2istence or absence of *ob features li6e difficult#, challenge, and autonom#. 1. 14uit# %heor# =ppt 25> 1. 1mplo#ees ma6e comparisons. a> %he issue centers around relative re!ards and !hat #ou believe is fair.
42

Chapter 4 Basic Motivation Concepts

2.

$. 4.

(. +.

.. 0. 3.

15.

11.

b> 1mplo#ees compare their o!n *ob inputs and outcomes !ith those of others and those ine4uities can influence the degree of effort that emplo#ees e2ert. 14uit# theor# sa#s that emplo#ees !eigh !hat the# put into a *ob situation =input> against !hat the# get from it =outcome> and then compare their input/ outcome ratio !ith the input/outcome ratio of relevant others. a> 7f the# perceive e4uit#, the# feel that their situation is fair, that *ustice prevails. =ppt 21> b> 7f the ratios are une4ual, ine4uit# e2istsD that is, the emplo#ees tend to vie! themselves as underre!arded or overre!arded. =ppt 22> 8hen ine4uities occur, emplo#ees !ill attempt to correct them. a> %he referent that emplo#ees choose to compare themselves against is an im/ portant variable in e4uit# theor#. %he three referent categories have been classified as Gother,H Gs#stem,H and Gself.H a> %he other categor# includes other individuals !ith similar *obs in the same organi-ation and also includes friends, neighbors, or professional associates. b> %he s#stem categor# considers organi-ational pa# policies and procedures as !ell as the administration of this s#stem. c> %he self categor# refers to input/outcome ratios that are uni4ue to the indi/ vidual. %his categor# is influenced b# such criteria as past *obs or famil# commitments. %he choice of a particular set of referents is related to the information available about referents as !ell as to their perceived relevance. 8hen emplo#ees envision an ine4uit#, the# ma# ma6e one or more of five choices =ppt 2$>: a> istort either their o!n or others@ inputs or outcomes. b> Behave so as to induce others to change their inputs or outcomes. c> Behave so as to change their o!n inputs or outcomes. d> Choose a different comparison referent. e> Juit their *ob. 14uit# theor# recogni-es that individuals are concerned !ith both the absolute amount of re!ards and the relationship of that amount to !hat others receive. 7nputs, such as effort, e2perience, education, and competence, are compared !ith outcomes such as salar# levels, raises, recognition, and other factors. ,pecificall#, the theor# establishes four propositions relating to ine4uitable pa#: a> Eiven pa#ment b# time, overre!arded emplo#ees !ill produce more than e4uitabl# paid emplo#ees. b> Eiven pa#ment b# 4uantit# of production, overre!arded emplo#ees !ill produce fe!er but higher/4ualit# units than e4uitabl# paid emplo#ees. c> Eiven pa#ment b# time, underre!arded emplo#ees !ill produce less or a poorer 4ualit# of output. d> Eiven pa#ment b# 4uantit# of production, underre!arded emplo#ees !ill produce a large number of lo!/4ualit# units in comparison !ith e4uitabl# paid emplo#ees. A revie! of the recent research tends to consistentl# confirm the e4uit# thesis: a> 1mplo#ee motivation is influenced significantl# b# relative re!ards as !ell as b# absolute re!ards. b> 8hen emplo#ees perceive ine4uit#, the# !ill act to correct the situation. ?roblems !ith the theor#. a> ,ome 6e# issues unclear.
4$

?art 77 %he 7ndividual in the Organi-ation

=1> 9o! do emplo#ees decide !ho is included in the KotherK referent categor#< =2> 9o! do the# define inputs and outcomes< =$> 9o! do the# combine and !eigh their inputs and outcomes to arrive at totals< =4> 8hen and ho! do the factors change over time< 12. Aegardless of these problems, e4uit# theor# has an impressive amount of research support and offers us some important insights into emplo#ee motivation. B. 12pectanc# %heor# =ppt 24> 1. %he most comprehensive e2planation of motivation is e2pectanc# theor#. 2. 12pectanc# theor# argues that the strength of a tendenc# to act in a certain !a# depends on the strength of an e2pectation that the act !ill be follo!ed b# a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. $. %hree variables =ppt 2(>: a> AttractivenessCthe importance the individual places on the potential outcome or re!ard that can be achieved on the *ob. b> ?erformanceLre!ard lin6ageCthe degree to !hich the individual believes that performing at a particular level !ill lead to the attainment of a desired outcome. c> 1ffortLperformance lin6ageCthe probabilit# perceived b# the individual that e2erting a given amount of effort !ill lead to performance. d> 12hibit 4/( simplifies e2pectanc# theor# into its ma*or contentions =ppt 2+>. 4. %he strength of a person@s motivation to perform =effort> depends on ho! strongl# she believes she can achieve !hat she attempts. (. Bour steps are inherent in the theor#. a> 8hat perceived outcomes does the *ob offer the emplo#ee, positive or negative< b> 9o! attractive do emplo#ees consider these outcomes< Are the# valued positivel#, negativel#, or neutrall#< c> 8hat 6ind of behavior must the emplo#ee e2hibit in order to achieve these outcomes< %he outcomes are not li6el# to have an# effect on the individual emplo#ee@s performance unless the emplo#ee 6no!s, clearl# and unambiguousl#, !hat she must do in order to achieve them. d> 9o! does the emplo#ee vie! her chances of doing !hat is as6ed of her< +. 7ssues a> 7t emphasi-es pa#offs or re!ards. As a result, re!ards need to align !ith !hat the emplo#ee !ants. =1> %his re4uires an understanding and 6no!ledge of !hat value the individual puts on organi-ational pa#offs. b> ,econd, e2pectanc# theor# emphasi-es e2pected behaviors. c> Binall#, the theor# is concerned !ith the individual@s e2pectations. 7:. O;@% BOAE1%: MO%7:A%7O; %91OA71, AA1 CF)%FA1 BOF; A. Most current motivation theories !ere developed in the Fnited ,tates b# Americans and about Americans. 1. %he pro/American characteristic in these theories is the strong emphasis on individualism and 4uantit#/of/life factors. 2. Maslo!@s hierarch# of needs theor# argues that people start at the ph#siological level and then move progressivel# up the hierarch# in this order: ph#siological, safet#, social, esteem, and self/actuali-ation.
44

Chapter 4 Basic Motivation Concepts

a> %his hierarch# aligns !ith American culture. $. Another motivation concept !ith a F.,. bias is the achievement need. 4. Eoal/setting theor# is also certainl# culture bound. a> 7t assumes that subordinates !ill be reasonabl# independent =not too high a score on po!er distance>, managers and subordinates !ill see6 challenging goals =lo! in uncertaint# avoidance>, and performance is considered important b# both =high in 4uantit# of life>. b> Eoal/setting theor#@s recommendations are not li6el# to increase motivation in countries in !hich the opposite conditions e2ist, such as Brance, ?ortugal, and Chile. :. 7M?)7CA%7O;, BOA MA;AE1A, =ppt 2.> 1. Man# of the theories presented in this chapter have demonstrated reasonabl# strong predictive value. 2. 9o! does a manager concerned !ith motivating emplo#ees appl# these theories< $. Certain general suggestions can be e2tracted for application, at least for managers in ;orth America. Bor instance, the follo!ing recommendations are consistent !ith the findings in this chapter: a> Aecogni-e individual differences. b> Match people to *obs. c> Fse goals. d> 1nsure that goals are perceived as attainable. e> 7ndividuali-e re!ards. f> )in6 re!ards to performance. g> Chec6 the s#stem for e4uit#. 4. %hese suggestions, of course, !ould need to be modified to reflect cultural differences outside of ;orth America. (. %he importance of motivating emplo#ees toda# *ustifies more specifics than the concepts !e have *ust offered. +. %he ne2t chapter builds on the concepts !e have presented here, providing a revie! of the more popular motivation techni4ues and programs.

SUMMARY =ppt 20/23>

1. Motivation ma# be defined in terms of some out!ard behavior. 7t is the !illingness to do something and is conditioned b# this action@s abilit# to satisf# some need for the individual. 2. An unsatisfied need creates tension, !hich stimulates drives !ithin the individual. %hese drives generate a search for particular goals that, if attained, !ill satisf# the need and lead to the reduction of tension. $. %he best/6no!n approach to motivation is Abraham Maslo!@s hierarch# of needs theor#. 9e h#pothesi-ed that ever# human being has an internal hierarch# of five needs: ph#siological needs, safet# needs, social needs, esteem needs, and self/actuali-ation needs. Maslo! separated the five needs into higher and lo!er orders. Maslo!@s need theor# has received !ide recognition, particularl# among practicing managers. Aesearch does not generall# validate the theor#. 4. ouglas McEregor proposed t!o distinct vie!s of human beings. One basicall# negative, labeled %heor# & and the other basicall# positive, labeled %heor# '. 7f #ou accept McEregor@s anal#sis, %heor# & assumes that lo!er/order needs dominate individuals and %heor# ' assumes that higher/order needs dominate individuals. Fnfortunatel#, no evidence confirms that either set of assumptions is valid. (. %he t!o/factor theor#, motivation/h#giene theor#, !as proposed b# ps#chologist Brederic6 9er-berg. 9e isolated certain characteristics, some consistentl# related to *ob satisfactionC
4(

?art 77 %he 7ndividual in the Organi-ation

+.

..

0.

3.

15.

11.

12.

internal factorsCsuch as advancement, recognition, responsibilit#, and achievement. Others related to *ob dissatisfactionCe2trinsic factorsCsuch as supervision, pa#, compan# policies, and !or6ing conditions. 9is theor# has been critici-ed for its methodolog# and reliabilit#. Aegardless of criticisms, 9er-berg@s theor# has been !idel# populari-ed, and fe! managers are unfamiliar !ith his recommendations. avid McClelland and others have proposed three ma*or relevant motives or needs in the !or6placeCMcClelland@s %heor# of ;eeds. %he need for achievement =hAch>Cthe drive to e2cel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. %he need for po!er =n?o!>Cthe need to ma6e others behave in a !a# the# !ould not have behaved other!ise. %he need for affiliation =nAff>Cthe desire for friendl# and close interpersonal relationships. Eoal/setting theor# is !ell supported b# research. 7ntentionsCe2pressed as goalsCcan be a ma*or source of !or6 motivation. %he specificit# of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus. ,tudies testing goal/setting theor# have demonstrated the superiorit# of specific and challenging goals as motivating forces. A counterpoint to goal/setting theor# is reinforcement theor#. Aeinforcement theor# uses a behavioristic approach, !hich argues that reinforcement conditions behavior. Aeinforcement theor# ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solel# on !hat happens to a person !hen he or she ta6es some action. 7n 9ac6man and Oldham@s *ob characteristics model =ICM>, an# *ob can be described in terms of five core *ob dimensions: s6ill variet#, tas6 identit#, tas6 significance, autonom#, and feedbac6. %he *ob characteristics model has been !ell researched and the evidence supports the general frame!or6 of the theor#. %he social information/processing model =,7?> argues that people respond to their *obs, as the# perceive them rather than to the ob*ective *obs themselves. %he ,7? model argues that emplo#ees adopt attitudes and behaviors in response to the social cues provided b# others !ith !hom the# have contact. A number of studies generall# confirm the validit# of the ,7? model. 14uit# theor# proposes that emplo#ees ma6e comparisons. 1mplo#ees compare their o!n *ob inputs and outcomes !ith those of others and an# ine4uities can influence the degree of effort that emplo#ees e2ert. 14uit# theor# sa#s that emplo#ees !eigh !hat the# put into a *ob situation =input> against !hat the# get from it =outcome> and then compare their input/ outcome ratio !ith the input/outcome ratio of relevant others. 7f the# perceive e4uit#, the# feel that their situation is fair, and that *ustice prevails. 7f the ratios are une4ual, ine4uit# e2istsD that is, the emplo#ees tend to vie! themselves as underre!arded or overre!arded. 14uit# theor# recogni-es that individuals are concerned !ith both the absolute amount of re!ards and the relationship of that amount to !hat others receive. A revie! of the recent research tends to consistentl# confirm the e4uit# thesis. %he most comprehensive e2planation of motivation is e2pectanc# theor#. 12pectanc# theor# argues that the strength of a tendenc# to act in a certain !a# depends on the strength of an e2pectation that the act !ill be follo!ed b# a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. %here are three variables: attractiveness, the importance the individual places on the potential outcome or re!ard that can be achieved on the *obD performance/re!ard lin6age, or the degree to !hich the individual believes that performing at a particular level !ill lead to the attainment of a desired outcomeD and effort/performance lin6age, or the probabilit# perceived b# the individual that e2erting a given amount of effort !ill lead to performance.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Outline the basic motivation process. Answer / ,ee 12hibit 4/1.
4+

Chapter 4 Basic Motivation Concepts

2.

escribe Maslo!@s hierarch# of needs theor#. Answer / Maslo!@s hierarch# of needs theor# is the best/6no!n approach to motivation. 9e h#pothesi-ed that ever# human being has an internal hierarch# of five needs. As each is satisfied, the ne2t need becomes dominant. A substantiall# satisfied need no longer motivates. Maslo! separated the five needs into higher and lo!er orders. ?h#siological and safet# needs !ere lo!er order and !ere predominatel# satisfied e2ternall#. ,ocial, esteem, and self/actuali-ation !ere categori-ed as higher/order needs and are satisfied internall#. %he natural conclusion is that, in times of economic plent#, almost all permanentl# emplo#ed !or6ers !ill have their lo!er/order needs substantiall# met. Maslo!@s need theor# has received !ide recognition, particularl# among practicing managers. %his acceptance is due to the logic and ease !ith !hich the theor# is intuitivel# understood. 9o!ever, research does not generall# validate the theor#. %here is little support found for the prediction that need structures are organi-ed along the dimensions proposed.

$. Contrast %heor# & and %heor# '. Answer - ouglas McEregor proposed t!o distinct vie!s of human beings, one basicall# negative, labeled %heor# &, and the other basicall# positive, labeled %heor# '. 1ach has four assumptions !hich tend to be the opposite of each other. %heor# & assumptions: 1> 1mplo#ees inherentl# disli6e !or6 and, !henever possible, !ill attempt to avoid it. 2> ,ince emplo#ees disli6e !or6, the# must be coerced, controlled, or threatened !ith punishment to achieve desired goals. $> 1mplo#ees !ill avoid responsibilities and see6 formal direction !henever possible. 4> Most !or6ers place securit# above all other factors associated !ith !or6 and !ill displa# little ambition. %heor# ' contrasting assumptions: 1> 1mplo#ees can vie! !or6 as being as natural as rest or pla#. 2> A person !ho is committed to the ob*ectives !ill e2ercise self/direction and self/control. $> %he average person can learn to accept, even see6, responsibilit#. 4> %he abilit# to ma6e innovative decisions is !idel# dispersed throughout the population and not necessaril# the sole province of those in management. %heor# & assumes that lo!er/order needs dominate individuals. %heor# ' assumes that higher/order needs dominate individuals. 4. ifferentiate motivators from h#giene factors. Answer - %he t!o/factor theor#, motivation/h#giene theor#, !as proposed b# ps#chologist Brederic6 9er-berg. 9e investigated the 4uestion, G8hat do people !ant from their *obs<H Aesearch sho!ed people replied significantl# differentl# based on !hether the# felt good or bad about their *obs 7nternal factors such as advancement, recognition, responsibilit#, and achievement seem to be related to *ob satisfaction. 12trinsic factors such as supervision, pa#, compan# policies, and !or6ing conditions relate to *ob dissatisfaction. %he opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. Aemoving dissatisf#ing characteristics from a *ob does not necessaril# ma6e the *ob satisf#ing. Managers !ho see6 to eliminate factors that can create *ob dissatisfaction !ill be placating their !or6force rather than motivating them. Conditions surrounding the *ob such as 4ualit# of supervision, pa#, compan# policies, and so on, !ere characteri-ed as h#giene factors. 8hen the# are ade4uate, people !ill not be dissatisfiedD neither !ill the# be satisfied. %o motivate people, 9er-berg suggested emphasi-ing factors associated !ith the !or6 itself or to outcomes directl# derived from it, such as promotional opportunities, personal gro!th opportunities, and so on.

(. 8hile the three earl# theories of motivation have been heavil# attac6ed and their validit# called into 4uestion, !h# should #ou 6no! these earl# theories< Answer M Because =1> these earl# theories represent a foundation from !hich contemporar# theories have gro!n, and =2> practicing managers regularl# use these theories and their terminologies in e2plaining emplo#ee motivation.
4.

?art 77 %he 7ndividual in the Organi-ation

+. )ist and define the three ma*or relevant motives or needs in the !or6place as identified b# avid McClelland and others. Answer M %he need for achievement =nAch> is the drive to e2cel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed. %he need for po!er =n?o!> is the need to ma6e others behave in a !a# the# !ould not have behaved other!ise. %he need for affiliation =nAff> is the desire for friendl# and close interpersonal relationships. .. )ist the characteristics that high achievers prefer in a *ob. Answer - ,ome people have a compelling drive to succeed, but the# are striving for personal achievement rather than the re!ards of success. %his drive is the need for achievement. McClelland found that high achievers differentiate themselves from others b# their desire to do things better. %he# see6 situations in !hich the# can attain personal responsibilit# for finding solutions to problems, receive rapid and unambiguous feedbac6 on their performance, and set moderatel# challenging goals. %he# prefer !or6ing at a challenging problem and accepting the personal responsibilit# for success or failure rather than leaving the outcome to chance or the actions of others. 9igh achievers perform best !hen the# perceive their probabilit# of success as being (5/(5. %he# li6e to set realistic but difficult goals that re4uire stretching themselves a little. 0. ,ummari-e the t#pes of goals that increase performance. Answer 7ntentions e2pressed as goals can be a ma*or source of !or6 motivation. ifficult/ to/achieve goals produce a higher level of output than a generali-ed goal of Gdo #our best.H %he specificit# of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus. 7f factors such as abilit# and acceptance of the goals are held constant, !e can also state that the more difficult the goals, the higher the level of performance. ?articipative goals ma# have no superiorit# over assigned goals !hen acceptance is ta6en as a given. ?articipation does increase the probabilit# that more difficult goals !ill be agreed to and acted upon. ,tudies testing goal/ setting theor# have demonstrated the superiorit# of specific and challenging goals as motivating forces. 3. Contrast reinforcement and goal/setting theories. Answer - A counterpoint to goal/setting theor# is reinforcement theor#. %he former is a cog/ nitive approach, proposing that an individual@s purposes direct his or her actions. Aeinforcement theor# uses a behavioristic approach, !hich argues that reinforcement conditions behavior. %he t!o theories are clearl# at odds philosophicall#. Aeinforcement theorists see behavior as environmentall# caused. 8hat controls behavior are reinforcersC an# conse4uences that, !hen immediatel# follo!ing a response, increase the probabilit# that the behavior !ill be repeated. Aeinforcement theor# ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solel# on !hat happens to a person !hen he or she ta6es some action. Be/ cause it does not concern itself !ith !hat initiates behavior, it is not, strictl# spea6ing, a theor# of motivation. But reinforcement is not the single e2planation for differences in emplo#ee motivation. Eoals, for instance, have an impact on motivationD so, too, do levels of achievement, ine4uities in re!ards, and e2pectations. 15. iscuss the ( variables in the *ob characteristics model. 8hich one=s> are most important from a motivational standpoint< Answer- Although all variables are important, if #ou loo6 at the M?, e4uation, autonom# and feedbac6 are the most important in that a *ob has no motivating potential if either of these variables don"t e2ist in the *ob. 'ou might !ant to discuss, ho!ever, that it is virtuall# impossible to have a *ob !ith -ero autonom# or -ero feedbac6.
40

Chapter 4 Basic Motivation Concepts

11. 'ou are responsible for a customer service telemar6eting unit !ith fift# emplo#ees. %he# tend to do the same tas6s each da#, ans!er the phones, ans!ering 4uestions, finding ans!ers from other sources if the# don@t 6no! the ans!er, and so on. 'ou are the sole supervisor of this large group. Fsing the *ob characteristics model, describe ho! #ou might improve their *obs in order to improve motivation, performance, and *ob satisfaction. Answer - ,tudents@ ans!er !ill sho! significant variet# depending on ho! much the# assume. %he GminicaseH is deliberatel# !ritten to leave room for ma6ing assumptions. ,tudents should cover most elements of the model. 7n the ICM, an# *ob can be described in terms of five core *ob dimensions. ,6ill variet#C%he degree to !hich the *ob re4uires a variet# of different activities so the !or6er can use a number of different s6ills and talents. %as6 identit#C%he degree to !hich the *ob re4uires completion of a !hole and identifiable piece of !or6. %as6 significanceC%he degree to !hich the *ob has a substantial impact on the lives or !or6 of other people. Autonom#C%he degree to !hich the *ob provides substantial freedom, independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the !or6 and in determining the procedures to be used in carr#ing it out. Beedbac6C%he degree to !hich carr#ing out the !or6 activities re4uired b# the *ob results in the individual@s obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance. 12. 8hat is the value of the social information/processing model for managers< Answer / According to the social information/processing model people respond to their *obs as the# perceive them rather than to the ob*ective *obs themselves. %he ,7? model argues that emplo#ees adopt attitudes and behaviors in response to the social cues provided b# others !ith !hom the# have contact. %hese others can be co/!or6ers, supervisors, friends, famil# members, or customers. 7t has been sho!n that emplo#ee motivation and satisfaction can be manipulated b# such subtle actions as a co/!or6er or boss commenting on the e2istence or absence of *ob features li6e difficult#, challenge, and autonom#. 1$. 12plain e4uit# theor#. Answer - 14uit# theor# sa#s that emplo#ees !eigh !hat the# put into a *ob situation =input> against !hat the# get from it =outcome> and then compare their input/outcome ratio !ith the input/outcome ratio of relevant others. 7f the# perceive e4uit#, the# feel that their situation is fair, that *ustice prevails. 7f the ratios are une4ual, ine4uit# e2istsD that is, the emplo#ees tend to vie! themselves as underre!arded or overre!arded. 8hen ine4uities occur, emplo#ees !ill attempt to correct them. %he referent that emplo#ees choose to compare themselves against is an important variable in e4uit# theor#. %he three/referent categories have been classified as Gother,H Gs#stem,H and Gself.H Other includes other individuals !ith similar *obs in the same organi-ation and also includes friends, neighbors, or professional associates. ,#stem considers organi-ational pa# policies and procedures as !ell as the administration of this s#stem. ,elf refers to input/outcome ratios that are uni4ue to the individual. %his categor# is influenced b# such criteria as past *obs or famil# commitments. 14uit# theor# recogni-es that individuals are concerned !ith both the absolute amount of re!ards and the relationship of that amount to !hat others receive. 7nputs, such as effort, e2perience, education, and competence, are compared !ith outcomes such as salar# levels,

43

?art 77 %he 7ndividual in the Organi-ation

raises, recognition, and other factors. ,pecificall#, the theor# establishes four propositions relating to ine4uitable pa#: Eiven pa#ment b# time, overre!arded emplo#ees !ill produce more than e4uitabl# paid emplo#ees. Eiven pa#ment b# 4uantit# of production, overre!arded emplo#ees !ill produce fe!er but higher/4ualit# units than e4uitabl# paid emplo#ees. Eiven pa#ment b# time, underre!arded emplo#ees !ill produce less or a poorer 4ualit# of output. Eiven pa#ment b# 4uantit# of production, underre!arded emplo#ees !ill produce a large number of lo!/4ualit# units in comparison !ith e4uitabl# paid emplo#ees. 14. Clarif# the 6e# relationships in e2pectanc# theor#. Answer - %he most comprehensive e2planation of motivation is e2pectanc# theor#. 12pectanc# theor# argues that the strength of a tendenc# to act in a certain !a# depends on the strength of an e2pectation that the act !ill be follo!ed b# a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. 12pectanc# theor# has three variables: attractiveness, !hich is the importance the individual places on the potential outcome or re!ard that can be achieved on the *obD performance/re!ard lin6age, !hich is the degree to !hich the individual believes that performing at a particular level !ill lead to the attainment of a desired outcomeD and effort/performance lin6age, !hich is the probabilit# perceived b# the individual that e2erting a given amount of effort !ill lead to performance. 12hibit 4/4 simplifies e2pectanc# theor# into its ma*or contentions. Bour steps are inherent in the theor#. Birst, !hat perceived outcomes does the *ob offer the emplo#eeCpositive or negative< ,econd, ho! attractive do emplo#ees consider these outcomes< Are the# valued positivel#, negativel#, or neutrall#< %hird, !hat 6ind of behavior must the emplo#ee e2hibit in order to achieve these outcomes< %he outcomes are not li6el# to have an# effect on the individual emplo#ee@s performance unless the emplo#ee 6no!s, clearl# and unambiguousl#, !hat she must do in order to achieve them. Bourth, ho! does the emplo#ee vie! her chances of doing !hat is as6ed of her<

EXERCISES
A. 8hat Motivates Me< %he goal of this e2ercise is to have students reali-e the comple2it# of motivation and ho! as managers the# !ill probabl# use several different approaches. 7t should also give students insight into the different st#les of their professors. 1. As6 students to ta6e five minutes and to individuall# !rite do!n ho! the# !ould motivate students to stud#, turn in assignments on time, and treat each other !ith respect in class. 2. Begin a class discussion, noting on the board the suggestions. $. ;e2t have the students individuall# categori-e the suggestions b# theor#. 4. )ead a class discussion, noting on the board the general consensus as to !hich ideas belong to !hich theoretical approaches. (. Binall#, as a class, discuss ho! motivating each suggestion !ould be to them individuall#. 9elp students note that !hat some students thin6 is motivational !ould not be to others. NAlso, #ou !ill probabl# discover that some students !ill !ant to KmotivateK others in !a#s the# themselves !ould not li6e to be motivated.O B. 9#giene or Motivator< %hat is the 4uestion. %his e2ercise !ill help students differentiate bet!een !hat reall# motivates, and !hat simpl# creates dissatisfaction, i.e. motivator versus h#giene factors. 9ave the students identif# !hat the#
(5

Chapter 4 Basic Motivation Concepts

e2pect to find !aiting for them at the site of their first GrealH *ob after the# graduate. %he instructor can !rite this list on the board, or *ust simpl# have students verball# ma6e suggestions. Be sure the# name things as simple as pens, pencils, paper, a des6, a chair, a computer, a telephone =do the# !ant a shared line or a private line<>, a light, heating and coolingL climate control, O,9A standards =or !ould the# mind sharing the !or6 space !ith a fe! small mice and gas fumes<>, and so on. %hen guide the students to identif# !hat the# trul# !ould li6e to receive if the# !ere re!arded for doing an outstanding *ob on a particular pro*ect that resulted in organi-ational profits. %hese should be the true motivators. Binish the discussion b# relating the motivators and h#giene factors bac6 to 9ofstede@s 4uantit# of life versus 4ualit# of life in a discussion of global motivation methods. %he !or6er from ,!eden might not be as motivated b# a ne! computer on a des6 in a corner office !ith a vie!. C. 7s that Iob Motivating or ;ot<

Assign students to identif# a *ob the# either currentl# hold or have previousl# held that the# reall# li6ed and en*o#ed going to, and a *ob the# either currentl# hold or have previousl# held that the# trul# disli6ed and couldn@t !ait to 4uit. %hen assign the students to assess both of those *obs using the *ob characteristics model. 1ncourage the students to use the information provided about the five core *ob dimensions, and the ,7? model. As6 for volunteers to discuss the poorest design *ob in the class, versus the best designed *ob. Fse this as a springboard to discuss ho! much of motivation is contained in the *ob itself . 14uit# %heor# in Action

9ave students discuss times that the# felt li6e the# !ere being treated unfair at !or6. 9ave them describe the emotions, and follo! up !ith !hat specific behavior the# engaged in because of the emotions. Bor e2ample, did the# !or6 less hours or 4uit the *ob< Another effective techni4ue is to role pla# being treated unfair. %he instructor can be the manager !ho pa#s students different amounts for the same *ob. 9ave the students then describe their emotions, and !hat the# !ould do about this in the real !orld.

(1

?art 77 %he 7ndividual in the Organi-ation

Anal !"n# Y$%r Or#an"!a&"$n ?ass out an inde2 card or a half/sheet of paper !ith the follo!ing 4uestion t#ped on it: G)ist the t!o things at !or6 that motivate #ou the most. %hese can be things that alread# e2ist in #our *ob, or things that #ou !ish that #ou had.H 7f the# as6 for e2amples, one might be Gthe fle2ible scheduling that 7 have,H or Gthe opportunit# to sociali-e !ith nice people.H on@t give too man# e2amples, because #ou don@t !ant to prompt them into ideas that the# did not come up !ith themselves. ?ass out the sheets to as man# people as #ou can get to participate. Collect the sheets anon#mousl# at the end of the da#, and re/t#pe them. 8hat #ou should find is a large variance in the t#pes of things that motivate people. %his illustrates one point of this chapter, that !e are all motivated b# different things. Bor the ne2t step, discuss this !ith #our manager. As6 him or her !hat the# thin6 motivates GmostH !or6ers. %hen, sho! him #our sheet !ith the tallied results. 8as #our manager surprised< 7s there an#thing that the# can do to motivate !or6ers better based upon #our results< Bring #our list and a summar# of #our discussion to the class, and be read# to discuss #our findings.

(2