Longitudinal Dynamics of Train Collisions - Crash Analysis

7TH MINI CONF. ON VEHICLE SYSTEM DYNAMICS, IDENTIFICATION AND ANOMALIES, BUDAPEST, NOV.
6-8, 2000
89
LONGITUDINAL DYNAMICS OF TRAIN COLLISIONS
- CRASH ANALYSIS
Istvn ZOBORY
*
, Hans G. REIMERDES
**
, Elemr BKEFI
*
,
Jens MARSOLEK
**
and Istvn NMETH
*

* Budapest University of Technology
and Economics
Department of Railway Vehicles
H-1521 Budapest, Hungary
** RWTH Aachen
Department of Aerospace Structures
-Light Weight Construction
Wllnerstr. 7. D-52062 Aachen, Germany
Received: November 8, 2000
ABSTRACT
The paper takes an attempt to develop a computation method for predicting the dynamics of train collisions in case
trains consisting of vehicles equipped with crash elements to amortise the impact energy. The initial step of the method
is a time domain simulation of the train collision occurring when two non-linear train models run against each other. In
the collision the inter-vehicle connection forces will temporary exceed the yielding limit of the buffer and coupler
components. As a first approximation it is assumed that in the yielding process the transmitted compressive force
remains constant for the whole plastic contact of the impacting vehicles. This assumption makes it possible to
determine the approximate variation with time of the intervehicle buffer forces. With the knowledge of the received
time dependent force functions FEM based crash dynamical computations can be carried out to determine the time
dependent elastic/plastic deformation processes of the cylindrical-shall-form crash elements built into the vehicle
underframes just behind the front beams. As a result of the FEM computations a second approximation of the plastic-
deformation-dependent inter-vehicle force transfer conditions can be evaluated in form of a non-linear connection force
vs. plastic deformation law, which can be built into the non-linear longitudinal dynamics analysis to be carried out
again in the time domain by using the familiar simulation methods.

Keywords: train dynamics simulation, collision dynamics, crash elements, crash analysis
1. INTRODUCTION
The number of collision connected railway accidents shows world-wide an increasing
tendency year by year. The ever increasing operation velocities cause an increasing
degree of the grave consequences both in loss of human life and severe damage to the
vehicles and other railway equipment. In the technical literature very few number of
publications can be found that are dealing with investigations into the train collision
processes to predict the level of forces and deformations realising in the course of
accidental collisions/crashes. The shortage of the literature sources can be explained by
the extremely complicated character of the dynamics of train crashes. On the one hand
the existing system models in the longitudinal train dynamics remain in the elastic
region concerning the connection forces arising in the intervehicle connections, so the
treatment of the plastic deformation processes makes it unavoidable to develop ap-
propriate methods for describing the intervehicle force transfer in the plastic region, as
well. On the other hand, the crash analysis of aerospace structures has already elabor-
ated investigation models and computation processes of tolerable accuracy, that on the
basis of shell dynamics are proper to be connected with the existing non-linear models
used in the longitudinal dynamics of trains. The paper takes an attempt to develop an
iterative computation method for predicting the dynamics of train collisions/crashes.
7TH MINI CONF. ON VEHICLE SYSTEM DYNAMICS, IDENTIFICATION AND ANOMALIES, BUDAPEST, NOV. 6-8, 2000
90
The initial step of the iterative process is a time domain analysis of the train collision
occurring when two trains run against each other. The intervehicle connection forces
will achieve the yielding limit after the exhaustion of the stroke of the buffer- and
draw gears, and as a first approximation it is assumed that in the yielding process the
force compressive transmitted remains constant for the whole contact of the impacting
vehicles. This assumption makes it possible to determine the approximate variation
with time of the intervehicle buffer forces. With the knowledge of the received time
dependent force functions it is possible to carry out FEM based crash dynamical com-
putations to determine the time dependent elastic/plastic deformation processes of the
cylindrical-shall-form crash elements built into the vehicle underframes just behind the
front beams. As a result of the FEM computations a second approximation of the plas-
tic-deformation-dependent intervehicle force transfer conditions can be evaluated forming
a non-linear connection force vs. plastic deformation law, which can be built into the
longitudinal dynamics analysis to be carried out again in the time domain. The con-
nection force vs. time functions provided by the time domain analysis can be fed back
again into the FEM dynamics, and the iterative process description can be realised.
2. SYSTEM MODELS USED IN LONGITUDINAL
DYNAMICS OF TRAINS
In the traditional problems of longitudinal dynamics of trains in the majority finite degree-
of-freedom lumped parameter models are applied. Several dynamical train models
have been developed with very different degree of system decomposition. The
simplest train models do not consider the vehicles to be interconnected from the
masses of the wheelsets, the bogie-frames and the vehicle bodies, but they take the
train consisting of single mass-points concentrated in the gravity point of the vehicles
considered. The interaction between the adjacent vehicles - in the model between the
mass points introduced - is treated by special connection force diagrams. The latter
diagrams are generated by connection force vs. relative displacement and relative
velocity functions defined for each vehicle connection.
The most frequently used springing element in buffer- and draw gears is the ring-spring
construction, having piece-wise linear elastic restoring characteristics as a function of
the relative displacement and dry friction damping property, the intensity of which
depends almost exclusively also on the relative displacement.
In case of problems of traditional longitudinal dynamics it is enough to consider the
individual displacements and relative velocities of the adjacent vehicles, but if train
collision is to model, also the absolute position of each vehicle should be followed in
the course of the simulations. Of course, in the latter case the relative displacements
and relative velocities of the adjacent vehicles should also be sequentially computed to
generate the connection force functions.
The structure of the familiar dynamical model with absolute vehicle position co-ordinates
is shown in Fig. 1. In the Figure the vehicle connections are indicated by parallelly
connected spring and friction damper elements, but the force transfer properties of the
elements in question are strongly non-linear. The basic properties of the mentioned con-
nection force transfer is characterised in the following Chapter.
91
mn mi m2 m1
Fn-1,n Fi+1,i Fi-1,i F2,3 F1,2
v
LOCO
xn
xi
x2
x1
0

Fig.1. Traditional lumped parameter train model for longitudinal dynamics
3. TREATMENT OF CONNECTION FORCES
BETWEEN THE ADJACENT VEHICLES
For the numerical treatment of the intervehicle connection forces one should prescribe:
the piece-wise linear elastic component F
e
= F
e
(x) by giving the co-ordinate
pairs of the break-points
the piece-wise linear frictional limit force F
f
= F
f
( x x , & ) by giving the co-
ordinate pairs of the break-points for
&
x
>
0.
On the basis of the specified force-relative displacement co-ordinate pairs force com-
ponent F
e
(x) can be computed by linear interpolation for arbitrary x. Similarly,
with the knowledge of the co-ordinate pairs of the values of friction limit force vs.
displacement function F
f
( x x , & ) under the condition
&
x
>
0 can be numerically
determined for each relative motion state of the connection. The practical numerical
treatment of F
f
( x x , & ) was carried out by using the program FRICON elaborated at
the Department of Railway Vehicles of the BUTE to compute the force transfer of dry
friction connections on the basis of the principles introduced in [1]. Program FRICON
takes sideration the characteristic short distance memory of the frictional connection.
The resultant force F transmitted is obtained by sum F = F
e
(x) + F
f
( x x , & ). As an
example, the extended characteristics of a single buffer gear (ring-spring with con-
siderable dry friction) for the treatment of the ideal plastic deformation of the under-
frame is shown in Fig.2. The positive x value means compression, while the positive
F value means compressive force
DEFORMATION
FORCE
F
d
d
YIELDING LIMIT
PROPORTIONALITY
0
LIMIT
d
d
0
t
t
IDEAL PLASTIC DEFORMATION
TRANSMITTED
IF <0 THEN
F=0
x
x
x
x
ELASTIC COMPONENT
RETURNING
AFTER PLASTIC
DEFORMATION
Fe
Fe+Ff
Fe-Ff

Fig. 2 Extended single buffer gear characteristics F
e
and F
f
to treat
the idealised plastic deformation in case of a frontal collision
92
In accordance with the conditions plotted in Fig. 3, the two buffer gears are connected
in-parallel per loco, while the buffer gears of the impacting two locos come into in-
series connection.
LOCO 2 LOCO 1
in parallel
in series

Fig. 3 Connection of four buffers in case of frontal collision of two locos
4. NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF TRAIN COLLISION
BY SIMPLE MODELS
The above introduced extended buffer-force diagram developed for the collision dy-
namics of railway vehicles was tested first in case of the frontal collision process of
two identical locos of 80 t mass. The initial position and velocity conditions are shown
in Fig. 4.
m2 m1
Loco1 Loco2
v2 v1
s2
s1
0

Fig. 4 Two locos running against each other on straight track
The set of non-linear motion equations formulated by using the state space method
was solved numerically by the Euler's method. The computations were carried out by
methodical selection the the initial velocities of the two locos on a discrete partition of
closed interval [-20, 20] km/h. The results of the numerical simulations have been
included into 3D diagrams.

Fig. 5 Maximum forces arisen in the course of frontal collision of two locos
93
In Fig. 5 the maximum forces arisen in the course of the frontal collision of the two
locos considered is shown as a bivariate function of the initial velocities.
Looking at the diagram it is obvious that for initial velocities v
1
> v
2
the two locos will
not impact, so the force of impact is identically zero. On the other hand, in case of real
collision the elasicity of the system buffer-gear underframe is quickly exhausted if
the relative velocity of the impact exceeds the limit 10 km/h. In Fig. 6 the the bivariate
function of the plastic deformation of the two impacting half-underframes is shown.

Fig.6 Ideal plastic deformation of the two impacting underframes
In Fig. 7 the bivariate diagram of the dissipated energy can be seen, also for the impact
of two locomotives. The erepresented energy values contain the friction caused dis-
sipation as well as the dissipation belonging to the ideally plastic deformation of the
half-underframes.

Fig.7 The dissipated energy in case of collision of two locos
The second test of the extended buffer-force diagram developed for the collision dy-
namics of railway vehicles was carried out in case of simulation of the frontal collision
94
process of two identical short trains consisting of a loco of 80t and two carriages of 50t
each. The initial position and velocity conditions of the two short trains are shown in
Fig. 8.
v2
Loco2
m2
s1
v1
m1
Loco1
m22
Car21 Car23
m23 m12
Car12
m13
Car13
0
s2
x

Fig. 8. Two short trains running against each other on straight track
For the exact treatment of the intervehicle forces arising in the train it was necessary to
build up a bivariate connection force diagram describing the force transmitted in the
vehicle connections as a function of the relative position and relative velocity of the
adjacent vehicles in the trains. In Fig. 9 the connection force diagram merging in itself
the draw-gear diagram, the buffer-gear diagram and the underframe characteristics in
the elastic and ideally plastic domain is shown. It is to be emphasised that in case of
such a large relative displacement, which goes with achieving the plasticity limit, the
connection force remains constant (ideal plasticity) whilst the relative velocity of the
adjacent vehicles is positive (
&
x
>
0). If the relative displacement after achieving a
maximum turns to decrease, i.e. the relative velocity becomes negative (
&
x<0), the
connection force falls steeply down, in accordance with the case plotted in Fig. 2.

Fig. 9 Traditional connection force diagram with plasticity extension
Using the bivariate buffer force diagram plotted in Fig. 2 for the computation of the
forces arising in the frontal collision interface of the locos, and the bivariate con-
nection force diagram plotted in Fig. 9 for the computation of the intervehicle forces in
the trains, the set of motion equations describing the train collision process realising
on a straight track section can be formulated. The set of motion equations in the frame-
work of an initial value problem in state-space formulation reads:
95
) , , ( t
p
F x f x = & ,
0 0 0 0
) ( , ) (
p p
t t F F x x = = ,
where vector x(t) is the state vector containing the velocities, the preceding velocities,
the displacements and the preceding displacements of the mass gravity points
modelling the vehicles in the two colliding trains. The preceding velocities and
displacements are the values of the quantities mentioned belonging to the preceding
computation step. The necessity of considering also the preceding values is connected
with the short distance memory of the system containing components with dry friction,
namely the buffer and draw gears. As for the initial value vector x
0
, it contains the
numerical values of the velocities, the preceding velocities, the displacements and the
preceding displacements of the vehicle mass gravity points belonging to initial time
point t
0
. Vector F
p
(t) stands for the preceding force transmitted in the dry-friction con-
nections, i.e. in case of time step h vector F
p
(t) contains the friction force values be-
longing to time point t-h. Accordingly, the initial value vector F
p0
stands for the
friction force values belonging to time point t
0
-h.
The initial value problem introduced above was solved numerically for several initial
velocities. The initial preceding velocities were taken to be identical to the initial
velocities used. The initial positions were always the same, whilst the initial preceding
displacements were selected in accordance to the actual initial velocity and the com-
putation step h. Initial vector F
p0
was selected to be zero vector, since the role of this
initial vector was confined for the starting of the computation process. The further
values of the components of vector F
p
(t) were sequentially generated with the knowl-
edge of the values of the preceding velocity and displacement coordinates belonging to
the preceding time pint t-h.
The numerical simulation carried out by using the program elaborated in MATLAB
resulted in the time functions of the force arising in a single buffer gear in the course
of frontal train collision of different initial velocities. In Figs. 10, 11, 12 and 13.the
diagrams of the buffer-gear forces are shown. As it can be read off the diagrams, the
underframe plasticity limit is exhausted already in case of initial train velocities v
2
=-
v
1
=7.5 km/h. After the exchange of impulse in the course of the collision, the trains
change their original motion direction into their opposite, and at a reduced velocity
leave the place of collision, if no derailment has occurred. It is interesting to recognise that
in contrast with the oscillatory character of the collision caused buffer forces received
for moderate impact velocities, in case of higher initial velocities, e.g. for v
2
=-v
1
=30
km/h the large remaining plastic deformation swept away the oscillatory variations.
The knowledge of variation with time of the dynamic forces loading the front buffer
gears in case of train collision makes it theoretically possible to carry out further
computer based analysis to determine, e.g. cylindrical shell form crash elemenst (im-
pact energy amortiser elements) with appropriate characteristics, which elements can
be axially mounted just behind the buffer gears or into the underframe structure behind
the front beam coaxially with the buffer gears. The mentioned crash elements can take
the role of undergoing large plastic deformation in the course of their partial or total
collapse (loss of stability), the large plastic deformation means the total deterioration
of the crash element, but the collision damage to the underframe or to the other
structural components of the vehicle can be avoided or at least significantly reduced.
96

Fig. 10 Front buffer-gear force vs. time
v
2
=-v
1
=5 km/h.

v
2
=-v
1
=7.5 km/h.

v
2
=-v
1
=10 km/h.

v
2
=-v
1
=30 km/h.
As an important goal of the investigations into the longitudinal dynamics of train col-
lisions can be the elaboration of a reliable dimensioning method of the above men-
tioned crash elements. It is clear that in case of built in crash elements the intervehicle
connection forces will reflect the force vs. deformation characteristics stepping into
action in the course of the loss of stability (plastic collapse) process. The
investigations into such a combined intervehicle connection force vs. deformation
relationship, the detailed analysis of the force vs. deformation and the energy
amortisation conditions of the cylindrical or another form shell structures is of
paramount importance.
In the follwing chapters the FEM based analyses and their backgrounds will be intro-
duced, that were carried out to get preliminary information on the dynamical and en-
ergetic behaviour of the cylindrical steel crash elements esteemed proper by the
authors for railway applications in carriages or traction units.
97
5. APPLICATION OF "CRASH-ELEMENTS" IN VEHICLE STRUCTURES
In the special field of vehicle engineering there are several applications of crash ele-
ments. Considering that the role of the latters is to ensure artificially increased deform-
ation energy amortisation capacity in the vehicle structure, it is clear that beyond the
sphere of applications in railway vehicle technology, all types of vehicles that are
obliged to face and to reckon with the danger of collisions are obviously interested in
the regular usage of crash elements. Accordingly, besides the applications in railway
vehicle technology, there have been old traditions of building in crash elements in the
aircraft/helicopter structures, epecially in sub-passenger floor sections for decreasing
the risk of crash landings. In case of automobiles crash elements are regularly used in
bumpers and also in the chassis, e.g. folding beam sections are built into the front part
of the longitudinal beam to absorb the energy in case of frontal collisions.
In concordance with the above depicted scinario, there are three main purposes of
applying crash elements in vehicle structures. At the first palce the controlled reduc-
tion of kinetic crash energy should be mentioned. Secondly, the limitation to possible
minimum of critical passenger accelerations and the prevention of severe sinjuries
should be ensured. Finally, the localisation of large deformations in the crash ele-
ments should be realised, with regard to the fact that the avoidance/limitation of de-
formation/damage to the main vehicle structure can lead to considerably reduced
repair and insurance costs
6. ENERGY ABSORPTION PROCESS OF METALLIC
CYLINDRICAL SHELLS
The folding process of axially loaded, metallic cylindrical shells can be summarised in
the following three main points:
Buckling of shell after critical buckling load (stability load) is exceeded
Growing of one buckle, formation of first plastic fold
Progressive formation of further folds (Ring or diamond shaped
folding patterns are possible)
The main factors on which the buckling and folding process as well as the related e-
nergy absorption depend are as follows:
Geometry (dimensions of shell, imperfections)
Material properties (stiffness, plasticity, strain-rate sensitive material
behaviour)
Boundary conditions at the ends of the shell
Load introduction (time dependency, load distribution
In order to visualise the folding process and the general force-deflection curve belong-
ing to the shell buckling phenomenon, in Fig. 17 the characteristic phases are plotted.
As an initial phase, the cylindrical shell undergoing mild axial compressive load is in
an elastic state of stress. The combined effect of the geometrical (length, diameter, wall-thick-
ness and random imperfections in the cylender geometry) and the elasticity conditions
determine the critical load when buckling occurs. The initial phase of buckling is
98
major elastic, but with increasing loads the plastic fold formation appears. The actual
form of the initial folding at the proximity of the contact boundary is considerably in-
fluenced by the actual conditions of contact (e.g. radial dry ftiction constraint or axial
guiding rim, etc.) between the shell element and the impactor or the static support. In
case of further load increase, a progressive formation of ring shaped or diamond shaped
foldings can be experienced. In [7] it was shown that with the help of a suitable load
introduction certain diamond-shaped folding modes can also be prescribed to the folding
process of shells. In the course of formation of folding the plastic processes take the
decisive role. The energy amortisation is very effective in case of ring shaped foldings.

Fig. 17 Characteristic force-deformation diagram in case of folding process
In Fig 17. it can be clearly seen that prior to the bickling a definit elastic region of re-
lative high linear stiffness rules the conditions, and after the buckling a very steeply
descenting section comes, after that begins the fluctuation if restoring force in
correlation with the successive appearenceing of the foldings. In Fig. 18 the two char--

ring shaped folding

diamond shaped folding
Fig. 18 Typical folding patterns in case of buckling of cylindrical shells
99
acteristic cases, namely the ring shaped and the diamond shaped folding formation pro-
cesses are visualised.
7. NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF FOLDING PROCESS
WITH FE-CODE LS-DYNA3D
The numerical simulations to obtain quantitative prediction about the dynamic buck-
ling ang collapsing process of cylindrical shell elements have been carried out by
using the finite element code LS-DYNA3D. The latter software is an explicit, non-
linear finite element code, which has originally been developed for the multi purpose
numerical simulation based analyses of continuum mechanical problems emerging in
structural dynamics. Accordingly, its application for simulation of large deformation
processes in the time domain, especially for structures under crash and impact loading
is very fruitful. The selection of the software in question was motivated by the fact that
in the foregoing there were several successful applications for the simulation of crash
phenomena in the automotive industry, also under commercional conditions.
In the following, the most crucial features of the FE-model used for simulation of
railway application purpose crash elements will be dealt with. The selection of the FE
partition of the cylindrical shell element under consideration was based on the
Belytschko-Tsay shell elements. The resulted mesh consisted of 2500 partition el-
ements. The modelling of (in the reality always existing) geometric imperfections was
realised by selecting small random perturbations in the node locations of the mesh. In
order to have possibly good approximation with the simulations, the elastic-plastic
behaviour of the applied mild steel material St14 by a piece-wise linear stress-strain
curve. In the simulations the strain rate dependency of material behaviour was taken
into account by the Cowper-Symonds law. The boundary conditions (constraints), the
detailed conditions of the contact problem arising in the course of the folding process,
and the outputs of the simulation procedure were as follows:
Displacements and rotations were fixed at one end on the shell
Impact with a rigid wall with mass m=90 t and different initial velocities
were reckoned with,
Regular contact algorithm between the rigid wall and shell and frictional self
contact algorithm for the buckled cylinder jacket was used,
The outputs were the reaction forces and the decelerations of the rigid wall
and the deformation of shell.
In Figs.19 and 20 the proceeding of the dynamic buckling and the force-deformation char-
acteristic are shown for the considered cylindrical crash element. The dimensions of the
crash element are indicated in the figure explanation text, where L stands for the unde-
formed length of the cylindric shell element, D for the nominal diameter of the cylinder,
while t for the wall thickness. The dimensions of the considered crash-element were
selected with the intent to satisfy the UIC requirements concerning the energy absorbtion
up to full collapse achieved through sequentional plastic folding process. The UIC pre-
scription specifies 0.5 MJ for a single crash-element to be built into the structure
behind a side buffer of a passenger carriage. In case of locomotives the demand for
energy absorbtion of a crash-element built behind a single side buffer gear is 1 MJ.
100

Fig. 19 Collapse of the cylindrical crash element: L = 800, D = 300, t = 6, impact mass
90 t, initial velocity v = 30 km/h. The kinetic energy of the mass was not absorbed.
0
500
1000
1500
2000
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Deformation [mm]
F
o
r
c
e

[
k
N
]

Fig. 20 Computed restoring force-deformation diagram belonging to Fig. 19
(Shell: L = 800, D = 300, t = 6, impact mass 90 t, initial velocity v = 30 km/h)
In Figs. 21 and 22 the proceeding of the dynamic buckling and the force-deformation
characteristic are shown for the considered cylindrical crash element. The impact velo-
city was 10 km/h.
In Fig. 21 and 22 the dynamic collapse process and the restoring force vs. deformation
performance curve shown that in this case the initial plastic stroke of the considered
101
crash element is exhausted. As it is visible, after the folding process caused exhaustion
of the initial plastic stroke, the longitudinal stiffness of the severely deformed element
takes a considerable almost constant value.

Fig. 21 Collapse of the cylindrical crash element: Shell: L = 800, D = 300, t = 6,
impact mass 90 t, initial velocity v = 10 km/h. The kinetic energy of the impacting
mass was completely absorbed.
0
500
1000
1500
2000
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Deformation [mm]
F
o
r
c
e

[
k
N
]

In Figs. 23 and 24 the dynamic collapse process and the restoring force vs. defor-
mation diagram is shown for impact velocity 7,5 km/h.
102

Fig. 23 Collapse of the cylindrical crash element: Shell: L = 800, D = 300, t = 6, impact mass
90 t, initial velocity v = 7,5 km/h kinetic energy of impacting mass completely absorbed
0
500
1000
1500
2000
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Deformation [mm]
F
o
r
c
e

[
k
N
]

(Shell: L = 800, D = 300, t = 6, impact mass 90 t, initial velocity v = 7,5 km/h)
In Figs. 25 and 26 the dynamic collapse process and the restoring force vs. defor-
mation diagram is shown for impact velocity 5 km/h.
103

Fig. 25 Collapse of the cylindrical crash element: Shell: L = 800, D = 300, t = 6, impact mass
90 t, initial velocity v = 5 km/h kinetic energy of impacting mass completely absorbed
For the sake of comparison of the restoring force vs. deformation diagrams belonging
to the collapse processes under different initial (impact) velocities a common diagram
was constructed, see Fig. 27. Since the variation of restoring force with deformation is
very similar for the chosen material within the treated range of all velocities up to a
limit belonging to the exhaustion of the plastic stroke of the crash-element, as an ap-
0
500
1000
1500
2000
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Deformation [mm]
F
o
r
c
e

[
k
N
]

104
proximation it can be accepted that a unified diagram can be derived by means of av-
eraging of the diagrams belonging to the concidered initial velocities. Obviously, after the
exhaustion if the plastic stroke the collapsed crash-element can be considered as a
tubular thick bar having considerable stiffness. The mentioned stiffness can be clearly
seen in Fig. 27, namely the steeply increasing final section of the restoring force vs.
deformation characteristic belonging to 30 km/h can be referred.
0
100
200
300
400
500
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Deformation [mm]
A
b
s
o
r
b
e
d

E
n
e
r
g
y

[
k
J
]
v = 5 km/h
v = 7,5 km/h
v = 10 km/h
v = 30 km/h

Fig. 28 Common diagram of all energy absorbtion vs. deformation characteristics

0
500
1000
1500
2000
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
F
o
r
c
e

[
k
N
]

v = 5 km/h
v = 7,5 km/h
v = 10 km/h
v = 30 km/h

Fig. 27 Common diagram of all restoring force vs. deformation characteristics of the
cylindrical crash element considered
105
In Fig. 28 the energy absorbtion vs. deformation diagrams are visualised in a common
figure. As it can be seen, the variation of the absorbed energy is almost proportional to
the (plastic) deformation up to the limit characterised by the axhaustion of the plastic
stroke
8. EXTENDED INTERVEHICLE CONNECTION FORCE CHARACTERISTICS
FOR COLLISION DYNAMICS
On the basis of the results received in Chapter 7, the similar quasi-congruent varia-
tion of the force vs. deformation characteristics, and the quasi-covering increase of
the energy absorption vs. deformation characteristics of the cylindrical crash elements
in case of different impact velocities, it is possible to elaborate such a formulation of
the intervehicle connection force characteristics, that the classical lumped parameter
models of longitudinal train dynamics can be preserved. In Fig. 29 the side elevation
of a railway carriage is plotted in order to give a sketch on the allocation of the crash
elements at the front and rear end of the longitudinal main beams of the underframe
just behind the side buffers mounted on the front and rear lateral beams.
6...10m 1m 0.1m
RAILWAY VEHICLE EQUIPPED WITH CRASH ELEMENTS
Buffer Gear
Crash Element
Vehicle Body
Underframe
6...10m 1m 0.1m
Crash Element
Buffer Gear
AT BOTH ENDS OF THE UNDERFRAME

Fig. 29. Allocation of the crash elements behind the buffer-gears
It is interesting to recognise that there is an order of magnitude difference between the
possible deformation of the buffer-gears, the crash elements. Similar relation is in
force between the crash element and the half-underframe deformations.
In Fig. 30 the extended force vs. deformation characteristics of the combined buffer-
gear crash-element - half-underframe system is shown. As it can be read off the fig-
ure, for small deformations the restoring force obeys the law determined by the buffer
gears characteristics. If the sprung stroke of the buffer-gear is exhausted, the restoring
force will steeply increase in accordance with the in series connected stiffnesses of the
unbuckled crash element and the half-underframe. The mentioned increase in restoring
force is limited by the occurrence of buckling and collapsing process of the crash ele-
ment. In the course of the mentioned loss of stability process large deformation occurs
in the plastic domain and a characteristic fluctuating variation with descent mean in
the restoring force can be indicated for positive deformation velocities, in accordance
with the results of Chapter 7. After the exhaustion of the full plastic stroke of the crash
106
element the large remaining deformation of the half underframe comes after, accom-
panied by irregular restoring force fluctuations of larger wavelength.
F
x
B
U
F
F
E
R

G
E
A
R
C
R
A
S
H

E
L
E
M
E
N
T
DEMAGE TO UNDERFRAME
AND VEHICLE BODY
~1m ~4...8 m ~0.1m

Fig. 30 The extended force vs. deformation characteristics of the combined buffer-
gear crash-element half-underframe system
For the sake of explaining the case of the backwards motion after having achieved the
maximum full deformation, consider the right boundary of the shaded area. As it can
be seen, the restoring force steeply falls down due to the remaining elasticity of the
largely deformed structure. If the restoring force diminishes down to the limit deter-
mined by the lower branch of the dry friction damped buffer-gear diagram, and in
case of damage free survival of the buffer gear the further decrease in restoring force
follows the lower buffer-gear diagram branch mentioned, down to vanishing. In case
of further motion of negative velocity, the restoring force remains identically zero.
The mathematical modelling of the restoring force arising in case of the above de-
scribed process is elaborated under the assumption that the plastic collapsing process
of the shell element and the large deformation process of the in series connected beam
can be described by an appropriate non-negative continuous function g(x). Let f*(x) be
the not neccesserily linear function describing the elastic deformation of the axially
loaded shell-beam system. Function f*(x) is assumed to obbey condition f*(0)=0. If
the deformation of the system starting from the unloaded zero position is x(t) then con-
sider first the maximum deformation occurred in time span [0,t] , which is determined
by the following non-linear operation:
{ } ) ( max ) (
0

x t y
t
= .
In order to get a restoring force function defined also for negative deformations (i.e.
for the case when the system is unloaded) let us take function

{ } ) ( , 0 max ) ( x f x f
R x
= .
107
Under the above premise the bivariate restoring force function elaborated for the com-
bined shell-beam system takes the following form (see [4], the so called dream
formula):
{ } { } ))) ) ( ), ( (min ( ( ), ( min ) , (
1
y f y g f y x f x g y x F

= ,

where g(x) stands for the shifted version of the restoring force function s(x) occurring
in case of the plastic deformation (loss of stability) of the cylindrical shell element in
the system. The measure of shifting is determined by the deformation belonging to
the maximum still elastic displacement of the system prior to shell-buckling. The for-
mula:
{ } ) ( , min ) (
0
= x s g x g
where g
0
is the critical buckling load. The elaborated extended restoring force function
F(x,y) has been tested for different variations with time of the deformation process
x(t). In Fig. 31 an expediently constructed double spiral form phase trajectory is shown.
The initial monotonic increase in deformation and deformation velocity (drawn in full
line) turns into gradual decrease (drawn in dashed line) in the mentioned quantities.
This selection of the kinematic conditions makes it possible to model the process of
after another realised sequential impacts causing sequentially increasing plastic de-
formation in the crash element. In Fig. 32 the variation with time of the restoring
force in question is shown over the time function of the deformation process
simulated.

Fig. 31 Constructed phase trajectory for testing the restoring force function
In Fig. 33 the 3D diagram of the variation of the restoring force values are shown over
the constructed phase trajectory. The intersecting in-space curves should fit onto a
bivariate performance surface describing the extended restoring force arising in the
buffer crash-element underframe system.
108

Fig. 32 Restoring force vs. time function over the constructed
displacement time function

Fig. 33 Restoring force rover the constructed phase trajectory
9. POSSIBILITY OF TIME DOMAIN ANALYSIS BY USING
THE EXTENDED CHARACTERISTICS
With the knowledge of the extended restoring force diagram for all vehicle
connections the numerical treatment of the longitudinal dynamical processes can be
quite similar to the traditional case.
The initial value problem has the form ( ) t , x f x = &
, where function f contains the
extended connection force diagrams depending on the relative displacement and re-
lative velocity of the vehicles' gravity points. Starting from initial values ( )
0 0
x x = t
and F
p
(t
0
) = F
p0
, the familiar integration methods can be used, e.g. Heun, Runge-
Kutta, MATLAB ODE, ODEs, etc.
109
The variation with time of the connection forces can be determined by substituting the
solution received from the kinematic characteristics into the combined draw-gear ex-
tended restoring force functions defined for each intervehicle connection.
Numerical results concerning the variation with time of the above intervehicle forces
will be introduced in a subsequent publication
10. CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of the train of thoughts and the computer based numerical computation
results, as well as the evaluations introduced, the following conclusions can be drawn:
The simulation of train collision processes by using traditional
connection force diagrams with ideal plastic extension show
that over v
2
= -v
1
>5 km/h train velocities the forces arising
in the underframe achieve the yielding limit.
To avoid the damage to the underframes it is advantageous to
build in cylindrical shell form crash elements behind the buf-
fer gears.
The UIC demand of 0.5 MJ energy absorption per crash el-
ement for railway carriages can be satisfied by the developed
cylindrical shell form element.
The traditional connection force diagrams can be extended tak-
ing into account the force vs. deformation characteristics of
the crash elements and the large deformations causing damages
to the underframe and the vehicle body
The non-linear dynamical models with their existing numerical
treatment can be used when the extended connection force
diagrams are included in the lumped parameter system.
Further research is necessary to analyse the behaviour of crash
elements in wider deformation velocity range and with other
geometry to achieve better dissipation behaviour and impact
direction insensitivity
11. REFERENCES
[1] Zobory, I.- Bkefi, E.: On Real-Time Simulation of the Longitudinal Dynamics of
Trains on a Specified Railway Line. Proceedings of the 4th Mini Conference on
Vehicle System Dynamics, Identification and Anomalies, held at the TU of
Budapest, 7-9 of November, 1994. p. 88-100.
[2] Zobory, I.- Bkefi, E.: Longitudinal Dynamics of Vehicle Systems and Traffic
Flows. Proceedings of the 5th Mini Conference on Vehicle System Dynamics,
Identification and Anomalies, held at the TU of Budapest, 11-13 of November,
1996. p. 81-93.
110
[3] Horvth, K.- Gyrik, A.- Zobory, I.: Modellierungsmglichkeiten der durch
trockene Reibung gedmpften Schwingungen bei der lngsdynamischen Unter-
suchung von Eisenbahnzgen. Periodica Polytechnica, Transportation Engineer-
ing, Vol.7. No.2. 1979. p.149-161.
[4] Zobory, I.: On Mathematical Modelling of the Restoring Force Arising in Case of
Impact on in Series Connected Beam and Cylindrical Shell Element. Manuscript,
Budapest, 2001.
[5] Gmez Garcia, J.- Marsolek, J.- Reimerdes, H.-G.: Determination of the energy
absorption of cylindrical shells under axial loading by analysis of the dynamic
buckling and folding process, International Crashworthiness Conference IJCRASH
98, Dearborn, Michigen, USA, 1998
[6] Gmez Garcia, J.- Marsolek, J.- Reimerdes, H.-G.: Energieaufnehmeverhalten
metallischer Zylinderschalen unter axialer Stobeastung, DGLR-Jahrestagung,
Dresden, 1996
[7] Marsolek, J.- Reimerdes, H.-G.: Numerische und experimentelle Untersuchungen
des Faltvorgangs von zylinderschalenfrmigen, metallischen Energieabsorben, 18.
CAD-FEM Users Meeting, Friedrichshafen, 2000

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