BUILDING TECHNOLOGY Layout and Excavation Spirit level - instrument or tool capable of vertical and horizontal line check.

heck. Plu ! !o! - its uses for vertical line check. Pla"tic #o"e $illed %& %ater a method of levelling (horizontal) batterboards without transit. '()(* ultiple" %& t#e u"e o$ "teel tape ea"ure a manual method of squaring the corners of building lines in building layout. S#eet pillin+ a barrier formed to prevent the movement of soil to stabilize foundation.

Layout and Excavation" ayout is sometimes called !staking out" which means the process of relocating the point of boundaries and property line of the site where the building is to be constructed. #t includes clearing$ staking$ and batter boards and establishes the e%act location of the building foundation and wall line on the ground. Sta,e are wooden sticks used as posts sharpened at one end driven into the ground to serve as boundaries or supports of the batter boards. Batter !oard wood stick or board nailed horizontally at the stake which serve as the horizontal plane where the reference point of the building measurements are established. Strin+ is either plastic chord or galvanized wire across the batter boards used to indicate the outline of the building wall and foundation. et#od" and procedure"

Layout

&. 'efore the construction begins$ see to it that a building permit is first secured from the local authorities concerned. (. )elocate the boudaries of the construction site. #t is suggested that the relocation of the property line shall be done by geodetic engineer especially for those lots without e%isting reference points or ad*oining structures. +. ,lear the site of any e%isting structure$ trees$ and other elements that will obstruct the construction work. -. ,onstruct and allocate a space for laborers quarters$ construction office$ and bodega for the materials and working tools and temporary waste disposal. .. /pply for a temporary connection of electric and water supply. 0lectric current is important for the power needs of the tools and equipment and is necessary on overtime schedules especially in the time of concreting. 1ater is also a prime need in construction. 2. ,onstruct a temporary fence around the construction.

3. 4erify the measurement in the plan if the distances indicated are from5 o center to center o outer to center o outer to outer o inside to inside 6. 7i% the batter board to its horizontal position with the aid of level instrument preferably plastic hose with water. 8. /fter establishing the reference point and line of the footing$ transfer the intersecting points of the string on the ground by the aid of plumb bob and indicate the size and width to be e%cavated. Excavation 0%cavation work in building construction is categorized into two types5 the -inor and -a.or e%cavation depending upon the size and nature of the foundation to be constructed. 0%cavation for a small construction with independent wall$ or combined footing is classified under the minor e%cavation$ while the rest which requires sizeable or total e%traction of the earth fall under the category of ma*or construction. -inor excavation 0%cavation under this category are those construction having independent footing and hollow block wall footing where the digging of the soil for the footing e%tend to a depth from &.99 to &..9 meter and about half a meter depth for the wall footing. -a.or excavation 'uilding construction that requires wide e%cavation or total e%traction of the soil are classified into two categories depending upon the condition or location of the site. 1hen the area of the construction site is big that there is enough space to accommodate working activities$ storing of materials and dumping ground for the e%cavated soil. 'uilding construction on a busy commercial center with ad*acent e%isting structure is considered to the most complicated among the various construction works since this requires careful study and analysis of the right approach. Pro!le " i+#t !e encounter/

&. :he manner of the e%cavation to be employed which will not affect or damaged the ad*oining structure. (. :he kind of equipment to be used in the digging and e%tracting the ground may not be a problem but the place where to station the equipment during the operation. +. ;ow and where to dispose the e%tracted soil involves the effective manner of maneuvering the payload and drumptrucks in hauling without obstructing the pedestrian and vehicular traffic flow.

-. 1here to dispose the underground water to be drained by the water pump during the process of construction which might cause muddy road and create inconvenience to traffic. .. :he kind of sheeting and bracing to be used in shoring or underpinning to protect the ad*oining structure must be considered.

0oundation and $ootin+ :he function of a foundation is to transfer the structural loads from a building safely into the ground. /ll foundations settle to some e%tent as the soil around beneath them ad*ust itself to these loads. <niform settlement is usually of little consequences in a building$ but a differential settlement can cause severe structural damage. ' a.or part" o$ a !uildin+/ =uperstructure :his is the above ground portion of the building. =ubstructure :his is the habitable below-ground portion. 7oundation these are the components of the building that transfer its load into the soil.

' type" o$ "u!"tructure"/ slab on fill crawlspace basement 1 !a"ic type" o$ $oundation"/ S#allo% $oundation" are those that transfer the load to the earth at the base of the column or wall of the substructure. Deep $oundation" transfer the load at a point far below the substructure. 0oundation is that portion of the structural elements that carry or support the superstructure of the building. 0ootin+ is that portion of the foundation of the structure which directly transmits the column load to the underlying soil or rock> footing is the lower portion of the foundation structure. 0oundation !ed - refers to the soil or rock directly beneath the footing.

Pile $oundation when a foundation bed is too weak to support a raft footing$ there is an urgent need to provide suitable materials where to transfer the e%cess load to a greater depth wherein piles are the answer. Pile is a structural member of small cross-sectional area with reasonable length driven down the ground by means of hammers or a vibratory generator. Pile is distinguished from a cai""on by being driven into place rather than drilled ? poured. Pile" are generally driven closely together in clusters containing from two to twenty-five piles. 0ach cluster is later *oined at the top by a reinforced concrete pile cap. Pile cap distributes the load of the column or wall equally among the piles. Cai""on" is similar to a column footing in that it spreads the load from a column over a large enough area of soil. 0oundation %all that part of the building foundation which forms the permanent retaining wall of the structure below grade. Grade !ea that part of a foundation system w@c supports the e%terior wall of the superstructure and bears directly on the column footing. 2etainin+ %all a wall or laterally braced$ that bears against an earth or other fill surface and resists lateral and other forces. Cantilever %all a reinforced concrete wall which resist overturning by the use of cantilever footing. Gravity %all a massive concrete wall that resist overturning by virtue of its own weight. Bearin+ %all a wall capable of supporting an imposed load.

0ootin+" are cla""i$ied into t%o type"/ 3all $ootin+ or "trip $ootin+ is a strip of reinforced concrete wider than the wall which distributes the load to the soil. a steel percentage equals to 9.( to 9.+A of the cross sectional area of concrete is said to be adequate e%cept on unusual cases. Colu n $ootin+ is classified into the following types5 &. I"olated or Independent $ootin+ is a kind of footing represents the simplest and most economical type$ in the form of5 square block footing square slope footing square stepped footing

(. Co !ined $ootin+ is used when two or more columns are spaced closely to each other that their footing will almost or completely merge. its either 5 rectangular trapezoidal +. Continuou" $ootin+ is sometimes classified as wall footing which support several columns in a row. its either5 inverted slab footing inverted tee footing -. 2a$t or at $ootin+ its occupies the entire area beneath the structure and carry the wall and the column loads. uniform slab thickened slab beam ? girder Concrete ,oncrete is an artificial stone made out from the mi%ture of cement$ sand$ gravel and water. :his is known as solid mass or plain concrete. ,oncrete in which reinforcement is embedded in such a manner that the two materials act together in resisting forces$ called reinforced concrete. cla"" !//" !/" !'" !," =lump test a ready means of determining the consistency of freshly mi%ed concrete. Besigning of concrete mi%ture is based on the water-cement ratio. 9.26 lb. of water @ lb. of cement will produce concrete capable of developing ($.99 psi in (6 days. ess water produces stronger concrete. Core water produces lesser strength. /dmi%ture accelerates or retards concrete setting. =izes of measuring bo% for 5 o -9 kg. cement +99mm % +99mm % +99mm o .9 kg. cement - +(9mm % +(9mm % ++9mm concrete mi%ture5 ixture &5&&@(5+ &5(5&5(&@(5.3.. &5+52 mortar mi%ture5 )4,+5 &( 8 2 2 . *4,+5 8.. 3 9.. 9.. "and 9.. 9.. &.9 &.9 +ravel &.9 &.9

cla"" !a" !b" !c" !d"

ixture &5( &5+ &5&5.

)4,+5 &6 &( 8 3..

*4,+5 &-.. 8.. 3 2

"and &.9 cu.m. &.9 &.9 &.9

po"t and colu n Po"t refers to a piece of timber of cylindrical$ square or other geometrical cross section placed vertically to support a building. Colu n refers to vertical structure use to support a building made of stone$ concrete$ steel or combination of the above materials. Storey is the space in a building between floor levels or between a floor and a roof above.

2ein$orced concrete colu n are cla""i$ied a"/ S#ort colu n when the unsupported height is not greater than ten times the shortest lateral dimension of the cross section. Lon+ colu n when the unsupported height is more than ten times the shortest lateral dimension of the cross section.

Type" o$ colu n" are/ Tied colu n has reinforcement consisting of vertical or longitudinal bars held in position by lateral reinforcement called lateral ties. Spiral colu n is the term given where a circular concrete core in enclosed by spirals with vertical or longitudinal bars. :he vertical reinforcement is provided with evenly spaced continuous spiral held firmly in position by at least three vertical bar spacers. Co po"ite colu n where structural steel column is embedded into the concrete core of a spiral column. Co !ined colu n with structural steel encased in concrete of at least 3 cm. thick$ reinforced with wire mess surrounding the column at a distance of + cm. inside the outer surface of the concrete covering. lally colu n is a fabricated steel pipe provided with a flat steel bars or plate which hold a girder$ girts or beam. the steel pipe is sometimes filled with grout or concrete for corrosion.

-etal rein$orce ent

:he different kinds of stresses that may act on the structure are5 65 15 '5 )5 co pre""ion "tre"" ten"ion "tre"" "#ear "tre"" tor"ion "tre"" 2ein$orce ent needs to provide on beam to response to positive and negative bending which may cause failure or collapse of the structure. 2ein$orced concrete is a combination of concrete and steel. ,oncrete is strong in supporting compression load but weak in resisting tension forces. Steel possesses the strength to resist both compression and tension. Balance !ea when the area of the concrete and steel are *ust enough to carry the compression and tension forces simultaneously. In$lection point" refer to the portion of a beam where bending moment changes from positive to negative. No !ent !ar" when bars are not bent$ an additional straight reinforcing bars are placed on the top of the beam across the supports e%tended to the required length. Bent rein$orcin+ !ar" are bent up on or near the inflection point and are e%tended at the top of the beam across the support towards the ad*acent span. )c 5 allowance protective covering of steel bars from the outside of the main reinforcement. 7dvanta+e o$ t#e !end !ar"8 its resist the diagonal tension. 'uilding code required that a balance beam shall provide$ that the cross sectional area of steel reinforcement shall be equal to .99. times the cross sectional product of the width and the depth of the beam. u"ed lateral tie" i. &9mm dia. if longitudinal bars +(mm smaller ii. &(mm dia. if longitudinal bars +2mm bigger three factors for spacing of the lateral ties5 o should not be more than &2 times the dia. of the longitudinal or main reinforcing bars. o should not be more than -6 times the dia. of the lateral ties. o not more than the shortest dimension of the column.

3ood con"truction Sca! a short flat piece of lumber which is bolted$ nailed or screwed to two butting pieces in order to splice them together. 0i"# plate a wood or metal piece used to fasten together the ends of two members with nails or bolts.

Splice plate a metal plate used for fastening two or more member together. co++ed .oint a carpentry *oint by two uneven timbers$ each of which is notched at the place where they meet. notc#in+ *oining of timbers$ usually meeting or crossing at right angles$ by cutting a dap in one or both pieces. cro"" lap .oint a *oint connecting two wood members which cross each other$ half the thickness of each is cut so that the thickness will the same as that of each member.square splicea type of half lapped used to resist tension. Bridle .oint a *oint in which two tongues pro*ect from the sides of the tenoned member$ these tongues fit into corresponding slots in the mortised member. tenon the pro*ecting end of a piece of wood$ or other materials which is reduced in cross section$ so that it may be inserted in a corresponding cavity in another piece in order to form a secure *oint. yacal lumber preffered when in contact with concrete. !oard $oot the volume of a piece of wood one inch. thick$ one foot wide and one foot long. !oliden "alt treatment in wolmanized lumber. dap a notch in a timber for receiving another timber. dado a rectangular groove cut across the full width of a piece of wood to receive the end of another piece. "oli+nu trade name for anti-termite surface application on wood.

0loor "tructure %ood $loor "y"te $loor $ra in+ is that platform structure of the building suspended by posts$ columns$ walls and beams. the design of a platform floor system depends upon the following considerations5 &. live load refers to those movable loads imposed on the floor. (. dead load refers to the static load such as the weight of the construction materials which generally carry the live load. +. type" o$ aterial" to !e u"ed the choice from the various construction materials such as lumber$ concrete$ and steel. -. t#e "i9in+ and "pacin+ o$ t#e "tructural e !er" depends upon its strength and capability to carry the load at certain spacing. .. "pan o$ t#e "upport" pertains to the distances between the posts$ columns or supporting walls. t#e plat$or - floor framing structure is classified into the following types5 /. the plank and beam floor type '. the panelized-floor system ,. the conventional floor framing system

t#e di$$erent part" o$ a plat$or

$loor "y"te

are/

Girder is a principal beam e%tending from wall to wall of a building supporting the floor *oists of floor beams. "ill that part of the side of a house that rests horizontally upon the foundation. $loor .oi"t" are those parts of the floor system placed on the girders where the floor boards are fastened. #eader and tri er header is a short transverse *oists that support the end of the cut-off *oist at a stair well hole. trimmer is a supporting *oist which carries an end portion of a header. $loorin+ the tongue and groove which are popularly known as t ? g is generally specified for wood flooring. tail !ea or tail piece a short beam$ *oist or rafter which is supported by a header *oist at one end and a wall at the other. led+er "trip a strip of lumber which is nailed to the side of the beam$ forming a seat for the *oists. dra$t"top plate is a piece of lumber uses to dress up the edge of the *oists. "ole plate a horizontal timber which serves as a base for the studs in a stud partition. "ill plate a horizontal timber$ at the bottom of the frame of awood structure which rest on the foundation. top plate a horizontal timber at the upper portion of the studs in a stud partition. cripple "tud in abuilding frame$ a structural element that is shorter than usual$ as a stud above and below opening. !loc, or "olid !rid+in+ short members which are fi%ed vertically between floor *oists to stiffen the *oists. cro"" !rid+in+ diagonal bracing in pairs$ between ad*acent floor *oists to prevent the *oists from twisting. #an+er or "tirrup a metal seat$ attached to a girder to receive and support a *oist. !alloon $ra in+ construction has studs continous to roof supporting second floor *oists. %e"tern $ra in+ that has subfloor e%tended to the outer edge of the frame and provide a flat work surface at each floor.

2ein$orced concrete $loor "y"te !ea - is a structural member that supports the transverse load which usually rest on supports at its end. Girder is the term applied to a beam that supports one or more smaller beam.

beams are classified as5 75 "i ple !ea B5 continuou" !ea C5 "e i : continuou" Si ple !ea refers to the beam having a single span supported at its end without a restrain at the support. simple beams is sometimes called as simply supported beam. 2e"traint - means a rigid connection or anchorage at the support. Continuou" !ea is a term applied to a beam that rest on more than two supports. refers to a beam with two spans with or without restraint at the

Se i(continuou" !ea two e%treme ends. 3e! rein$orce ent

1eb reinforcement is the same as their stirrups used in the beam to hold the reinforcement in its designed position. the web reinforcement is not only intended to hold the reinforcement and provide lateral support but also serves to resist diagonal tension and counteract the shear action on the structure. the vertical stirrups should encircle the main reinforcement and hook bent with a diameter not less than . times the diameter of the stirrups at its end and secured properly to prevent slipping of the main reinforcement in the concrete. 2ein$orced concrete "la!/ )einforced concrete floor slabs are classified into the following types5 6; 1; '; ); One %ay "olid "la! and !ea 5 T%o(%ay "olid "la! !ea 5 2i!!ed $loor"5 0lat "la! or +irderle"" $loor" "olid or ri!!ed5

0ach type of the floor system has its own advantages in application depending upon the following factors5 &) =pacing of the columns. () :he magnitude of the loads to be supported +) ength of the span -) the cost of the construction One %ay "la! one way slab is the common type of reinforced concrete floor system which the reinforcements run only in one direction$ made of solid slab supported by two parallel beams. #t is comparatively economical for a medium and heavy live loads on short spans ranging from (.99 to +..9 meters long. although the reinforcements are also

placed in the slab parallel with the beams perpendicular with the main reinforcements called !temperature reinforcements". usually no. + steel bar is used to counteract the effect of shrinkage and changes in temperature. it also distributes possible concentration of loads over a larger area. t%o %ay "la!" slab which are supported on four sides where the floor panel is nearly square is generally economical to employ the two directions of reinforcing bars placed at right angle with each other. the code specifies that thickness of the slab shall not be less than - inches or &9 cm. nor less than the perimeter of the slab divided by &69. the spacing of the reinforcement shall not be more than + times the slab thickness. ri!!ed $loor "la! is an economical type of floor construction but is applicable only to medium span length with light or medium load. a ribbed floor slab consists of small ad*acent t-beam wherein the open spaces between the ribs are filled by clay tiles$ gypsum tiles or steel forms. the tiles are generally +9 % 89 cm. with depth of &9 to -9cm. o.c. placed D .cm. o.c. making the ribs &9 cm. wide. the concrete surface layer placed on top of the tiles ranges from . to 2.. cm. thick. the reinforcement of a ribbed floor system consist of two bars placed at the lower part of the rib where one is bent and the other remained straight$ or sometimes$ straight bars are palced at the top and bottom of the rib. temperature bars are either no. ( bars or 2 mm. or wire mesh which runs at right angle with the ribs. $lat "la! is a rectangular slab directly supported by columns without beams or girders. theslab is either uniform in thickness or provided with square symmetrical area directly above the column reinforced with bars running in two directions. the increased area directly above the column called drop panel or simply drop. on the other hand$ a flared head is employed in the construction of a flat-slab floor making a capital of the column. when the column design is not provided with capitas$ a straight flat underneath is provided in the slab throughout the system$ which is called flat plate construction. this floor system is economical in terms of materials and labor. con"truction .oint a *oint where two successive placement of concrete meet. contraction .oint or expan"ion .oint a *oint between ad*acent parts of a structure which permits movement between them. control .oint" employed to reduce restraint by accomodating movement of masonry wall. !loc, out in concrete structures under construction$ a space where concrete is not to be placed. cold .oint a *oint formed when a concrete surface harden before the ne%t batch of concrete is placed against. creep permanent deformation of a material under a sustain load. ca !er conve% curvature in beam or truss.

layin+ out o$ "tair"

the method of laying out stairs are5 &. determine the clear height of the rise in meter. ordinarily$ the rise per step is &3 to &6 cm and the minimum tread width is (. cm. (. divide the rise (height in meter) by .&3 or .&6 to determine the number of steps. +. divide the run distance in meter by .(. or .+9m. -. if the result$ found in step three is less than the number found in step two$ the run length has to be e%tended. .. there should be no functional value of a riser. should there be from the result of step two$ ad*ust a functional value in equal proportion to the number of riser height$ but in no case shall the rise per step be greater than &8 cm or less than &3 cm otherwise$ the stairs will not be an ideal one. it is important to make a cross sectional sketch of a stair before making the final plan layout indicating the number of steps to avoid ad*ustments of the run during the actual construction. type o$ "trin+er" there are several forms of stringer classified according to the method of attachind the risers and the treads. &. (. +. -. cut cleated built-up rabbeted (house)

!alu"ter one of a number of short vertical members often circular in section$ used to support a stair handrail. !alu"trate an entire railing system including a top rail$ vertical members and bottom rail. !ull(no"ed "tep a step usually lowest in aflight$ having one or both ends rounded to a semi-circle and pro*ection beyond the face of the stair string@s. !ani"ter handrail for a staircase. ri"er a vertical face of astair. ,ic,er plate stair anchor to concrete.

type" o$ roo$ there are several forms of roof and numerous varieties of shapes that one has to be familiar with5 &. "#ed or lean-to roof- is considered as the simplest form of roof consisting of one single slope.

(. +a!le or pitc# roo$- the most common type and economical form of roof made of triangular sections consisting of two slopes meeting at the center of the ridge forming a gable. +. "a% toot# roo$- is the development of the shed made into a series to lean-to roof covering one building. this is commonly used on factories where e%tra light is required through the window on a vertical side. -. dou!le +a!le roo$- is a modification of a gable or a hip and valley roof. .. #ip roo$- is also a common form used in modern houses having straight sides all sloping toward the center of the building terminating at the ridge. 2. #ip and valley roo$- is a combination of the hip roof and an interesting gable roof forming a t or l shaped building. this type of roof form however$ has a variety of modification which are not illustrated. 3. pyra id roo$- is a modification of the hip roof wherein the four staight sides are sloping towards the center terminating at a point. 6. +a !rel roo$- is a modificatin of the gable roof with each side having two slopes. 8. !utter$ly roo$- is a two shed roof where the slope meets at the center of the building. &9. an"ard roo$- where the sides of the roof slope steeply from each side of the building towards the center forming a flat deck on top. &&. $renc# or concave an"ard roo$- is a modification of the manzard roof where the sides are concave. &(. do e- is a hemispherical form of roof usually used on obnservatories. &+. conical roo$ or "p#ire- is a steep roof of circular section that tapers uniformly from the circular base to a central point. type" o$ roo$ $ra e the three types of roof frame commonly used are5 &. rafters type (. truss type +. laminated type the various kinds of rafters for roof constructions are5 co on ra$ter"- are rafters e%tended at right angles from the plate or girts t the ridge. #ip ra$ter"- are rafters laid diagonally from the corner of a plate or girts to the ridge. valley ra$ter"- rafters placed diagonally from the plate or girts at the intersection of gable e%tension with the main roof. octa+onal ra$ter"- are rafters placed on an octagonal shaped plate at the central ape% or ridge pole. .ac, ra$ter"- any rafter which does not e%tend from the plate or girts to the ridge.

*ack rafters are classified into5 &. hit *acks (. valley *acks +. criple *acks *ack rafters framed batween hip rafters and gits are called hip *acks. the frame between the ridge and valley rafters are called valley *acks$ while those frames between the hip and the valley rafters are called cripple *acks.

tru"" is a built-up frame commonly employed on a long span roof unsupported by intermediate columns or partitions. truss is a design of a series of triangles used to distribute load$ stiffen the structure and fle%ibility for the interior spacing as well as strength and rigidity. the different types of trusses are5 li+#t tru""e"/ pitched scissors sawtooth flat bowstring #eavy tru""e"/ howe truss fink scissors warren saw tooth belgian pratt cambered fink flat howe flat pratt howe raised chord & E story frame utility

purlin" the structural member placed on top of a rafter or top chord of a truss that supports the roof sheating. purlins size and spacing5 span5 (.99 +.99 +..9 -..9 roo$ and roo$in+ aterial" size5 .9mm % 3.mm .9mm % &99mm .9mm % &.9mm .9mm % (99mm

the term roof used here means the top covering of a building that serves as a protective covering from the weather. roofing classification according to the materials used5 fiber wood metal slate tiles reinforced concrete plastics fiberglass etal roo$in+ is the most common materials in building construction$ this are classified as follows5 galvanized iron aluminum tin titanium copper zinc copper stainless steel lead among the metal roofing enumerated$ galvanized iron sheet is the most commonly specified considering the advantages that it offer. galvanized iron roofing is either plain or corrugated. the thickness are measured in terms of !gauge" from ga. &- to ga. +9. gauge (2 is the most commonly used for roofing. the standard commercial size width is 9.69 m. with length that ranges from &..9 to +.29 m. plain g.i. sheet commercial standard size is 9.89m. % (.-9m. its also used for roofing$ gutters$ flashing$ ridge$ hip and valley rolls$ downspout$ and strap for riveting. corr. g.i.roofing fasteners5

&. nailing (. riveting pantile a roofing tile which has the shape of !s" laid on its side. i""ion tile a clay roofing tile$ appro%. semi-cylindrical in shape laid in courses with the unit having their conve% side alternately up and down. ro an tile a channel shaped$ tapered$ single lap rooping tile. +alvani9ed zinc coated materials. a $ra e a +-piece rigid structural frame in the shape of the upright capital !a". c#ord a principal member of a truss. !atten wood strips to support roof tiles. "plit rin+ chord splice connectors for trusses.

form$ scaffolding and staging form is a temporary boarding$ sheating or pans used to produce the desired shape and size of concrete. forms are used in concrete construction. structural members of a building are built-up into its specified dimensions by the use of forms that serves as mould for the mi%ed concrete. forms should be watertight$ rigid and strong enough to sustain the weight of concrete. it should be simple and economically designed to be remove easily and reassembled without damage to themselves or to the concrete. factors considered in the selection of forms are5 cost of materials the construction and assembling cost the number of times it could be used strength and resistance to pressure and the tear ? wear %ood !oard and ply%ood $or " wood form is the most common and widely used forms in minor or ma*or construction. plywood as form is generally economical both in labor and materials. plywood has plain even surface with uniform thickness. it offers fitted *oints$ eliminate dressing$ planing of the surface which is normal to wooden boards forms. the laminated cross-grained of plywood has made the board stronger and free from warping. plywood is light-weight$ handy and fast to work on. produce smooth finishes of concrete that sometimes need little or no plastering at all. metal forms are seldom used in building construction because of the varied designs and shapes of the structures. although metal forms are e%tensively used on road construction.

metal forms are generally made out of g.i. sheet$ or black iron sheet$ supported by flat and angle bars designed to be assembled and locked be means of clamp$ bolts and nuts. con"truction o$ $or " concrete weighs about ($(99 to ($-99 kg.@cu.m. forms shall be guarded against bulging and sagging failure that occurs during the process of pouring. the thickness of the form and the sizes of the frame and ribs depends upon the nature of the structure to be supported classified as small$ medium and massive structure. " all "tructure" consisting of small footings$ columns and beam for one or two storey building wherein 2mm. thk. plywoood is satifactorily used supported by .9mm % .9mm wood frame and ribs. ediu "tructure" are those having concrete columns$ beams$ and concrete floor slab generally of ( to + storey high. wherein 2mm or &(mm thk. plywood is used as form suppported by .9mm % .9mm or .9mm % 3.mm wood frame and ribs. a""ive "tructure" are those having heavy loads uses forms of various thickness that range from 2mm to &8mm thk. plywood supported by .9mm % .9mm to .9mm % &99mm wood frame and ribs. two types of framing5 longitudinal rib type perpendicular rib type types of column forms5 square rectangular circular beam forms consist of one bottom form and a pair of side forms. types of wall forms5 continuous full unit layer unit +rea"in+ o$ $or " the purpose of greasing the form is to make the wood water proof$ thus preventing absorption of water in the concrete which causes swelling and warping. its also prevents adherence of concrete to the pores of the wood. yo,e is a horizontal framework around the formwork for a column. "ca$$oldin+ workers platform

!uildin+ con"truction ter " english vernacular english vernacular

adobe anchor ---------------------liyabe earth fill------------------escombro aligned -----------------------------kaliniya eave -----------------------alero$barakilan$ sopo alignment --------------------------asintada electrician ----------------elektrista alternate or staggered ------------uno sinotra engineer ------------------inhenyero anchor ------------------------------liyabe e%terior siding ----------tabike architect ----------------------------arkitekto faucet ---------------------gripo astragal -----------------------------batidura fascia board -------------senepa balusters ----------------------------balustre$barandilla feet -----------------------piye beam --------------------------------biga fill ------------------------tambak banisters ----------------------------barandil filler ----------------------tapal$ dagdag barrel bolt -------------------------trankilya floor *oist ----------------soleras baseboard --------------------------rodapis fillet ----------------------batidura bath tub ----------------------------baniera flooring ------------------sahig$ suelo bolt ---------------------------------pierno floor sill -----------------guililan bottom chord ---------------------tirante$ estunyo flush ---------------------alahado brace -------------------------------pie de gallo foundation or footingspundasyon brick -------------------------------landrillo foreman -----------------kapatas$ maestro de obra canopy ----------------------------media agua framework --------------balangkas cabinet hinge --------------------espolon gable roof -------------dos aguas carpenter -------------------------karpintero girder --------------------guililan carpentry -------------------------karpinteria girts or girder ----------sepo cast iron --------------------------pundido gravel --------------------graba ceiling ----------------------------kisame good grain --------------haspe ceiling board -------------------groobe -------------------canal ceiling *oist ----------------------kostil yahe gutter --------------------alulod$ canal cement ---------------------------semento hand rail ----------------gabay

cement brick --------------------ladrilyo head ---------------------sombrero cement tiles ---------------------baldosa hinge --------------------bisagra chain bolt ------------------------baral de kadena hip roof -----------------kuatro aguas collar -----------------------------sinturon horizontal stud -------- trabe-anzo column ---------------------------kolumna$haligue inch ----------------------pulgada concrete --------------------------konkreto *amb ---------------------hamba concrete slab --------------------larga masa *oist ----------------------suleras concrete beam ------------------biga kingpost ----------------pendolum conductor ------------------------alulod laborer ------------------piyon contractor ------------------------kontratista landing -----------------mesa pahingahan corr. g.i. sheets -----------------yiero canalado lavatory ----------------lababo galbanisado closed stringer ------------------escalera laying of chb or adobe stone ------------asinta crushed stone -------------------eskombro lean to roof ------------sibe diagonal brace ------------------sinturon level --------------------lebel door -------------------------------pinto machine bolt ----------peirno pasante door fillet ------------------------batidora mason ------------------kantero door head ------------------------sombrero (pintuan) masonry ----------------kanteria door *amb ------------------------hamba pintuan masonry fill -----------lastilyas drawbore pin or drawpin ------punsol meter --------------------metro mitre or miter --------------------canto mesa septic tank ------------- poso negro mi%ture of sand ? gravel ------lastilyas shape -------------------korte mortar -----------------------------paupo sheet --------------------plantsa mortar *oists ----------------------kostura shower ------------------dutsha moulding --------------------------moldura sidings ------------------tabika nailers -----------------------------pamakuan sink ----------------------prigadero nail --------------------------------pako sketch plan -------------krokis nail setter ------------------------punsol slab (rough) -------------larga masa newel post -----------------------tukod slope ---------------------bahada nut ---------------------------------tuerka solder --------------------hinang nicolite bar -----------------------estanyo solder bar ---------------estaniyo oakum -----------------------------estopa spacing ------------------biento open stringer ---------------------hardinera split knob ---------------poleya over hand or pro*ector ----------bolada stairs ---------------------hagdanan painter ------------------------------pintor stake ----------------------staka

panel --------------------------------bandeha stringer (open) ----------hardinera panellee door ----------------------de bandeha stringer -------------------madre$ madrina pattern ------------------------------plantilya stucco --------------------palitada pea gravel -------------------------grabita stud (vertical)------------pilarete pendulum (king post) ------------pendulon stud (horizontal) --------pabalagbag pickwork ---------------------------piketa temper (metal work)----suban$ subuhan piglead ------------------------------tingga$ estopa thread --------------------roskas plain g.i. sheet --------------------yiero liso tinsmith ------------------latero galbanisado plain g.i. strap --------------------lingueta tinsmithing --------------lateria plank board ------------------------senepa top chord ---------------kilo$ tahilan plaster -------------------------------palitada transom -----------------espeho plastered course -------------------kusturada tread ---------------------baytang$ perdano plug ----------------------------------tapon trellise -------------------pergola plumb bob --------------------------hulog truss ----------------------truss$ kilo plumber -----------------------------tubero varnished ----------------varnisado plumb line -------------------------hulog vertical stud -------------pilarete post ----------------------------------poste$ haligue wainscoating tiles ------asolehos pro*ection ---------------------------bolada washer --------------------pitsa$ tsapa purlins -------------------------------reostra water closet -------------inidoro putty ---------------------------------masilya window ------------------bintana quarter round ----------------------mediacana window grille ----------rehas rabbet -------------------------------vaciada window head -----------sombrero bintana rafters -------------------------------kilo window *amb -----------hamba bintana reinforcing bar --------------------cabilla$ bakal window sill -------------pasamano ridgeroll ----------------------------caballete w.i. strap ----------------planchuela riser ---------------------------------senepa$ takip wiring knob ------------poleya silipan rivets -------------------------------rimatse wood grain -------------haspe roof ---------------------------------atip$ bubongwood plank -------------tabla

sand ---------------------------------buhangin wrought plantsuela scaffolding -------------------------andamiyo$ plancha scratch coat -----------------------rebokada screw -------------------------------turnilyo

iron

strap

------

Preca"t and pre"tre""ed con"truction Introduction the introduction of precast-concrete construction was brought about by building costs that has considerably increased faster that most industrial products that are affected by the large amount of on-site labor involved in the traditional methods of construction. the demand for skilled workers on on-site building construction is increasingly outrunning the supply. the answer to there problems were brought about by the industrialization of construciton and substitution of site labor by factory produced precast concrete structure which has rapidly developed and gained importance. the concrete is cast in permanent forms of steel$ concrete$ glass-fiber-reinforced plastic. the wet concrete is vibrated mechanically in the forms to achieve ma%imum density and highest surface quality. concrete strength in precast is usually .999 psi$ while (39$999 psi for strength of steel. precast concrete elements are usually steam cured with the use of high early strength cement to enable a precast to remove in form in (- hours. forms are called casting beds. the casting beds average &(. meters to e%tend (.9 meters in length. type" o$ preca"t "tructure %all panel" this type of precast structure has numerous designs depending upon the architectural requirements. the common shapes produced for one to four storey high structures are sections having a width up to (.-9 m. they are used as curtain walls attached to columns and beams or sometimes as bearing walls.

the different types of wall panels are5 flat type double tee type ribbed type window or mullion type to improve the thermal insulation of the panel$ foam glass$ glass fiber or e%panded plastic is inserted between two layers of lightweight concrete adequately bonded interconnecting the two layers to act as one unit. stresses in handling and erection of the member is more than that of the finished filled structure$ hence$ control of cracking is of great importance. preca"t colu n8 precast column sizes are from .+9 % .+9m. to .29 % .29m. in a multi-storey construction$ the columns are made continuous up to four stories wherein corbels are used to provide bearing for the beam. tee column is sometimes used to support directly double tee floor members without the use of intermediate members. preca"t !ea "8 the shape of precast beams depends upon the manner of framing. the various shapes are5 rectan+ular !ea inverted tee !ea l :"#aped !ea aa"#to !rid+e +irder american association of state highway and transportation officials.

roof and floor members "olid $lat "la! : wide ranges from 9.29m. to (.-m. #ollo% core "la! wide ranges from 9.29m. to (.-m. dou!le tee wide ranges from (.- to +.9m. "in+le tee wide ranges from (.- to +.9m.

preli inary de"i+n o$ a preca"t concrete "tructure &. estimate the depth of a precast solid slab at &@-9 of its span. depth typically range from 89-(99mm. (. an (99mm precast hollow-core slab can span appro%imately 3.29m.$ (.9mm slab appro%. 8.69m.$ and a +99mm slab appro%. &(.9m. span. +. estimate the depth of precast concrete double tees at &@(6 of their span. the most common depths of double tees are +99$+.9$-99$-.9$.&9$2&9$ and6&.mm.

-. a precast concrete single tee 8(6mm deep spans appro%imately (2.9m. and &&-(mm tee for +(.9m. span. .. estimate the depth of precast concrete beams and girders at &@&2 of their span for light loadings and &@&( of their span for heavy loadings. these ratios apply to rectangular$ inverted tee and l-shaped beams. the width of a beam or girder is usually about E its depth. the pro*ecting ledgers on inverted tee and l-shaped beams are usually &.9mm wide and +99mm deep. 2. to estimate the size of a precast concrete column. add up the total roof and floor area supported by the column. a (.9mm. column can support up to about &6. sq.m. of area. a +99mm. column for (-9 sq.m. area. a -99mm. column for +39 sq.m. area. a .99mm. column for .29 sq.m. area. a 299mm. column for 3-9 sq.m. area. <oinin+ preca"t concrete ele ent" Boltin+8 %eldin+8 and +routin+ are all commonly employed in these connections. e%posed metal connectors not covered by topping are usually dry packed with stiff grout after being *oined$ to protect them from fire and corrosion. the simplest *oints in precast concrete construction are those that rely upon gravity by placing one element on top of another$ as is done where slab elements rest on a bearing wall or beam$ or where a beam rests on the corbel of a column. bearing pads are usually inserted between the concrete members at bearing points to avoid the concrete-toconcrete contact that might create points of high stress. bearing pads also allow for e%pansion and contraction in the members. for solid and hollow-core slabs these pads are strips of high-density plastic. under elements with higher point loading such as tees and beams$ pads of synthetic rubber areused. pre"tre""in+ o$ concrete there are several methods employed in applying prestressed force to a concrete beam5 preco pre""in+ et#od is a process of using *acks reacting against abutment. "el$(contained et#od the process is done by tying the *ack base together with wires or cables located on each side of the beam. usually the wires and cables are pressed through a hollow conduit embedded in the concrete beam. one end of the tendon is anchored and forces are applied at the other end. after attaining the desired prestress force$ the tendon is then wedged against the concrete$ removing the *ack equipment. !ond $riction the prestressing strands are stretched between massive abutment prior to casting of concrete in the beam forms. after the concrete has gained sufficient strength$ the *acks are then released transferring the prestressed force to the concrete by bond and friction along the strands. the self contained and the bond and friction methods can generally be classified as pre-tensioning or post-tensioning system. these methods can be applied to mass

production of casting several meters long of structure and cutting the individual beam or post to the desired length out from the long casting. t#er al pre"tre""in+ the steel is preheated by means of electric power which are anchored against the opposite end of the concrete beam. the cooling process produces prestress force through restrained contraction.

the causes of prestress losses are5 o o o o o o slip at anchorage elastic shortening of concrete creep of concrete shrinkage of concrete rela%ation of steel stress frictional loss due to intended or unintended curvature in the tendons.

concrete $or pre"tre""in+ concrete of higher compressive strength is used for prestressed structures. most of the prestressed construction specify a compressive strength of concrete between (-$999 to 2$999 psi) (69--(( kg@cm( because of the following advantages that it offers. /. high strength concrete has a higher modulus of elasticity. it minimizes the reduction of prestress loss. '. increasing the compressive strength of the concrete meets the problem of high bearing stresses at the ends of post and beam where the prestressing force is transferred from the tendon to the anchorage dowels which directly bears against the concrete. ,. high strength concrete develops stronger bond prestresses to pretensioning construction. B. high strength concrete gives higher strength to precast construction when curing is carefully controlled. ea"ure ent o$ pre"tre""in+ $orce prestressing force could be determined by5 &. measuring the tendon elongation. (. either by checking *ack pressure on a calibrated gage or load cell or by the used of calibrated dynamometer. !uildin+ %ood po"t ten"ionin+ the stressing of unbonded tendons after concrete has cured. aterial"

aterial"

wood has durability and beauty. it has great ability to absorb shocks from sudden load and light in weight which adaptable in a countless variety of purposes. two ma*or classification of wood5 "o$t%ood these are used for general construction. #ard%ood these are used for flooring$ stairs$ panelling$ furnitures and interior trim. properties of wood5 #ardne"" measured by the compression$ which a piece undergoes when a weight is applied. $lexi!ility the amount a piece will bend before breaking. "tren+t# to the grain. dura!ility the relative value @ lifespan of wood. defects of lumber5 decay caused by the attacked of fungi. c#ec," cracks or length wise separation across the annual rings of growth. ,not" irregular growths in the body which interrups smooth curve. pitc# pockets well refined openings between annual rings containing solid or liquid pitch. %ane is the lack of wood on the edge or corner of a piece.

types of warping5 cuppin+ is a distortion of the board in which the face is conve%@concave across the board. !o%in+ is a distortion of the board in which the face is conve%@concave longitudinally. t%i"tin+ is a distortion of the board in which one corner is raised.

de$inition o$ ter "/ "trip" pieces less than (" thick and less than 6" wide. !oard" pieces less than (" thick and at least 6" wide. di en"ion lu !er pieces more than (" thick and less than ." in any dimension. ti !er pieces -" or more on the smallest dimension. lo+ pieces &(" or more on the smallest dimension. three categories of lumber5 yard lu !er used for ordinary light construction and finishing work. commonly used for flooring$ plank siding$ trim and moulding.

"#op lu !er it is intended for use in shops or in mills making sash$ doors$ and cabinets. "tructural lu !er is intended for use in heavy construction for loadbearing purposes and is cut into timbers of larger size.

wood grain5 ed+e +rain annual rings run appro%. at right angle to the face. $lat +rain when the annual rings run more or less parallel to the surface. an+le +rain when the annual rings are at about -. deg. to the face. seasoning of lumber5 air dryin+ lumber is strip-piled at aslope on asolid foundation. this allows air to circulate around every piece while the sloping aloows water to run off quickly. ,iln(dryin+ more e%pensive lumber which is required for more refined uses so as wood will not move. it must be dried to a moisture content of not more than . to &9 percent. this is done in an airtight structure scientifically heated by steam pipes in which the lumber is artificially dried to the correct moisture content. anu$acture !oard"/ manufactured boards are made of wood but does not appear in their natural state. this type of building materials can be classified as a type of lumber as they are the byproduct in the manufacture of lumber. the complete utilization of wood has lead to an e%panded field of manufactured boards. types of boards5 ply%ood is made of an odd number veneer sheets glued together with the grains running at right angle to each other. it is light in weight and strong that screw or nail can be driven close to the edges without danger of splitting. the diff. types of plywood5 "o$t ply%ood - the most common for structural use #ard%ood ply%ood are used for panelling and finshing where usually on one face is hard finished. exterior or arine ply%ood is made for e%ternal use. #ard!oard is made from wood chips which are e%ploded into fibers under stream of high pressure. the lining in the wood itself binds pressed wood together with no fillers or artificial adhesives applied. pressed wood is equally strong in all directions but very brittle. its color varies from light to dark brown. particle !oard is manufactures from wood chips$ curls$ fibers$ flakes$ strands$ shaving$ slivers etc. bound together and pressed into sheets and other molded shaped. particle board has equal strength in all direction of a given cross sectional area$ it is not brittle and can resist warping.

-a"onry Casonry refers to a man-made unit which are formed and hardened into modular building units. 'asic brickwork terminology5 cour"e is a horizontal layer of bricks or other masonry units. !ed .oint is the horizontal mortar in every course. #ead .oint is the vertical mortar in every masonry unit. stretcher is a brick laid with its face parallel to the wall and its long dimension horizontal. #eader is a brick laid so as to bond two wythes together. %yt#e is a vertical layer of masonry units$ one unit thick. "oldier is a brick laid on its end with its face parallel to the wall. ro%loc, is a brick laid on its face with its end visible in the wall face. structural bonds for brickwork5 running bond consists entirely of stretchers. common bond has a header course every si%th course english bond alternates courses of headers and stretchers. flemish bond alternates headers and stretchers in each course. *oint tooling profiles for brickwork5 weathered *oint fluch *oint struck *oint rein$orced !ric, a"onry a reinforced brick wall is created by constructing two wythes of brick .9 &99mm apart$ placing the reinforcing steel in the cavity$ and filling cavity with grout. grout is a mi%ture of cement$ aggregates$ and water. concave *oint raked *oint vee *oint stripped *oint

!ric, !ound"

the method of laying bricks in a wall in order to form some distinctive pattern or design is referred to as the pattern bond. the method by which the individual units in a brick structure are tied together either by overlapping or by metal ties is known as the structural bond. the adhesion of mortar to bricks or to steel reinforcement used in con*unction with them is called the mortar bond.

concrete #ollo% !loc,"/ concrete hollow blocks are classified as bearing and non-bearing blocks. load bearing blocks are those whose thickness ranges from &. cm. to (9 cm. and are used to carry load aside from its own weight. non-bearing blocks on the other hand$ are blocks which are intended for walls$ partitions$ fences or dividers carrying its own weight whose thickness ranges from 3.. cm. to &9 cm. concrete hollow blocks has three cells and two one half cells at both ends having a total of four. concrete cements portland cement made from materials which must contain in the proper proportions of lime$ silica$ alumina and iron components. four parts of limestone to one part clay are basic ingredients. these are mi%ed$ burned then pulverized. portland cement is sold either in cement bags of -9 ? .9 kilos weight or in bulk into cement trucks. Special ce ent" %#ite portland ce ent same materials as normal portland e%cept in color. the manufacturing process is controlled to produce pure white$ non-staining cement. it is used primarily for architectural purposes such as curtain wall and facing panels$ decorative concrete stucco and tile grout$ or wherever white or colored concrete or mortar is specified. a"onry ce ent or tile ad#e"ive" : has been specially designed to produce better mortar than that made with normal portland cement or with a limecement has particularly good plasticity and workability$ good adhesion and bond. %aterproo$ed portland ce ent normally produced by adding a small amount of stearate$ usually calcium or aluminum to the cement clinker during the final grinding. Type" o$ a++re+ate" u"ed in concrete ,oncrete can be considered to be an artificial stone made by binding together particles of some inert material with a paste made of cement and water. these inert material are the aggregate. aggregates used are sand$ gravel crushed stone$ cinder. crushed furnace slag$ burned clay$ e%panded vermiculite$ and perlite. Sand - found in riverbeds$ free of salt and must be washed.

0ine a++re+ate Coar"e a++re+ate Concrete ,lass !//" ,lass / ,lass ' class , ixe"

- F" and smaller diameter stones. - bigger than F" diameter stones.

- &5 & E5 + - &5(5slabs - &5 ( &@ (5.- &5 +5 2 ixe" -

concrete under water$ retaining walls footings$ columns beams$ r.c. slab on fill$ non bearing walls concrete plant bo%es$ etc.

Control o$ concrete

Slu p te"t- when freshly mi%ed concrete is checked to ensure that the specified slump is being attained consistently. a standard slump cone is &( inches high (9.+9) and 6 inches (o.(9) in diameter at the bottom and - inches (o.&9) on top which is open on both ends. the cone is filled in three equal layers$ each being tamped or rodded (. times with a standard .@6" bullet nosed rod. when the cone has been filled and leveled off$ it is lifted carefully and the amount of slump is measured. allo%a!le de$lection =x> 'eams and columns =labs and tunnel inverts :ops and wall$ piers$ parapet ? curbs =ide walls and arch in tunnel lining ,anal lining ;eavy mass construction 3.. cm. (.93.) +" ..9 cm. (..9) (" ..9 cm. (..9) (" &9.9 cm. (.&9) -" 3.. cm. (.93.) +" ..9 cm. (..9) ("

Co pre""ive "tren+t# te"t- common quality-control test of concrete$ based on 3 and (6 days curing periods. specimens are usually cylindrical with a lenght equal to twice the diameter. standard size is &( inch. high and 2 inch. diameter. filling is done the same way as the slump test but taken out from the mold in (- hours. it is then sent to a compression testing laboratory$ by making the cylinder while still wet. some compressive stresses are ($999 psi$ ($.99 psi$ +$999 psi. "o e o$ t#e !rand" o$ portland ce ent island cement continental cement hi- cement union cement rizal cement filipinas cement pacific cement

fortune cement republic cement northern cement

!rand" o$ %#ite ce ent prime white cement keene trinity snowcrete ortar cement$ sand ? water. +rout cement and water mi%ture. concrete cement$ sand$ gravel ? water. tyrolean $ini"# rough plaster finish obtained by flinging plaster on a wall w@ a hand operated machine. e$$lore"cence an encrustation of soluble salts caused by free alkalies leached from mortar or ad*acent concrete as moisture move through it. adia!atic curin+ - the curing of concrete or mortar w@o the gain or loss of heat during the curing period. %#eat#ered most waterproofed type of mortar *oints for walls. ado!e !ric, large roughly moulded sun dried clay bricks of varying sizes. a"#lar !ric, a brick whose face has been hacked to resemble roughly hacked stone. retarder an admi%ture which delay the setting of cement paste or mi%tures@ an additive mi%ed with plaster to control the rate of hardening. "tea curin+ the curing of concrete or mortar in water vapor at an elevated temperature at either atmospheric or high pressure. ?uoin & coin in masonry$ a hard stone or brick used to reinforce an e%ternal corner of a wall. 9ocalo low wall around a chalet-type house. $orti$ication tha wall of intramuros. "cratc# coat initial scored layer of plaster work. cinder !loc, a light weight masonry unit made of cinder concrete.

mortar for block laying is 9.9&(. m. plastering thickness is 9.9&2 m. mortar filler for hollow cell 9.9. % 9.93. % 9.(9 G 9.9993. cu.m. for - cell@block G 9.9993. % - G 9.99+ cu.m. for -" chb.

$errou" and non$errou"

etal"

0errou"( metal in which iron is the principal element. non$errou"- containing no$ or very little iron. 0errou" etal/ "teel- a malleable alloy of iron and carbon produced by melting and refining pig iron and@ or scrap steel$ graded according to the carbon content. produce by three basic raw materials$ iron ore$ and limestone. five particles of all three basic ingredients of steel$ which otherwise would be waste$ are blended and burned on a moving gate to cause the formation of clinkers. these are called sinter$ a high- grade blast-furnance charge material. from these$ raw materials which is melted into ingots place in molds$ a grat variety of products used in construction are made. they included5 cold(rolled "#eet" are galvanized (given a zinc coating). pig iron is used to make cast iron which is high in compressive strenght but low in tensile strength$ and has little use for construction. however since it is cheap and easy to cast$ it is used for pumps$ motors$ engines and because of its corrosion resistance it is used for pipes to some e%tent. %rou+#t iron is produced when pig iron is melted in such a way as to remove nearly all of the carbon and other impurities. it is easily worked and is tough and ductile. its main uses are for wire and metal ornaments. "tainle"" "teel" are made with chromium or a combination of nickel and chromium used in buildings of e%terior walls panels$ frames for doors e%pansion *oints$ flashing$ copings$ fascia and gravel stops. copper- bearing steel has high resistance to corrosion and is used for making sheet steel and metal lath. "teel product" 65 2olled "tructural "#ape" (. S#eet pilin+- sections are made to interlock and are available in several shape. +. Steel pipe- seamless or welded small diameter pipe and electrically welded large diameter pipe. -. 2ein$orcin+ "teel- made from new steel or from discarded railway- car a%les or rails. o reinforcing steel comes in plain or deformed bars$ that is$ bars which have lugs or deformations rolled on the surface to provide archorage in concrete. Si9e"("tart with no.( or F in. (divide a number of bar by 6 to get the equivalent in inch diameter) no. (G F ! no. +G +@6" G 2 mm. G &9 mm.

no. -G no. .G no. 2G no. 3G no. 6G no. 8G

E" .@6" H" 3@6" &" & &@6

G &(mm. G &2mm. G (9mm. G ((mm. G (.mm. G +9mm.

.. 3elded %ire $a!ric- another type of reinforcing material. it consists of parallel$ longitudinal wires welded to transverse wires at regular intervals. 2. Steel %ire over &.9$999 uses for wire including pins$ needles$ nails$ bolts$ cables$ piano wire$ fences. 3. Bolt" and nut" (either hot forged or cold-formed from wire of the appropriate diameter). for bolts$ wire is fed into an automatic bolt-making machine which cuts to length heads$ trims$ points$ and in many rolls the thread. 6. Steel "trappin+ made from high-tensile flat wire in a number of sizes. used for banding column forms to keep them from bulging under the pressure of freshly poured concrete. a tighterner tightens it and the two lapped ends is sealed. 8. Open %e! "teel .oi"t" lightweight warren-type trusses made in several different styles. &9. "#eet "teel black and galvanized$ can be used to manufacture corrugated roofing and siding and formed steel decking. &&. "teel "tud" lightweight$ requiring minimum storage space and does not warp or shrink. fasteners do not pop$ and *oints stay closed. much faster to install than wood stud installation. available in & .@6$ ( E and + .@6 inches. plumbing stacks and electrical components fit easily into a steel-framewall. &(. pan" and done" manufactured for use in forming one-way and two-way ribbed concrete floor systems. Non$errou" etal"/

&. alu inu its ore$ bau%ite$ requires &9 kilowatt hours for each pound of metal aluminum e%tracted. the reddish brown ore is washed and treated in a soda solution to yield a chalky-white powder called alumna$ containing a high concentration of aluminum. a. aluminum foil used as a vapor barrier on walls and ceilings and as reflective insulation. (. copper a lustrous reddish metal$ highly ductile and malleable> has high tensile strength$ is an e%cellent electrical and thermal conductor$ is available in a wide variety of shapes> widely used for downspouts$ electrical conductors$ flashings gutters$ roofing$ etc. copper alloys are brasses$ and bronzes which contain primarily zinc and tin$ respectively$ and the alloys containing nickel.

 brasses are used in architectural and hardware applictions. bronzes are used in the production of springs. +. lead a soft$ malleable$ heavy metal> has low melting point and a high coefficient of thermal e%pansion. very easy to cut and work$ enabling it to be fitted over uneven surfaces. used for roofing$ flashing and spandrel wall panels. -. tin a lustrous white$ soft and malleable metal having a low melting point> relatively unaffected by e%posure to air> used for making alloys and solder and in coating sheet metal. "tructural "#ape" the most common shapes of structural steel used in building construction are the american standard forms such as5 &. =quare bars 2. i-beam (. round bars 3. tee beam +. plate bars 6. h-column -. angle bars 8. wide flanges .. channels &9. zee standard channel &. Standard c#annel - has the shape of unsymmetrical balance consisting of two flanges on one side. it therefore requires lateral support to prevent its tendency to buckle. the standard channels are generally used as elements of built-up sections for columns and are also suitable for framing around floor openings$ spandrels$ and lintels attributed to the absence of flange on the other side. the channel section is identifird as c &. % (9 which means that the channel has a depth of (9 cm. and weights &. kg. per meter length. (. %ide $lan+e - are designated as w &( % (- which means that the flange has a depth of (- cm. and it weighs &( kg. per meter length. all wide flange sections are generally with parallel face flange e%cept those with .A slope inside face produced by betlehem steel company. comparatively$ wide flange sections are more efficient than standard i beam with respect to bending resistance. +. "tandard i(!ea - as a column is uneconomical$ because the whirl or revolving action of the structure about an a%is through the centroid parallel to the wab of the i-beam is comparatively small. -. #(!earin+ pile" - suitable for pile driving on deep e%cavations is much more suitable than the i-beam for columns. .. 9ee "ection is another structural form in a letter z which is not frequently used in building construction e%ept on the fabrication of steel windows and other frames.

%rou+#t iron a commercially pure iron of fibrous nature$ valued for its corrosion resistance and ductility.

 ca"t iron an iron alloy usually including carbon and silicon which has high compressive strength but low tensile strength. %eldin+ is the process by which two metals are so *oint that there is an actual union of the interatomic bonds. extru"ion the process of producing metal shapes of a constant cross section by forcing the hot metal through an orfice in a die by means of a pressure ram. red oxide protective coat for iron. lap "ea a *oint formed by overlapping the edges of metal sheet or plates and *oining them by riveting or soldering or bracing.

.oinin+ "teel

e !er"

steel shapes can be *oined into a building frame with any of three fastening techniques. 65 rivet" a rivets is a fastener consisting of a cylindrical body and a formed head which is brought to a white heat$ inserted through holes in the members to be *oined$ and hotworked with a pneumatic hammer to produced a second head opposite the firsthead. process of riveting5 a hot steel rivet is inserted in holes through the two members to be *oined$

 its head is then held with hand hammer with a cup-shaped depression$ while a pneumatic hammer drives a rivet set repeatedly against the body of the rivet to form the second head$ the rivet shrinks as it cools$ drawing members tightly together. 15 !olt" the bolts commonly used in steel frame construction fall into two general categories5 &) car!on "teel !olt" or common bolts are similar to the ordinary machine bolts that can be purchased in hardware stores. () #i+#("tren+t# !olt" are heat treated during manufacture to develop the necessary strength. it is usually tightened using pneumatic or electric impact wrench. a ma*or problem in high-strength bolting or friction-type connections is how to verify the necessary tension has been achieved in all the bolts in a connection. several ways to achieved proper tightening5 turn-of-nut method load indicator washer tension control bolts process of tightening a tension control bolt5 the wrench holds both the nut and the splined body of the bolt$ and turns them against one another to tighten the bolt$ when the required torque is achieved$ the splined end twists off in the wrench$ a plunger inside the wrench discharges the splined end into a container. '; %eldin+

1elding can *oin the members of a steel frame as if they were a monolithic whole. welded are stronger than the members they *oin in resisting both shear and moment forces. :ypical welds used in steel frame construction5 fillet weld double fillet weld double-bevel groove weld single-bevel groove weld with backup bar v-groove weld v-groove weld with backup bar

 puddle weld partial-penetration single-bevel groove weld the basic sybols are5 back groove or butt square v bevel the arrow the reference line carries the descriptive symbols fillet u plug or slot * flare v flare bevel

the arrow points to the weld the basic symbols the basic weld symbol is located on either side of the reference line as follows5 symbols on the top of the reference line refer to welds on the side of the *oint opposite the arrow

symbols on the bottom of the reference line refer to welds on the same side of the *oint as as the arrow "upple entary "y !ol" $ield %eld this weld be done in the field during erection. other welds are done earlier in the fabricators shop. %eld all around this indicates that the weld should be carried fully around the perimeter of the *oining pieces. !ac,up !ar as indicated in this e%ample$ a backup bar to support the first pass of the weld must be placed on the side of the *oint opposite the arrow. "pacer small metal spacers are used to maintain a gap between the piecs to be *oined$ prior to welding.

a sharp bend near the end of the arrow indicates that the arrowhead is pointing toward the grooved side of the bevel or *-grooved *oint +la"" the ma*or ingredient of glass is sand (silicon dio%ide). a hard brittle inorganic substance$ ordinarily transparent or translucent> produced by melting a mi%ture of silica$ a flu% and a stabilizer> while molten maybe blown$ drawn$ rolled$ pressed or cast to a variety of shapes. during its manufactured$ ordinary window glass is annealed$ cooled slowly under controlled condition$ to avoid locked-in thermal stresses that might cause it to behave unpredictably in use. t#ic,ne""e" o$ +la"" glass is typically manufactured in a series of thicknesses ranging from appro%imately (..mm$ through +mm$ is called single-strength$ or 2mm to ((mm$ is called doublestrength$ and on special order$ (.mm is available. type" o$ clear +la"" &) te pered +la"" - is produced by cutting annealed glass to the required sizes for use$ reheating it to appro%imately &(99 degrees fahrenheit$ cooling both its surfaces rapidly with a blast of air while its core cools much more slowly. its four times as strong in bending and more resistant to thermal stress and impact. #eat "tren+t#ened - is similar to tempering$ but its$ about one-third as high as tempered glass in terms of bending and strength. la inated +la"" - its made by sandwiching a transparent vinyl interlaer between sheets of glass and bonding the three layers together under heat and pressure. when its breaks$ the soft vinyl holds the shards of glass in place rather than allowing them to fall out of the frame. patterned or rolled and rou+# ca"t +la"" ( hot glass can be rolled into sheets with many different surface patterns for use where light transmission is desired but vision must be obscured for privacy. "pandrel +la"" - special opaque glasses are produced for covering the spandrel area (the bands of wall around the edges of floors) in glass curtain. it is usually tempered or heat-strengthened to resist the thermal stresses that can caused by accumulations of solar heat behind the spandrel. %ired +la"" - simply a rolled glass into which wire mesh is inserted during the process of manufacture. the wire greatly increases the resistance to shattering through impact. its use for safety glazing$ when its breaks from thermal stress$ the wires hold the sheet of glass together.

() +)

-) .)

2)

Tinted and re$lective coated +la""

=olar heat buildup can be problematic in the inhabited spaces of buildings with large areas of glass$ especially during the warm part of the year. this is use to reduce glare and cut down on solar heat gain. &) () +) tinted +la"" - is made by adding small amounts of selected chemical elements to the molten glass mi%ture to produce the desired hue and intensity of color in grays$ bronzes$ blues$ green$ and golds. re$lective coated +la"" - appear as mirror from the outside on a bright day and at night$ with lights on inside the building$ they appear as dark but transparent glass. in"ulatin+ +la"" ( a second sheet of glass applied to a window with an airspace between the sheets cuts this rate of heat loss in half. two kinds of edges seals are fused glass edges and a metal spline and organic sealant.

Gla"" product" +la"" !loc," comparable in many ways to unit masonry but have the added feature of transmitting light. they are made into two separate halves$ which are heatsealed together to form a hollow unit with reasonbly high thermal efficiency and sound insulation. the edge surfaces of the block are coated with a gritty mortar bond. t%o type"/ &) $unctional !loc," direct or diffuse the daylight which passes theough them to improve the illumination of the building interior. a. a li+#t directin+ !loc, directs incoming light upward toward the ceiling. used always above eye level. b. a li+#t di$$u"in+ !loc, diffuses incoming light evenly throughout the interior of the room. c5 +eneral purpo"e" !loc, decoratively or arc#itectural +la"" available in a wide range of styles and patterns. these glass masonry units provide almost unlimited design versatility when used in window$ openings and facades$ as interior walls and divider paneling.

()

Paint $ini"#e" :he purpose of a finish is to protect$ preserve or visually enhance the surface to which it is applied. 7inishes include plastic laminated surface coverings such as plastic laminated and vinyl of fabric wall covering. Iaint generally refers to opaque or clear film-forming material that acts as a shield or barrier between the building material and those elements or conditions that may adversely affects or deteriorate. the paint film must resist deterioration due to sunlight

heat$ temperature variations$ water or moisture vapor$ mildew and decay chemicals and physical abrasion. paint may also serve to make surfaces more sanitary$ improve heating and lighting effects$ and promote human comfort and safety. when using paint$ the physiological effects of color and surface te%ture must be considered. certain colors may be stimulating while others are rela%ing. white and light colors reflect size of form and space. dark color can inhibit the perception of form and may be used for contrast. flat paint finishes soften and distribute$ illumination evenly. glossy finishes reflect light and can cause glare$ but they also provide smooth$ easily cleaned$ non-absorptive surfaces. most paints are carefully formulated to meet specific application that use requirements and are ready-mi%ed for application e%cept for thinning$ stirring$ or the addition of an activator or catalyst. it is always advisable therefore to follow the paint manufacturers recommendations in the application and use of a paint or other protective coating. paints may be classified according to5 aterial to %#ic# it i" applied wood$ metal masonry$ concrete$ plastic$ etc.$ "ur$ace $ini"# texture gloss$ semi-gloss$ egg shell$ satin$ flat$ ? varnish. considerations in the selection and use of paints include5 surface preparation o the foundation of any paint system must be properly prepared to ensure proper adhesion of the paint film to its surface. type o$ paint paint must be compatible with the material to which it is applied. specifications include the paint vehicle$ finish color$ e%posure$ and manufacturer and@or trade name. et#od depending on the type of paint and the material to which it is being applied. coatings may be brushed$ rolled or sprayed on. dryin+ the time and conditions necessary for a paint to dry must be checked. $il t#ic,ne"" the dry film thickness (dft) is more important than the number of coats. multiple thin coats are generally more effective than a single thick coat. a minimum of ( coats is required to produce . mil dft.

covera+e a paints coverage can be estimated by its percentage of volume solids5

ie. paint with &99A volume solids5 (no thinner) & gal covers &299 sf (&-8 m() D & mil dft 699 sf ( 3- m() D ( mil dft -99 sf ( +3 m() D - mil dft -paint with .9A volume solids (.9A thinner) & gal covers 699 sf (3- m() D & mil dft -99 sf (+3 m() D ( mil dft paint generally consist of5 pi+ ent finely ground solids that provide the paints coverings or hiding power or its color. ve#icle liquid medium to carry the pigment in suspension during application. and consists of binders and solvents. binder serve to form the paint film and cause it to adhere the surface being painted. binders are largely responsible for the protective quality and durability of the paint fil or protective coating. solvents or thinners acts drying agents. depending on the type of solvent used$ a paint may dry or harden by o%idation$ evaporation$ chemical action$ or by thermosetting action at elevated temperatures. color depends on the type of paint and the manufacturer. expo"ure e%terior or interior c#aracteri"tic"/ pigmented coating lacquer and enamel paints clear coatings varnishes$ lacquers$ sheelac$ sealers rust inhibitive coatings

 zinc-pigmented coatings zinc$ silicons$ alkyd$ or asphalt or base coatings asphalt or tar coatings that form non-pemeable barriers against water and o%ygen to protect submerged ferrous metal and to waterproof masonry surfaces. cement mortar coatings &. mi%ture of portland cement$ lime and water used to dampproof masonry materials and protect e%posed steel plastic and synthetic rubber coatings (. coating resistant to mildew$ mold$ fumes$ marine environments etc.$

paint"

ay !e cla""i$ied accordin+ to it" ve#icle or !inder/ &. al,yd" used for e%terior paints. oil modified resins that harden by o%idation and evaporation. the most common paint vehicle fast drying a harder than ordinary time$ lowers the gloss$ and improves the paints wetting properties$ durability and elasticity to resist blistering. have good drying properties$ durability and water resistance for e%terior e%posures$ and good color retention. (. a"p#alt used for waterproofing at firewall and roof decking. coatings with a vehicle of both petroleum and natural asphalts are used to protect wood$ masonry$ concrete and as roof coating. have good water resistances but thermoplastic in nature. addition of aluminum glakes helps to reflect the suns rays. addition of epo%y resins minimizes the cold flow and ma%imizes the chemical-resistance of asphalt. +. c#lorinated ru!!er used for industrial flooring. used in coatings highly resistant to alkalies$ acids$ chemicals$ and water may be removed by coal tar solvents has limited resistance to prolonged heat e%posure used in swimming pools$ water treatment plants -. epoxy cataly9ed used for duco finish. two component coatings consisting of a pigmented primer or enamel and an activator or catalyst. mi%ed *ust prior to use has limited !pot life" produces by chemical action a dense$ hard film similar to baked enamel.

 has e%cellent resistant to solvents$ chemicals$ physical abrasion$ traffic wear$ a cleaning materials has good adhesion properties$ color retention and stain resistance. has good durability for e%terior e%posure but may chalk. #ard%are #ard%are - metal products used in construction$ such as bolts$ hinges$ locks$ tools$ etc. they are classified as5 $ini"#in+ #ard%are hardware$ such as hinges locks$ catches$ etc. that has a finished appearance as well as function$ esp. that used with doors$ windows$ and cabinets$ maybe considered part of the decorative treatment of a room or building. rou+# #ard%are in building construction$ hardware meant to be concealed$ such as bolts$ nails$ screws$ spikes$ rods$ and other metal fittings.

"o e $ini"#in+ #ard%are !rand"/ &. sargent 3. (. stanley 6. +. yale -. corbin &9. .. schlage 2. kwikset door" : an entrance %ay

rabbit universal 8. eagle master &&. alpha &(. yeti

type" o$ door/ &. flu"# a smooth-surfaced door having faces which are plane which conceal its rails and stiles or other structure when used inside$ it is of hollow core$ when used for e%terior it is of solid core. (. panel door a door having stiles$ rails and sometimes muntins$ which form one or more frames around recessed thinner panels. +. dutc# door - a hinged door which is divided to two. the upper part can be opened while the lower portion is closed. -. $renc# door a door with a glass panels. .. louver door : a door that allows ventilation by having -. degree blades. ,ind" o$ door"/ &. over#ead "%in+(up +ara+e door a rigid overhead door which opens as an entire unit.

(. over#ead roll(up +ara+e door a door which$ when open$ assumes a horizontal position above the door opening$ made of several leaves. +. roll(up door @solid or see-through aluminum shutters) a door made up of small horizontal interlocking metal slats which are guided in a track5 the configuration coils about an overhead drum which is housed at the head of the opening$ either manual or motor - driven. -. accordion door a hinged door consisting of a system of panels which are hung from an overhead track. when the door is open$ the faces of the panels close flat against each other. when the door is closed$ the edges of ad*acent panels butt against (or interlock) each other to form a solid barrier. .. !i($oldin+ door - one of two or more doors which are hinged together so that they can open and fold in a confined space. 2. revolvin+ door - an e%terior door consisting of four leaves (at 899 to each other) which pivot about a common vertical a%is within a cylindrically shaped vestibule$ prevents the direct passage of air through the vestibule$ thereby eliminating drafts from outside. 3. "lidin+ door - a door mounted on track which slides in a horizontal direction usually parallel to one wall. 6. !y(pa""in+ "lidin+ door - a sliding door which slides to cover a fi%ed door of the same width or another sliding door. 8. "lidin+ poc,et door - a door which slides inside a hollow of the wall.

0ini"#in+ #ard%are"/ 75 to #an+ a door #in+e- a movable *oint used to attach support and turn a door about a pivot$ consists of two plates *oined together by a pin which support the door and connect it to its frame$ enabling it to swing open or closed. type" o$ #in+e"/ &. Butt #in+e - consists of two rectangular metal plates which are *oined with a pin$ in large hinge$ the pin is removable$ in small hinges$ it is fi%ed. $a"t pin #in+e - a hinge in which the pin is fastened permanently in place. $ull "ur$ace #in+e - a hinged designed for attachment on the surface of the door and *amb without mortising. loo"e .oint #in+e - a door hinged having two knuckles$ one of which has vertical pin that fits in a corresponding hole in the other$ by lifting the door up$ off the vertical pin$ the door may be removed with unscrewing the hinged. loo"e pin #in+e - a hinge having a removable pin which permits its two parts to be separated.

 pau elle #in+ed - a type of door hinge having a single *oint of the pivot type$ usually of modern design. olive ,nuc,le #in+e - a paumelle hinge with knuckles forming an oval shape. (. Sprin+ #in+e" - a hinge containing one or more springs$ when a door is opened$ the hinge returns it to open position automatically$ may act in one direction only$ or in both directions. dou!le action - e%cellent for use in restaurants$ hospitals$ kitchens$ and the door opens by *ust pushing it with the shoulder or feet. "in+le action +. Pivot #in+e - the a%le or pin about which a window or door rotates. 4ertical spring pivot hinge- a spring hinge for a door which is mortisted into the heel of the door$ the door is fastened to the floor and door head with pivots. !5 to $ix one "a"# type" o$ !olt and $a"tener/ chain head and foot bolt door or barrel bolt flush bolt chain door fastener

c5

to loc, t#e door loc,"et a complete lock system including the basic locking mechanisms and all the accessories$ such as knobs escutcheons$ plates$ etc. !utton a small re*ecting member used to fasten the frame of a door or window. ,no! a handle$ more or less spherical usually for operating a lock. e"cutc#eon a protective plate surrounding the keyhole of a door. plate" a thin flat sheet of material. "tri,e" a metal plate or bo% which is set in a door*amb and is either placed or recessed to receive the bolt or latch of a lock$ fi%ed on door. lip "tri,e the pro*ection from the side of a trike plate which the bolt of a lock strikes first$ when a door is closed> pro*ects out from the side of the strike plate to protect the frame.

u"e a di$$erent loc,"et $or eac# roo /

entrance loc,"et with a key and universal button which when pushed stays put and locks the door. !edroo loc,"et same as the entrance lockset but simpler in design. toilet loc,"et without a key has a button that is pushed to lock inside. ,ind o$ loc,"et/ inte+ral loc, a type of mortise lock having its cylinder in the knob. cylinder loc, a bored lock which has a cylindrical case into which a separate latch case fits. latc# a simple fastening devise having a latch bolt$ but not a dead bolt contains no provisions for locking with a key. ni+#t latc# key operated latch with safety pin. li$t latc# a type of door latch which fastens a door by means of a pivoted bar that engages a hook on the door *amb$ a lever which lifts the pivoted bar used to unfasten the door. ra!!eted loc, a lock or latch in which the face is flush with the rabbet on a rabbeted door *amb. roller latc# a type of door latch has a roller under spring tension instead of a beveled spring bolt$ the roller engages a strike plate$ having a recess formed to receive. "creen door latc# a small locking or latching device used on screen doors and generated by a knob or lever handle$ sometimes equipped with a dead bolt. #a"p a fastening device consisting of a loop or staple and a slotted hinge plate normally secured with a padlock. ,ey(padloc, a device which fastens in position maybe operated by a key. a+netic padloc, a kind of lock which opens by using the corresponding magnet which goes with it. #a"ploc, a kind of hasp that has a built-in locking device which can be opened only with a key. !ored loc, a lock intended for installation in a circular hole in a door. cre one !olt used to fasten upper and lower door. dead !olt a type of door lock$ the bolt$ which is square in section is operated by the door key or a turn piece. Type" o$ auto atic door clo"er/ pneumatic type semi-concealed overhead type concealed type overhead liquid type Type" o$ ca!inet #in+ed door/ flush overlapping

 offset Type" o$ ca!inet #in+e"/ !utt #in+e" o common butt o loose pin o t-hinge o piano hinge o decorative hinge o$$"et #in+e" used for hanging lipped or overlapping doors$ available in semi-concealed and surface-mounted styles. pivot #in+e" made for both flush and overlapping doors. invi"i!le #in+e" dont show from the front and is e%pensive. they can be used for both flush and overlapping door. $lu"# counter #in+e for a drop down door that can be lowered to serve as work surfaces require hinges that lay flush in the surface$ mortise them into both surfaces$ they dont show when the door is closed. a dropdown door also requires a chain or stay support to hold the doors weight when its open. Catc#e" $or clo"in+ o$ ca!inet door" in place Aind" o$ catc#e"/ $riction catc# any catch which when it engages a strike$ is held in the engaged position by friction. a+netic catc# a door catch flat that uses a magnet to hold the door in a closed position. !ullet catc# a fastener which holds a door in place by means of a pro*ecting spring arctuated steel hall which is depressed when the door is closed. Type" o$ ,no!"/ screw-in knob bolt-on knob flush knob flush ring pull Ot#er $ini"#in+ acce""orie"/ +ra! !ar a hand grip usually installed in shower$ which may be used for steadying are self. "el$ !rac,et any over hanging member pro*ecting from a wall or other body to support a weight. etal !rac,et used to support any cabinet or shelf. "prin+ door clo"er attached above a screen door to automatically close it. door "topper to prevent the door with its lockset from harming the wall or tiles.

2ou+# #ard%are"/ rou+# #ard%are in building construction$ hardware meant to be concealed$ such as bolts$ nails$ screws$ spikes$ rods$ and other metal fittings. Nail" co on %ire nail with head and for strength. $ini"#in+ nail without head and for better appearance a"onry or concrete nail used for concrete$ mortar and brick surface sizes$ &"$ & E"$ ( !$ ( E"$ +"$ + E"$ -"$ 2" Ot#er co on #a scotch nails brads staples tacks screws er driven $a"tener

"cre%" ( classified by gauge (diameter)$ length$ head type$ and metallic make-up. :ypes of screw head flat head screw oval head screw philipps head sheet-metal screw round head screw lag screw 1ashers flat counter sunk flush 'olts bolts have threaded shafts that receive nuts. to use them$ a hole is drilled$ pushing a bolt through and adding a nut. bolts tightened with screw while holding the nut with a wrench. Juts flat square nut he% nut square nut acorn nut t nut knurled nut

wing nut

Hun+er !olt" for hanging fi%tures from walls. U(!olt" to attach flat surface to round poles and pipes. <oinery !rac,et" &. mending plate (. t-plate +. flat corner plate -. l-bracket %indo%" &. a%nin+ an architectural pro*ected window. (. !ay %indo% a window which pro*ects outside the main line of a building. +. #opper %indo% a window sash which opens inward and its hinged at the bottom. -. oriel %indo% a pro*ected window beyond building wall carried by a corbel. ter " !atten door - a door w@out stiles which is costructed of vertical boards held together by horizontal battens. "tile vertical frames of panelled door. tran"o window over a door. door .a ! finished frame surrounding a door. anc#or !olt a steel bolt usually fi%ed in abuilding structure with its threaded portion pro*ecting. plate !olt a bolt in a building foundation which secures theplate or sill. ac#ine !olt a threaded bolt having a straight shank and a conventional head such as a square$ he%agonal$ button or countersank. carria+e !olt a bolt with neck for non-ratating mounting. la+ "cre% common hardware fastener for truss braces. ,no! !olt a door lock with a spring bolt controlled by one or both knobs and dead bolt controlled by akey. !ac,"et the horizontal distance from the face of a lock of latch to the center of the knob or lock cylinder. +u""et a plate attached to side of a *oint for increase holding power. !rad a thin nail with small head. ,er$ in a suspended acoustical ceiling$ agroove cut into the edges of an acoustical tiles to receive splines or supporting members of the ceiling suspension system. per$orated tape a type of tape used in finishing *oints between gypsum board. "a#ara used for waterproofing. par?uet inlaid wood flooring usually set in simple geometric pattern. vinyl tile a floor tile composed principally of polyvinyl chloride.

 !evel the angle with one surface of a body makes with another surface when they are not at right angle. c#a"e a continous recess built into a wall to receive pipes$ ducts$ etc. +yp"u !oard material used in drywall construction. plou+# a groove e%tended along the edge or face of the wood member being cut parallel to grain. Buildin+ protection Prevention" &. 3aterproo$in+ a method of protecting surfaces against the destructive effects of water. (. Da p(proo$in+ protection from the outside is provided by water repellent materials which turn water aside and force it to return to the earth. the dampness that sometimes occurs inside the building can be caused by penetration of moisture from the outside or by consideration of water vapor generated on the inside. +. clear protective treatments for masonry$ concrete this is a clear$ invisible silicone water repellent specially formulated for application on masonry and bricks (standard silicone repellent) and for limestone and concrete that seeps much rainwater (special formulated silicone repellent). the silicone liquid is applied by brush or low pressure spray and does not affect the color or naturalness of the material. -. anay (termite) proofing by soil poisoning it is important to poison the soil against anay (white ants) in order to stop the anay from infesting the mainposts$ walls and flooring. .. wood preservative (powder post termites) a chemical liquid painted and applied to lumber to preserve it for years. it protects wood against powder post beatles (bukbok) powder poet termite (unos)$ decay causing fungi$ such as sap stain and sryrot. 2. fireproofing a clear liquid applied easily on wood$ plywood$ lumber and other board that retains the natural beauty$ gives added strength and protects materials against fire$ weather$ decay$ insects and warping. since the liquid penetrated into the wood$ when there is fire. it reacts by dispersing the flame$ preventing progressive burning. 3. ratproofing a method of protecting rooms against the intrusion of rats and other small destructive animals from gnawing the wooden parts of the house$ habitating on ceilings and floors of houses and buildings. 6. rustproofing a method of protecting the ferrous materials like steel$ iron from rusting or corrosion. 8. floor protection when floors are sub*ected to wear and tear$ or from chemical abrasions and heavy use$ a special kind of material should be used to protect the flooring. &9. descalers$ paint and chemical strippers when an old house having ole paint is in need of repainting$ paint remover is applied to the surface which softens and

lifts the paint. for cleaning of buildings from stains$ rust$ algae or even cement build up from forms or equipment$ etc. a chemical stripper or descaler is used. &&. control$ protect and manage for buildings that need total control of the incoming and outgoing individuals for the protection of the building as a whole from robbers$ stealers$ etc. there are so many equipments which can be installed.

3aterproo$in+ T#i" i" applied on t#e $ollo%in+ location"/ &. roof decks (. concrete terraces and balconies +. sheathing for wood shingle and tile roofing -. water tanks .. concrete roof gutters 2. plant bo%es inside 3. kitchen floor 6. toilets 8. canopies &9. basement floor and walls &&. elevator pits &(. swimming pool &+. machine rooms$ air con ? pump rooms &-. refrigeration ? cold storage rooms T#ree type" o$ %aterproo$in+/ &. inte+ral type medium in powder form is added and mi%ed with the aggregates of concrete. in this case$ one pack of usually .896 kilos is added to one bag of kilos cement. some of the known brands are sahara and sakura. (. e !rane type recommended for use where direct rain$ or standing water are eminent$ there are about &- uses. the materials used depending on the manufacturer is either asphalt paper laid with hot asphalt$ impregnated asbestos felt$ sometimes thick polyethylene sheets is also used. other materials are performed self sealing asphalt. +. $luid applied a fluid applied elastomeric coating based on havy solids elastomer compound formulated to waterproof and preserve the substrate$ like concrete$ wood$ bricks and steel. the waterproofing is monolothic$ seamless$ fle%ible and elastic over a wide temperature range$ withstands e%treme thermal movement$ settling and cracking. it resists puncture and tearing abrasive overlayments. this elastomeric fluid can be applied by roller$ brush$ spray or squeegee.

2oo$in+ $elt" the base felts used in built-up roofing are available in two basic type asbestos felts and organic or rag felts. they look alike$ superficially$ but they differ widely in service. 7"!e"to"/ /sbestos felts composed primarily of asbestos fiber$ a non-rotting$ nonwicking inorganic mineral fiber. #dentical e%pansion and contraction properties to finishing felts. Cinimum stretch and shrinkage or wetting or drying which means minimum distortion. oses strength slowly while aging. 0%cellent resistance to !burnout" in hot climate. )at resistant.

Or+anic/ Krganic felts composed of fibrous organic materials. sub*ect to deterioration by o%idation and to wicking. Bifferent e%pansion and contraction properties from finishing plies. ma%imum stretch and shrinkage on wetting and drying which means ma%imum distortion. loses strength rapidly while aging. poor resistance to !burnout" in hot climate. poor resistance to rot. Bapor in"ulation @da proo$in+; :he dampness that sometimes occurs inside buildings can be caused by penetration of moisture from the outside or by condensation of water vapor generated on the inside. protection from the outside is provided by water repellent materials which turn aside and force it to return to the earth done the outside of the building. moisture vapor on the other hand can permeate most ordinary building materials such as wood$ paper$ lath plaster$ untreated brick$ etc. the moisture vapor will condense water when its temperature is reduced by contact with a cool surface or cool air. hence$ high humidity in a building may result in condensation of water not only on the inside of walls and windows but also on the outside or within the e%terior walls$ ceiling or roof. moisture vapor is produced by cooking occupants$ laundering$ earth crawl spaces$ basement floors$ humidifies$ etc. Bapor !arrier" @da proo$in+ aterial";

:hese are materials which effectively retard or stop the flow of water vapor and normally are produced in sheets or thin layers. vapor barriers should be installed on the warm side of the insulation. they should be continuous surfaces of asphalt or wa% coated paper$ aluminum$ or other metal foil sheets or polyethylene film. they can be attached to the insulation as part of the manufactured product or installed separately in or on the warm side of the wall$ floor$ or ceiling. they must be continuous and allow no openings through which vapor may pass. although asphalt paper is a good moisture barrier$ it is not a vapor barrier$ and should be used on the outside of a building for that purpose. -aterial" u"ed a" vapor !arrier"/ polyet#ylene $il : this is chemically inert plastic$ unaffected by acids$ alkalis and caustics$ produced in rolls of + to (9 ft. wide. common thicknesses are ($+$- and 2 mil (&mil G .99& in.) this film is useful not only as vapor barrier for walls$ ceilings and floors but also as a barrier to prevent the passage of moisture from the earth upward through a concrete slab lain on the ground. polyethylene film can be applied vertically in +2 in. wide strips to studding on &2 in. centers with a full overlap on alternate studs. films are stapled to studs. overlaps and e%tensions to floors and wallings shall be 2 in. alu inu $oil used as vapor barrier as a single sheet$ or as a thin layer of foil laminated to a heavy backing of asphalt-impregnated kraft paper. this is also done with two layers of foil laminated with asphalt cement. ,ra$t paper coated %it# a"p#alt or %ax. sometimes two layers of paper are cemented with a continous layer of asphalt. another materials used for dampproofing of concrete walls is !weatherkote" bituminous emulsion$ by shell. T#er al in"ulation #n cold weather$ we are interested in transferring heat from furnaces$ radiators$ heating panels$ into various rooms of our buildings. at the same time we are interested in preventing that heat from being transferred from the interior of the building to the outside. Buring the summer$ it is important that we prevent the transfer of hot outside temperatures to the working and living space within our buildings. /ll of these are done by the *udicious use of materials which is best prevent the transfer of heat$ this we call thermal insulation. Aind" o$ t#er al in"ulation loo"e $ill this bulky and divided into5 o fibrous type o granular insulation o fibrous loose fill o granule Blan,et in"ulation- is made from some fibrous material such as mineral wool$ wood fiber$ cotton fiber$ or animal hair.

o batts o structural insulation board o strawboard o corkboard Bloc, or ri+id "la! in"ulation this type of insulation is so called block or rigid because the units are relatively stiff and inelastic. o foamed plastic insulation o cellular glass insulation o foamed concrete o cellular hard rubber o shredded wood or wood fiber o rigid slab insulation o rigid insulation- which are impervous to moisture penetration resulting from continuous contact with the earth and moisture are particularly useful as perimeter insulation. o reflective insulation o aluminum foil o copper- foil insulations o reflective insulation o sheet foil 0oa ed(in place in"ulation this is polyurethane product made by combining a polyisocyanate and a polyester resin. this type of insulation can be applied either by pouring or by spraying. the basic ingredients for both are drawn from their containers$ measured$ and mi%ed by machine. o application by pouring o application by spraying Sprayed(on(in"ulation" materials used are polyurethane foam asbestos fiber mi%ed with inorganic binders$ vermiculite aggregate with a binder such as portland cement or gypsum and perlite aggregate using gypsum as a binder. machines are used for blowing these insulations into place> as a result the shape or irregularity of the surface being insulated is of little consequence. o asbestos fiber insulation o corrugated insulation Soil te"tin+ larger than a single family house$ it is necessary to determine the soil and water condition beneath the site. -et#od o$ "oil te"tin+/ &. di++in+ te"t pit" are useful when foundation is not e%pected to e%tend deeper that about 6 feet which is the ma%imum practical reach of small e%cavation machine. (. te"t !orin+ boring with standard penetration tests can give an indication of the bearing capacity of the soil by the number of blows of a standard driving hammer required to advance a sampling tube into the soil by a fi%ed amount.

Type" o$ "oil"/ rock is a continuous mass of solid mineral materials$ such as granite or limestone$ that can only be removed by drilling and blasting. soil is a general term referring to earth material. boulder if the particle of soil is too large to lift by hand. cobble if the particle of soil takes the whole hand to lift. gravel if the particle can be lifted easily with thumb and forefinger. sand if the particle seen but are too small to be picked up. fine grained soil if the particles are too small to be seen. o silt o clay Pile drivin+ -aterial u"ed in pile $oundation are/ &. timber (. concrete +. steel Ti !er cannot resist high stresses due to hard driving that is required to penetrate hihly resistant layer of soil. the tip of the timber pile which could be easily damaged is protected by the use of steel shoes$ on the otherhand the butt is also provided with an ample protection by the use of cushion block. Concrete pile" are cla""i$ied into t%o type"/ 65 ca"t(in(place ,ased is cast inside a metal shell form which are left in the ground. <ncased eliminate the metal casing. (. preca"t pile" are reinforced to resist high stress caused by the hammer in driving. -etal pile is an e%cellent amterial for pile because of its strength characteristics to withstand hard driving and rapid penetration into the ground$ relatively with small material displacements. Di$$erent etal pile"/ h-bearing piles bos piles rail piles