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PROJECT DEMONSTRATING EXCELLENCE

The Scientific Approach of Wisdom

by Richard Hawley Trowbridge Submitted in partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy with a concentration in Arts & Sciences and a specialization in Human De elopment At the !nion "nstitute & !ni ersity #incinnati$ %hio

%ctober &'$ ('')

#ore *aculty Ad isor+ ,e in Sharpe$ Ph-D-

Union Institute & University Cincinnati O!io

#opyright . ('') by Richard Hawley Trowbridge All Rights Reser ed- Requests for permission to use material in this document for any purpose other than personal study should be sent to Richard Trowbridge- /mail address+ transleti01hotmail-com

Abstract

2hile wisdom figures in the oldest sur i ing literary documents$ it has been neglected by philosophy for centuries$ and by empirical psychology until quite recently+ empirical study began only in the 345's- Since then$ interest in wisdom continues to grow$ both for promoting healthy old age and good li es throughout the lifespan$ and for its possible contribution to the common good- " ha e ta6en ad antage of this twenty7fifth anni ersary of the first published empirical research on wisdom to present in one place a description and e aluation of all published studies " was able to find- At the same time$ the religious and philosophic traditions were re iewed to pro ide fuller understanding of the conceptTheoretical contributions by psychologists were included- The first research question addressed what the findings of a quarter7century of empiric study show- "n re iewing these studies$ the question$ How is wisdom to be studied8 presented itself as a priority to be considered as empiric research proceeds- Three proposals were set forth and confronted with the data+ that research will need to engage religious and metaphysical wisdom9 that it remains to be determined whether women:s understanding of what is wise differs from men:s9 and that studying e0emplars is essential- Results showed no indications of a conflict between religious and practical wisdom$ e en in studies including religious persons- The question is hardly laid to rest$ but can perhaps be left to theorists for the present- ;ittle difference in le els of wisdom between women and men$ but some indication of differences in their understandings of the term was found- <i en the absence of female writers on wisdom until the twentieth century$ it seems important for research to resol e

The Scientific Approach of Wisdom this question- The study of e0emplars has been recommended by others- "t has yet to begin$ remaining an urgent$ missing piece of the picture-

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The Scientific Approach of Wisdom

T!e Scienti"ic A##roac! to $is%o&

Contents 3- "ntroduction+ Purpose of This Study The contemporary study of wisdom The need for conceptual clarity The current world situation % er iew of the dissertation 3 ) = 4 3&

(- ;iterature Re iew "ntroduction A- *our main periods of wisdom literature in the 2est Prephilosophic #lassical Socrates Plato Aristotle Stoic wisdom #hristian >ew Testament Augustine Thomas Aquinas

3) 3) 3= 35 (' (' (3 (( (5 (4 (4 &3 &?

iii

The Scientific Approach of Wisdom @- Defining wisdom 2isdom as optimal choice #ultural differences ,inds of wisdom Difficulty of distinguishing wisdom 2isdom as a distinct$ unique ability 2isdom and the good life 2isdom and the common good #- Personal aspects of wisdom 2isdom as a comple0 of personal qualities Ad anced personality de elopment "ntegration of personality Particular qualities <ood Budgment Reflecti eness "nsight into significance and meaning Ability to deal with comple0 problems Cirtuous character %penness Relati istic thin6ing Dialectical thin6ing$ critical thin6ing Self76nowledge ,nowledge of limits$ humility ?3 ?5 )( )& )= )5 )A )4 =3 =3 =? =) =5 =A =A =4 5' 53 53 5( 5& 5? 5)

The Scientific Approach of Wisdom #omfort with uncertainty and ambiguity Self7control @road and deep 6nowledge and e0perience Social s6ills @ene olence$ empathy$ compassion$ generati ity Decentering Autonomy Humor #reati ity "ntuition Serenity "ntelligence %ther qualities 2isdom as a collecti e product #ulti ating wisdom D- Theoretical psychological models The @erlin 2isdom Paradigm Sternberg:s @alance Theory of 2isdom Ardelt+ wisdom as cogniti e$ reflecti e$ and affecti e integration Pascual7;eone ,ramer:s %rganicist model Achenbaum & %rwoll:s Synthetic model %ser$ Schen6er$ & Spychiger+ An Action7%riented Approach 5= 5= 5A 5A 54 A' A' A3 A3 A3 A( A( A& A? A) A5 AA 4) 4A 44 3'3 3'( 3'&

The Scientific Approach of Wisdom #si6szentmihalyi & Rathunde+ / olutionary hermeneutics /ri6son:s /pigenetic model ,ohut Dung Hall /- Statement of the research questions 3'? 3'? 3') 3'= 3'A 3'A

&- Eethod A- Statement of the method used @- "ntegrati e re iews #- Philosophic method

33( 33A 334 3(3

?- Descriptions of the research studies A- The empirical study of wisdom @- Descriptions of the studies #- #ategorizing the research #hronological listing of the published research studies on wisdom The studies categorized according to type The studies listed in all applicable categories Tables presenting a description of the studies

3&) 3&) 3?3 3?3 3?3 3?& 3?= 3)&

)- Results A- 2hat ha e these &= studies found out about wisdom8

3=) 3=)

The Scientific Approach of Wisdom Studies of common opinions of wisdom Summary @erlin wisdom paradigm Summary Ardelt Summary 2in6 & Helson F3445G and Helson & Sri asta a F(''(G Summary %thers Summary @- "ntegration of metaphysical and practical wisdom #- Possible differences in gender regarding understanding of wisdom D- Study of e0emplars 3== 35) 35= 3A= 3AA 34' 34' 34( 34& 34) 34= 34A ('&

=- Discussion A- 2hat has been learned from the research of wisdom8 @- "ntegration of metaphysical and practical wisdom #- Possible differences in gender regarding understanding of wisdom D- Study of e0emplars Summary 5- #onclusion References

('? ('? (&) (?? (?5 ()( ()? (53

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The Scientific Approach of Wisdom Punctuation A''reviations & Sy&'o(s

Three unspaced dots indicate ellipses of sources$ whether e0ternal or internal$ e-g-$ HF,ramer$ ('''GI or HFsee #hapter (GI- Thus$ the phrase Hwisdom is an adapti e form of life Budgment F,ramer$ ('''G that in ol es not what but how one thin6sI would be elided as Han adapti e form of life Budgment---that in ol esIThree spaced dots indicate ellipses of te0t Fe-g-$ Hwisdom- - - in ol es not what but how one thin6sIG*our spaced dots indicate an ellipsis that continues from one sentence to another"talics- !nless it is stated that " ha e italicized words$ all italics in quoted material were italicized in the sourceSquare brac6ets F J K G within direct quotes indicate words inserted to clarify meaningSection references to <ree6 and ;atin te0ts follows standard usageNE = Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics MPI L Ea0 Planc6 "nstitute for Human De elopment

Gen%er)inc(usive (an*ua*e+ for the generic use of pronouns with human referents$ M/: is sometimes used here for the nominati e case FL he$ sheG$ and Mhir: for the other cases FL$ e-g-$ him$ her$ hisG- 2e are fortunate that in /nglish it is easy to ma6e our language gender inclusi e- There is no reason not to do so$ and e ery reason not to postpone doing so- To use / or hir is as simple as to use MEs-: to refer to any woman FL Eiss or Ers-G9 and in spea6ing$ the pronunciation is the same as currently used terms- That is$ M/: is pronounced almost li6e the word Mhe:$ and Mhir: is pronounced e0actly li6e the word Mher-: "ncidentally$ the term Mhir: dates bac6 to #haucer$ though he used it as a plural FL theirGiii

The Scientific Approach of Wisdom

Ac,no-(e%*&ents

*or the successful completion of this proBect$ my great gratitude goes to ,e in Sharpe$ a model of professionalism$ whose support throughout a sometimes wandering process toward a center has been a source of strength- To the rest of the committee$ who ha e been both guides and companions+ Doseph 2- Eee6er$ *lorence Eatus6y$ ,arl Peters$ #heryl <enet$ and particularly Russell E- <enet for his assistance in many ways*lorence has helped impro e this dissertation through references to wor6s " would not ha e identified$ and has been a model of generosity$ not only by gi ing her time in editing the manuscript- To the <ary ;ibrary librarians$ particularly Tess Nimmerman$ for help locating hard7to7find documents- 2ithout them$ the quality of this dissertation would be diminished- Than6s to !"&! for ma6ing this form of education possible$ enabling me to wor6 through my particular$ longstanding quest- To Dean <reen$ gassho$ as a comment of his led to the focus of this dissertation and to resol ing the puzzle that had long occupied me- To Alice$ my soulmate$ with whom " learn much about life and lo ing- Her companionship and support throughout these past fi e years has been a presence more beautiful than " ha e 6nown- To my family who ha e gi en me much along the way$ those who are here and so many who ha e transcended this plane$ in particular my siblings$ Danet$ Dames$ and Dohn$ my mother$ Earie Dulia$ and grandmother$ Dosephine Argus Trowbridge- To all the beings who teach me daily+ There be things which are little upon the Earth, but the are e!ceeding wise"

i0

The Scientific Approach of Wisdom

HSolon$ Solon$ you <ree6s are always children$I the /gyptian priest told the isitor who had come a long way to learn ancient wisdom- As " approach my se enth decade$ the con iction grows in me that we humans are all children in regard to our le el of wisdom$ and " retain a perhaps childish optimism that in a ery short time$ the general le el can be raised significantly- 2hy not8 #onsider that my home state$ >ew Oor6$ was the second in the nation to mandate compulsory education$ in 3A)&Pand it was not until my <randmother:s time$ in the 3A4's$ that the law was enforced- @asic literacy sufficed then$ but today higher order cogniti e functions are needed- Though we may not ha e done so well regarding some other 6ey indicators of humanity$ there is no reason in principle that we could not- The daunting crises facing the global community are a great spur to the culti ation of wisdom- Perhaps a trump card is the addition of about twenty7fi e years of healthy lifespan today compared with what people in my <randma:s time could e0pect- "t is sometimes said that H"f science can do something$ it will-I "f #omo sapiens$ the human who is wise$ can become wise we will and we must- Particularly for those who ha e the ad antages of both age and comfortable Fabo e subsistenceG standard of li ing$ this is a priority-

Tantae molis erat humanam condere gentem

. Intro%uction+ Pur#ose o" T!is Stu%y

It is our hope. . . that we will eventually be able to integrate disparate research literature by exploring how wisdom promotes the collaboration of mind and virtue toward a good life on an individual and societal level. Kunzmann & Baltes !!"#"$% . . . psychological studies of wisdom are so singularly unpromising. Ke&es %''(#%"

Eodern science$ in this case represented by empirical psychology$ became interested in wisdom almost accidentally$ Bust thirty years ago when a young researcher$ Ci ian #layton F#layton 345)$ 345=9 #layton & @irren 34A'G$ questioned some of the assertions put forth by /ri6 /ri6son F34)4$ 34=&G in regard to the final stage of life$ successful arri al at which$ he had claimed$ resulted in wisdom- 2riting soon after$ Holliday & #handler F34A=+ iiG comment that it was only the new interest in gerontology Hand with it the need to identify potential competency mar6ers in adulthood and old ageI that attracted academic interest in wisdom- The study of healthy aging pro ided the starting point for the maBor group of researchers on wisdom$ and research in this area is still to a large e0tent connected with the study of healthy aging Fe-g-$ Ardelt 3445$ (''&G-

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Prior to this time$ psychologists had almost completely ignored wisdom- <- Stanley Hall F34((G had some thoughtful comments in his boo6 on growing old- #arl Dung Fe-g-$ 34)4$ 34=5$ 34=AG discussed wisdom in terms of full human de elopment- /ri6 /ri6son F34)4$ 34=&G made wisdom a culmination of his epigenetic theory of psychological stage de elopment$ and Heinz ,ohut F34A)G considered wisdom a culmination of successful psychological de elopment and healthy transformation of original narcissism- Abraham Easlow mentioned wisdom frequently Fe-g-$ 34=A+?A$ 345'+?5$ ;owry 345&+55$ and Easlow 3453+(3$ where he wrote H- - - growth alues$ that is$ what ma6es man healthier$ wiser$ more irtuous$ happier$ more fulfilledIG- He seemed to identify wisdom most closely with authenticity>one of these ga e the concept sustained and systematic treatment$ and apart from them wisdom appears to ha e been quite ignored by psychologists- The reasons for this ha e been speculated on by #handler & Holliday F344'+3(=75G and Robinson F344'+('7 (&G2isdom lost interest for philosophers also FRobinson$ 344'9 >- Smith$ 344AGTheologians and historians of ancient religions were the only scholars to ma6e large7scale efforts to study wisdom$ and they ha e made aluable contributions to understanding the early literature- @rown F('')+45=3G$ for e0ample$ writes that HThe subBect of wisdom literature in the @ible has flourished in the last decades of the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty7first century-I %nce a way to study wisdom with a scientific method had been pointed out$ the topic was quic6ly ta6en up by psychologists with interests other than aging- %ne of the first was Robert D- Sternberg of Oale F34A)G$ whose specialty was intelligence$ and then Stephen <- Holliday & Eichael D- #handler F34A=G$ the latter see6ing ways to promote (

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

adult competence and e0pand e0cessi ely technical models of 6nowing- Slower to progress ha e been methods of research and conceptualization$ and it was only in 344' FSmith & @altesG that a theoretical model was ad anced- "n that model$ wisdom was defined as He0pertise in the fundamental pragmatics of life$I and operationalized by fi e criteria Fsee page A4 of this documentG- Researchers continue to find it difficult to disco er approaches to wisdom that embrace its comple0ity$ as will be seen- Defining wisdom remains a maBor concern for scholars in all fields with an interest in the conceptEarchand F(''&+3G and Ardelt F(''?+()AG recently referred to the lac6 of a clear definition- Staudinger F(''3a+3'='G had written that HEost empirical research on wisdom in psychology has so far focused on further elaboration of the definition of wisdom-I Se eral articles in ;ehrer et al" F344=G discuss a definition from a philosophical iew$ and in her article H2isdom ;iterature+ Theoretical Perspecti esI$ Ale0andra R- @rown F('')+45=(G gi es nine alternati e definitions of the Dewish7#hristian wisdom literatureA general consensus regarding the identity of wisdom is not an impossibility$ but it would probably require the type of wor6 that resulted in the 2orld Health %rganization:s F34?=G definition of healthPwhich$ as Ha state of complete physical$ mental and social well7beingI$ is not totally distinct from wisdom- "n fact$ ;abou ie7Cief F344'+54G compared wisdom with the concept of optimal health9 she proposed that it could pro ide both a model for optimal de elopment$ and for understanding why people fail to de elop optimally- @rown:s F('')+45=(G final alternate definition of wisdom as an Hanswer to the question M2hat is good for men and women8:I is perhaps broad enough to escape all subcategories and ser e at the highest le el of abstractionA tas6 coordinate with definition is determining the range of human acti ities in which wisdom can be manifested- Aristotle FMetaph sics "-3$ 4A3b(A74G distinguished &

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

practical from theoretical wisdom$ the one Fphron$sisG concerned with human affairs$ and the other FsophiaG$ Hconcerned with the primary causes and principles-I This differentiation was followed by Augustine and Aquinas$ and is still useful- A contemporary model is pro ided by ,ramer F344'G$ who distinguishes fi e functions+ Solution of problems confronting oneself9 Ad ising others9 Eanagement of social institutions9 ;ife re iew9 and Spiritual introspection- ;ac6ing clarity regarding its definition and areas of application$ it is unli6ely that such a broad acti ity as wisdom can be efficiently learned$ and used as a tool for ma6ing choices- 2isdom has a long and lingering history of connoting$ in part$ a superhuman ideal$ and$ in part$ the word is used as a ague term of appro al- "t is used in reference to personal and public life$ esoteric 6nowledge$ and religious dogma$ and what it means in any of these areas is seldom clearAfter all$ in any definition wisdom is a matter of interpretation$ not a physical phenomenon that can be precisely defined#onley F(''&+5A?G states that wisdom Hmay be gi en speculati e or practical emphasis or e en special religious alue$ but it always implies a type of 6nowing and usually a capacity to Budge-I That wisdom is constituted by good Budgment has been part of its meaning since its first appearance in written records+ H"n those days$ in those far remote days$ in those nights$ in those faraway nights$ in those years$ in those far remote years$ at that time the wise one who 6new how to spea6 in elaborate words li ed in the ;and- Quruppag ga e instructions to his son- - -I So begins the Instructions of Shuruppa% Fca (='' @#/G$ one of four documents H6nown from the dawn of literatureI FSchRyen ('')G-

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

THE CONTEMPORARY STUDY OF WISDOM Human assumptions about our place in the uni erse ha e changed throughout the centuries$ and the understanding of wisdom has changed accordingly- The general meaning space has not- At the least$ the study of wisdom by psychologists since 34A' has made a ailable one more tool for guiding decisions- 2isdom can be distinguished as a alid$ unique construct whose content can be described and operationalized- This is an important accomplishment$ as @lanchard7*ields & >orris F344)+3')G recognize+ Hwisdom has been legitimized in the science of psychology by operationalizing it into a 6nowledge system framewor6$ i-e-$ borrowing from an established scientific approach-I As Eoberg F(''(+?5G points out$ Hscientific research depends upon measurement and human ser ices require assessments-I %perationalization of wisdom is a step forward$ but operationalization adequate to the concept is something else$ a problem with which this dissertation is primarily concernedPaul @- @altes F34A5+=3(G$ one of the maBor contributors$ points out that it was only since the 34='s that lifespan de elopment has been studied empirically- He also e0presses optimism that wisdom can be studied empirically$ Hinasmuch as cogniti e psychologists are increasingly studying tas6s and reasoning problems that$ li6e the problems to which wisdom is applied$ ha e a high degree of real7life comple0ity$ and whose problem definition and solution in ol es uncertainty and relati ism in BudgmentI F=3)GStaudinger F(''3a+3'=(G writes that future research on wisdom will$ at the least$ be directed toward identifying the conditions necessary for the de elopment of wisdom9 and toward wisdom:s use for finding ways to li e well9 and toward its use as a metaheuristic$

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

a general strategy or pattern for ma6ing optimal choices$ particularly in regard to life planning$ management$ and e aluationTo propose that wisdom is a basic de elopmental goal of humans is not absurd$ e en if$ while belie ing that we ha e a long history of concern with this ability$ we ha e in fact hardly made a beginning in its culti ation- This is why ,e6es: Fone of the few contemporary philosophers to write about wisdomG Budgment at the opening of the "ntroduction is unfair and misguided- He was writing at a time when empirical research into wisdom had been carried on for less than two decades- A <ree6 critic writing during the first generation of philosophers certainly could ha e similarly dismissed philosophic inquiry into wisdom-

THE NEED FOR CONCEPTUAL CLARITY As indicated in the pre ious section$ if wisdom is to become a construct$ model$ or goal truly useful for guiding human decisions at this time when traditional guides are faltering and there is uncertainty about any guides$ it must be capable of being assessed- Possibly empirical science will need to find ways of doing this that go beyond currently accepted methods9 but without measures that are both epistemologically Bustified$ as well as capable of embracing the essential aspects of wisdom$ inter entions aimed at de eloping the wisdom of indi iduals will be se erely handicappedResearch has progressed far enough to ma6e it possible to design a model for those who suspect that neither they nor their fellow citizens will e er be wise$ but who are con inced of the alue and possibility of ma6ing decisions that are wiser than they would otherwise be- To date$ research has been used to assess people:s wisdom$ to help determine a definition$ and to establish its relationship to other psychological constructs=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Research to assess or promote the wisdom of public policy$ as opposed to the wisdom of persons$ has not been attempted- Sternberg is the only researcher who is using the research to help people become wiser$ in a recently7begun study F(''3a$ (''&G with middle7school children2isdom is uni ersally accepted to be of great alue$ and yet it has been applied to so many different aspects of life$ to indicate such a broad range of qualities$ that clear perception is obscured- Such agueness is not simply an obstacle to clear thin6ing about wisdomPthis could be sorted out in a rather straightforward wayPbut an obstacle to understanding how e0istence is to be percei ed- "t becomes tacitly assumed that fundamental qualities of e0istence are far more nebulous than they actually are Fthough still nebulous enoughG- Despite the fact that that studies of a erage people:s ideas show Hthat there e0ists high consensus among adult American and <erman participants about what is considered to be wiseI F@altes et al-$ 344)+3)4G$ it has not been demonstrated that there is clear understanding of the meaning of wisdom in people:s minds- "f a list of brief descriptors are presented to a erage people$ and they are as6ed to rate on a scale of 3 to ) how well each describes a wise person$ reasonable agreement among responses may result$ but this is not the same as pro iding a clear description of what it means to be wise9 nor does it demonstrate that the respondents ha e a clear understanding of what wisdom is$ or that they ha e e er gi en wisdom any thought- A clear portrait of the conceptual space of wisdom is lac6ing from both philosophical and psychological studies$ and one of the goals of this study is to bring a better focus hereThe concept of wisdom cannot be fi0ed with the precision of concepts in the physical sciences$ but the landscape can be clearly identified and become familiar/mpirical research has an essential role in this ongoing proBect- An important step has 5

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

been ta6en by researchers$ including those of the Ea0 Planc6 "nstitute FEP"G group$ indicating that wisdom is a psychological construct distinct from intelligence or personality- Staudinger$ Eaciel$ et al- F344A+3?G obser e that Hit seems defensible to pursue wisdom as a construct in its own right$ and that it is not easily captured by e0tant measures-I The fact that the term HwisdomI$ or 6indred terms$ ha e been used o er thousands of years$ to refer to quite different acti ities Fe-g-$ religious and practical$ personal and politicalG$ ma6es it both difficult and necessary to draw the lines as clearly as possible if wisdom$ considered as an e0plicit perspecti e or a HmetaheuristicI F@altes & Staudinger ('''G is to be of use for impro ing human e0istence- This is indicated by Taranto:s F34A4+3G comment that in most of the recent psychological and philosophical writing on wisdom at that time$ Hthe general intent- - - is to define wisdom-I Hershey & *arrell F3445G may be mista6en when they write that Hpsychologists who e0amine perceptions of wisdom assume that there should e0ist a uni ersally agreed upon definition of wisdom-I At least " ha e not come across any e0plicit statements to this effect- @ut a uni ersally agreed upon definition of wisdom might not be a bad ideaCagueness at the edges of definitional boundaries may not be a wea6ness$ if such a definition ma6es it possible for people to acquire a clear understanding of wisdom:s central features$ and where it applies in their li es- Holliday & #handler:s F34A=G comments on prototypes are worth considering in this regard- The impression " get from studying the history of wisdom$ and the current global problematique$ is that despite our long history$ humans are at an infantile stage of de elopment in regard to wisdom+ in a position somewhat similar to when symbolic language was being created by long ago ancestors- "t is difficult for anyone to become aware of hir own de elopmental A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

limitations- 2hat can be done is to propose reasonable ideal standards Fas in the !-S&eclaration of IndependenceG- There is nothing no el in the claim that #omo sapiens is an unfinished species and that further mental de elopment is possible- 2isdom will remain a debatable and fluid concept$ yet once clarity is attained regarding its functions and constituents$ its manifestations will be easier to identify and discuss$ and its ontogenesis and de elopment easier to culti ate-

THE CURRENT WORLD SITUATION The ability to prioritize$ and to ha e a clear understanding of what is in ol ed in ma6ing good choices$ is especially important today- Human:s power to control our li es$ and to affect all life$ has increased by orders of magnitude in the past couple centuries- 2e need to ta6e seriously our plan for using that power- The following chart gi es an indication of what " mean+ $or(% Po#u(ation Gro-t! Oear 3''' @#/ 3 3''' #/ 3)'' 35)' (''' (')' Population )' million (A) million &'' million ?A' million A'' million =$'A' million 4$34' million

Source+ !-S- #ensus @ureau$ Population Di ision$ "nternational Programs #enter- ;ast Re ised+ &' Sep (''? 3?+3A+?3 /DT Swww-census-go TipcTwwwTworldhis-htmlU$ accessed &T)T('')- *or ('''$ and (')' estimate+ !-S- @ureau of the #ensus$ "nternational Data @aseSwww-census-go TipcTwwwTworldpop-htmlU- Data updated 47&'7(''? accessed &T)T('')/stimates for years 37(''' #/ were made by the #ensus @ureau by a eraging upper and lower estimates-

A chart of energy use$ or of human appropriation of >et Primary Production F>PPG$ would be e en more informati e- >et Primary Production is the global amount of solar 4

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

energy con erted by photosynthesis into organic matter- The ability to calculate >PP is new- Reporting in Scientific American FApril ('')G on the most recent and most detailed study$ Rodger Doyle writes that human use of >PP is estimated between 3?7(= percent/minent biologist /- %- 2ilson F344(+(5(G$ whose estimate of the human appropriation of >PP was ('7?' percent$ wrote HThere is no way that we can draw upon the resources of the planet to such a degree without drastically reducing the state of most other species-I A third indication of human7en ironment interface$ world energy use$ shows a roughly se enty7fi efold increase from 3A'' to 344' FEc>eill$ ('''+3)GHere is where the e0ercise of wisdom For good Budgment by any nameG becomes humanity:s greatest challenge- /mpirical study may be a necessary requirement for wisdom to become a goal$ perspecti e$ or method that is actually used in people:s public and personal roles- The first quarter7century of empirical research has shown how difficult such study is- Since the /nlightenment$ wisdom has been of ery little interest to people in the 2est$ particularly to educated people- Oet the need for wisdom has not gone away$ and it can be maintained with Bustification that the need is greater today than e er- Robert D- Sternberg F(''&+0 iiiG$ (''& President of the American Psychological Association and one of the maBor researchers on wisdom$ writes that H"f there is anything the world needs$ it is wisdom- 2ithout it$ " e0aggerate not at all in saying that ery soon$ there may be no world- - -I *ollowing the post72orld 2ar "" population$ economic$ and technology booms$ the human community has no choice but to ta6e responsibility for the fate of the /arth- "f we do not$ human power has grown so great that we will affect our future in ways that are as drastic as unplanned$ determined by narrow$ short term interests- *or e0ample$ in regard to biodi ersity$ genetic engineering$ and po erty that is life7stunting for hundreds of 3'

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

millions in the midst of enormous wealth- 2illiams F3443+?3G$ in the New Enc clopedia 'ritannica$ writes of genetic engineering that HThis second scientific re olution may pro e to be$ for good or ill$ the most important e ent in the history of man6ind-I 2ithout wisdom$ the li6elihood increases that it will pro e for ill- There is already auspicious irony in the fact that humans ha e wor6ed out the genetic code of life while simultaneously bringing about the first mass e0tinction of species in the past si0ty7fi e million years FThomas et al- (''?G%n the other hand$ humans ha e a unique opportunity at this moment to use the enormous power we ha e gained for the well7being of all- !> Secretary <eneral ,ofi Annan F(''&G states that H*or the first time in human history$ we ha e the resources$ the 6nowledge and the e0pertise to eradicate human po ertyPand to do it within the lifetime of a child born at the time when the A Millennium &eclaration was adoptedI FSeptember ('''GAleida Assmann F344?+('?G writes of the Hloss of an integrating perspecti eI in a postmodern pluralistic world as allowing the return of interest in wisdom- "n fact$ conflicts arising from irreconcilable ultimate beliefs and alues For their interpretationsG are the perfect place for wisdom$ e en as isionaries struggle without cess or success to discern a Hglobal ethicI Fe-g-$ Hodes & Hays 344)G- This is not to deny that e entually a new integrating perspecti e$ a postmodern synthesis$ or Huni ersal truth$I may come forth$ possibly$ as #si6szentmihalyi & Rathunde F344'+&(G suggest$ Ha systematic ecological consciousness in which the consequences of e ents and actions are understood to be causally related and to ha e long7term effects for the sur i al of human life and for the en ironment that sustains itIPa post7modern return to the Hact7consequenceI insight FRudolph ('')G of Hthose days$ those faraway daysI when Shuruppa6 wal6ed the land- A 33

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

globally concerted approach to and prioritizing of wisdom is highly desirable$ if not a sine (ua non for energizing the will of the global community to use our resources and 6nowledge humanelyThe amount of 6nowledge that has become a ailable in the past couple centuries has changed the human condition fundamentally- The facts of life and death$ good and e il$ lo e and indifference ha e not changed- @ut these realities are subBect to greatly differing interpretations- *or e0ample$ the difference between belie ing that only physical forces e0ist$ and belie ing that this e0istence is only a preparation for eternal life in hea en or hell- As Eeacham F34A&+3&3G points out$ HThe introduction of new 6nowledge changes the broader conte0t within which all 6nowledge is e aluatedI>ot only has the conte0t changed in maBor ways in the past century$ the need for higher7order cogniti e$ affecti e$ and social s6ills will arguably bring about a re olution in human thin6ing processes- There is a great demand for better decision7ma6ing$ and there are many e0cellent tools for helping people acquire this s6ill- Da id Per6ins F344)+3&G$ li6e many others such as Sternberg$ proposes that intelligence is learnable$ and he claims Hthat a re olution in our conceptions of intelligence is underway$ that it:s warranted$ that we need it$ and that we can carry it further-I 2isdom may pro ide a 6ey filter for better decision7ma6ing in the increasingly comple0 and interdependent world$ where options are far more numerous- @ut what is meant by wisdom needs to be clearly and readily understandable-

OVERVIEW OF THE DISSERTATION @elie ing that a wisdom perspecti e must be made a ailable for indi idual and collecti e prioritizing$ and that empirical psychology pro ides the best opportunity for ma6ing this 3(

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

possible$ on the twenty7fifth anni ersary of the published research$ " present in this dissertation a description of all of the studies$ at least so far as my diligent search has disco ered- There has ne er e en been a thorough re iew of the literature- Taranto 34A4$ ,ramer ('''$ and Earchand (''& are quite helpful$ not by any means systematic and complete- " ha e described these thirty7se en in estigations in detail but as succinctly as possible and$ in a separate section$ ha e made some e aluati e comments- The scientific study of wisdom is difficult$ as the researchers themsel es Fe-g-$ @altes & ,unzmann (''?+(45G point out- Assessment of the e0tent to which approaches used so far to study wisdom ha e succeeded will be easier for ha ing a presentation in one place and in a standard format of all the research- This dissertation should pro e useful to researchers and to anyone interested in the reco ery of wisdom"n addition to the general historic re iew of the literature that forms #hapter ( of this dissertation$ " ha e pro ided brief descriptions of twel e psychological theories of wisdom$ or in the case of psychologists such as <- Stanley Hall$ #- <- Dung$ and /ri6 /ri6son$ their thoughts on wisdom as e0pressed in their writings- "n this section also is found a catalog of the personal qualities that psychologists ha e identified with wisdom"t concludes with a statement of the research question$ namely$ How is wisdom to be researched8 A preliminary question$ 2hat has research psychology learned so far about wisdom and the prospects for the de elopment of wisdom8 is also a maBor concern of this dissertation- #hapter & sets forth the method " ha e followed in formulating and answering this question$ proposing three tas6s as essential+ first$ the integration of e0istential Freligious and metaphysicalG wisdom with the personal and practical aspects studied to date9 second$ in estigation into possible differences in women:s and men:s ways of being wise9 and third$ the necessity of studying actual wise people- #hapter ? 3&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

pro ides descriptions of the thirty7se en research studies published to Eay ('') that " ha e been able to locate- "n #hapter ) are the results of inquiry regarding the research question$ including a summary of the research findings to date on wisdom- #hapter = presents an e aluation of particular psychological research and theorizing$ along with discussion of the results in relation to the research question- #hapter 5 offers brief concluding thoughtsThe amount of research on wisdom has increased greatly in the past decade- 2hen %rwoll & Perlmutter discussed the empirical research on wisdom in 344'$ they could be inclusi e by co ering three studies- "n ('')$ there are three dozen to be considered$ and their rate of appearance is increasing- %ngoing re iews$ and in7depth e aluations such as this one$ become all the more important as it becomes more difficult for one person to 6eep abreast of the material and set it in a larger conte0t"t is with the utmost respect for and gratitude to the psychological in estigators that my in estigation into their wor6 and its future prospects is made-

3?

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

/ Literature Revie-

INTRODUCTION HJ/K ery culture$I writes ,urt Rudolph F('')+4?5=G$ Hhas or has had its ideal of wisdom-I "n presenting a bac6ground to the area of wisdom co ered in this study " will discuss only that of the 2est$ recognizing that the ideas of Plato and Aristotle are still current+ as >- Smith$ in the )outledge Enc clopedia of Philosoph F344AG obser es$ H<i en its Jwisdom:sK disappearance from our discussions$ none of the claims by the early <ree6s has been sufficiently well scrutinized by philosophers-I F>ot to mention empirical psychologists-G "ndia$ "ran$ and #hina also ha e e0tensi e and ancient literary wisdom traditions- "n Hinduism$ the oldest literature are the four *edas- *eda is translated as H6nowledgeI or Hwisdom-I F>aylor 344AG- "n @uddhism$ wisdom appears to be an understanding of the nature and meaning of e0istence$ with the practical end of helping a person li e in accordPra+na$ wisdom$ is an important term in Eahayana @uddhism- Ta6amaro Shigara6i Fn-d-G$ former President of Ryu6o6u !ni ersity$ writes that H"n Eahayana @uddhism$ the focus is on praBna Fwhich is a synonym for satori7enlightenmentG and also on praBna:s inseparable companion and component$ 6aruna7compassion-I *lesher F3445G writes that praBna His the supreme wisdom considered by Eahayana @uddhism to be outside human e0perience and incapable of being con eyed in this7world categories- The 6ey e0perience of praBna is insight into /mptiness$ the true nature of the cosmos-I The name of the supreme deity in Noroastrianism$ Ahura Eazda$ is translated H2ise ;ord-I #hinese wisdom literature begins with the writings of #onfucius$ and the Tao Te ,hing- H#hinese

3)

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

philosophy is Mwisdom: literature$I Da id 2ong F('')G writes$ Hcomposed primarily of stories and sayings designed to mo e the audience to adopt a way of life or to confirm its adoption of that way of life-I "n this re iew of the literature on wisdom$ " discuss the literature from the discipline of psychology that pertains to wisdom$ along with the philosophical literature and some rele ant theological literature of #hristian /urope- *irst$ " present a historical re iew$ from the earliest wisdom literature to Thomas Aquinas$ to pro ide what seems to be an essential conte0t+ in the forty7fi e centuries of writing on wisdom$ some of the most eminent thin6ers ha e considered wisdom central to a good life- "n this dissertation " am primarily concerned with the psychological research$ and it is this concern that leads to the con iction that to be most aluable$ psychological study must be enriched by engaging with this heritage- Howe er$ " omit discussion of Russian sophiology of @ulga6o and Solo ie 9 and discussion of the Sumerian$ /gyptian$ and <ree6 gods of wisdom*ollowing the historical re iew$ the literature is considered in three di isions+ Defining wisdom Fsection @G$ Personal aspects of wisdom Fsection #G$ and Theoretical psychological models Fsection DG- "n these$ the main concern has been to co er the psychological literature$ but " ha e integrated some contemporary philosophical thought on wisdom$ along with rele ant material from <ree6$ Roman$ and medie al #hristian writers- Particular questions " ha e 6ept in mind while re iewing this literature are$ 2hat did the author thin6 wisdom is8 How did the author belie e it was gained8 and 2hat is the basis for his or her assertions8

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

FOUR MAIN PERIODS OF WISDOM LITERATURE IN THE WEST A temporal categorization of wisdom literature in the 2est could distinguish four o erlapping main periods+ prephilosophic Fto SocratesG9 classical FSocrates to$ perhaps$ @oethiusG9 #hristian F>ew Testament to >icholas of #usaG9 and modern FPierre #harron to presentG-

Prephilosophic "n discussing the earliest period$ Rudolph F('')G states that its genre is the gnomic saying$ ma0ims and pro erbs- The wisdom te0ts from this period include$ in addition to the fragmentary Instructions of Shuruppa%$ the -udlul '.l Nime(i or HSumerian DobI$ The Precepts of Ptah/#otep Fthe oldest sur i ing /gyptian wisdom te0t$ ca((''@#/G and the later Instruction of Amenemope from the twenty7second /gyptian dynasty$ along with the wisdom boo6s of the @ible$ both the Dewish canon FDob$ Pro erbs$ /cclesiastesG and the Apocrypha F2isdom of Solomon$ /cclesiasticus or @en SiraG- Disco ery of the ancient te0ts of >ear /astern ci ilizations has led to a profound reinterpretation of the wisdom boo6s of the @ible Fsee @oadt 34A)G- This became una oidable when it was found that$ for e0ample$ Pro erbs ((+357(?+(( Hborrows directly from passages in Amenemope-I This prephilosophic phase F" ha e adopted this not7ideal term from @oadt$ 34A)G begins with a practical$ secular concern+ the wise person is a self7controlled and efficient member of the community- Thus$ besides connoting guidance for the conduct of life FHrules for successIG$ terms for wisdom referred to s6ill in crafts or arts- Assmann F344?+345G says that HSuch beha ior demands no outstanding capacities9 it defines a standard that can be adopted by e eryman-I <ood and e il are easily distinguished9 good 35

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

is rewarded and e il punished$ in this moral world lac6ing comple0ity but containing shrewd e aluation of human nature and its wea6nessesA hallmar6 of prephilosophic instruction is that it is set forth unproblematically+ HThis is wisdom$ my son- - -I There is no inquiry into the nature of wisdom$ the principles by which wise actions can be distinguished from nonwise- These are assumed to be understood- Reflection$ dialectical thin6ing$ and metacognition are currently considered so intrinsic to wisdom$ along with the recognition of lifespan$ cultural$ and historical conte0t$ that it is useful to insert here an obser ation regarding a much later master$ StThomas Aquinas- "n discussing Thomas:s use of @iblical wisdom literature$ ;awrence @oadt F34A)G writes that HHe probably ne er considered that the original purpose or meaning of an %ld Testament te0t might be far different from his own understanding-I "t is in this way that wisdom changes qualitati ely as our understanding is transformed Fe-g-$ from considering questions about life to considering questions about conditions of 6nowing9 from reasoning by analogy to following rules of logicG- "t appears that throughout the HprephilosophicI period of wisdom concern mental ision becomes increasingly acute for seeing according to the wisdom perspecti e$ but not at all for inquiring into the perspecti e itself- There might be s6eptical or disillusioned e0position of the difficulties resulting from the failure to appear of positi e results promised in the Hact7consequence connectionI$ but not a deeper questioning of the basis of 6nowing$ which perhaps would ha e been to alienate oneself from one:s society;ater$ in /gyptian Hdisputation literatureI and in Dob$ as well as /cclesiastes$ when doubt is e0pressed regarding the punishment of e il and rewards for goodness that had been ta6en for granted$ the concept of wisdom is still not an intellectual puzzle for systematic inquiry- Such inquiry was to characterize the classical$ philosophic period- At 3A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

the same time$ as nature was considered to e0emplify the act7consequence rules$ analogies with animals and plants are disco ered$ hinting at the proper conduct of humans$ and wisdom is lin6ed with the order of the uni erseAs time goes on$ there is a general trend to ta6e an increasingly religious perspecti e$ though without e er cutting the bond with wisdom7as7coping7in7daily7life*ollowing what seems to be an irresistible dynamic$ a search for first principles$ wisdom is placed in a cosmic conte0t$ and becomes harmony with the basic rules of nature$ and from this to harmony with a law gi en by the godFsG- *inally$ wisdom is identified with the deity$ or hypostasized as a deity who may be a partner or ambassador of the #reator$ at least in /gypt$ Eesopotamia$ "srael$ "ran$ and "ndia- "n /gypt$ maat$ the righteous order of the uni erse Hbecame basic to the idea of wisdomI FRudolph ('')G$ later yielding to faith in Re$ the di inity"n the %ld Testament F%TG$ the boo6s of Dob$ /cclesiastes$ and Pro erbs are considered to fit the genre Hwisdom literature$I and in the Apocrypha Sirach and 2isdom of Solomon- 2isdom elements are not absent from other parts of the %T+ the stories of Solomon and his wisdom are told in 3 ,ings- Se eral of the Psalms Fe-g-$ 3 and ?4G are 6nown as Hwisdom psalms-I "n /0odus$ wisdom is used of s6illful wor6ers F(A+&9 &3+&9 &=+37(G- 2isdom writing in the %T is mar6ed by the absence of elements from Dewish sal ation history$ and yet Dewish wisdom is thoroughly religious+ HThe ;ord by wisdom founded the /arthI FPro - &+34G$ and the e0istence of wisdom in <od is always apparent2isdom is hypostasized in Pro erbs A and elsewhere$ becoming ;ady 2isdom%ne lin6 between prephilosophic$ philosophic$ and #hristian stages of thought regarding wisdom is indicated by @oadt F34A)+)A5G+ The passion for seeing order in the e0perience of the world:s operations led the wisdom writers to e0tol the beauty and perfection in the di ine order of creation 34

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

itself- All of reality is planned by <od and operates according to the di ine planThe search for wisdom is a search to see and 6now the di ine intention behind the ordered uni erse- At the same time$ the order and harmony of nature re eals the power$ intelligence and lo e of the planner"n short$ wisdom is already mo ing toward what a later master would describe as di0ina amata contemplari FAquinas$ Scriptum Super Sententiis """D&)V(A3qc&coG$ contemplation of the belo ed di ine-

Classical Socrates" The busy <ree6s apparently were the first to inquire systematically into the nature of wisdom$ led by Socrates$ with his questions about definitions and search to understand the Delphic oracle:s pronouncement that no7one was wiser than he- Socrates followed a path cut by such legendary figures as the Hfirst philosopherI Thales$ by Solon who said H" grow old learningI$ and Ana0agoras$ who proposed that HAll things were ali6e- Then mind FnousG came and distinguished them-I @altes F(''?+A?G belie es that Socrates Hmade three specific contributions to a philosophy of wisdomI+ he changed the subBect of philosophy from cosmology to the e0amination of one:s life and of the best life9 he initiated a form of questioning that challenged both questioner and the one questioned$ and e0amined the questions themsel es9 and he made a firm association between wisdom and irtue- Socrates insisted that he possessed no wisdom at all9 yet it was the di ine flame around which his life circled- "n discussing wisdom and eros in Plato:s dialogues$ Dames E- Rhodes F(''&G quotes Diotima:s words to Socrates$ which Socrates recalls in the S mposium F(')d37(G$ that eros is Hdesire of all good things and of being happy-I The li6eness to wisdom is not accidental- Rhodes notes that despite Socrates: professions of ignorance$ he did claim$ and strongly$ to 6now ta er1ti%a$ erotic

('

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

matters- "n S mposium F355d57AG Socrates says$ H" say that " 6now FepistasthaiG nothing but the things of erosI$ and he ma6es a similar claim in Theages F3(Ab(7?G- "n fact$ eros is described as so central to all the most important aspects of human e0istence that H"t might be fair to call a scientific 6nowledge of eros wisdomI FRhodes (''&+?G- 2hile Socrates wrote nothing$ he became the image of the wise person$ and his moral fer or for the Hhealth of the soulI made a lasting impression in the 2est-

Plato" Plato:s understanding of wisdom and of the philosopher:s mWtier$ as inquiry into and ultimately possession of wisdom$ has been e0traordinarily influential$ in part through its influence on Aristotle$ and on Stoic and #hristian concepts of wisdom- 2hile the mystical implications of Plato:s de otion to the <ood helped lay the foundation for #hristian theology and mysticism$ ;abou ie7Cief F344'+=3G obser es that$ H*ollowing his JPlato:sK lead$ for centuries to come$ theories of truth and logic focused on rational structures only-I To consider abstractions more alid than particular e0emplars may still be ery natural for us 2esterners- "n his attempt to liberate the social sciences from second class epistemological status and augment their effecti eness for social impro ement$ @ent *ly bBerg F(''3G emphasizes the essentiality of unique actual cases for the de elopment of e0pert learning$ but we are still charmed by Plato:s rational structures2isdom is most notably discussed by Plato in the Apolog $ S mposium$ and )epublic F)G$ most fully in the latter- "n Protagoras$ Plato had Socrates and Protagoras discuss the fi e irtues wisdom$ temperance$ courage$ Bustice$ and piety$ and demonstrates that the irtues are all the same in that all are 6nowledge of what is ultimately painful and pleasant- "n the )epublic$ wisdom is 6nowledge of the absolute (3

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

<ood$ a connection being drawn with the di ine that ma6es the idea of mere practical wisdomPwisdom in daily affairs or e0cellent BudgmentPseem insignificant- Plato:s is an all7or7nothing perspecti e+ wisdom$ which follows from 6nowledge of the <ood$ is described as practically impossible of attainment$ and yet Hif we don:t 6now it Ji-e-$ the <oodK$ e en the fullest possible 6nowledge of other things is of no benefit to usI F))')aGThe philosopher$ who Hdesires all wisdomI F)?5)bG$ goes beyond lo e for any particular good things$ to concern with and$ in thought$ the ability to see and comprehend$ the <ood in itself$ which His always the same in all respectsI F)?A?bG- He has true 6nowledge$ not opinion$ of this <ood$ and Hloo6s at and studies things that are ordered and always the same$ that neither do inBustice to one another nor suffer itI F))''bcG- The study of this 6nowledge is for those beyond the age of participating in politics and military ser ice F)?4AbG$ after years of physical and mental training"n the )epublic$ Socrates says that it is because of their relation to the <ood Hthat Bust things and the others become useful and beneficialI F))')aG- At ))'Ad7)'4b$ Bust prior to the allegory of the ca e$ Socrates describes the <ood as the cause of 6nowledge and truth$ and that the soul is capable of recognizing this <ood- The soul had been seen F)?&)b7??3cG to consist of three parts+ a rational$ appetiti e$ and spirited9 and wisdom is associated with the rational part$ which should rule Hsince it is really wise and e0ercises foresight on behalf of the whole soulI F)??3e9 and see ))A'd7)A3bG- @ut to disco er the soul:s true nature$ we must loo6 Hto its philosophy$ its lo e of wisdomI F)=33b7eG-

Aristotle- *alling midway between Shuruppa6 and us is Aristotle$ whose two7part categorization of wisdom into theoretical and practical is still$ in general$ alid- To ((

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

understand Aristotle:s conception of wisdom$ it is necessary to begin with his account of human fulfillment- /udaimonia$ being the end or goal FtelosG of all actions$ is seen to be final or complete FteleionG$ and self7sufficient- The term eudaimonia has historically been translated as Hhappiness$I a rendering utterly unsuitable$ particularly in our self7 concerned age$ in which the personal and hedonistic connotations of HhappinessI contradict Aristotle:s e0plicit statement FNE3'45b4seq-G- "t is e en more misleading now that awareness of interconnections and social construction of the mind is percolating throughout the hyperindi idualist 2est- Eore recently$ eudaimonia is translated as HflourishingI$ which is better- H2ell7beingI could also be used- "n the FprobablyG ?th century @#/ &efinitions of Pseudo7Plato$ eudaimonia is defined as Hsuccess in life+ the good composed of all goods9 an ability which suffices for li ing well9 perfection in respect of irtue9 resources sufficient for a li ing creature-I "t isn:t that HeudaimoniaI lac6s reference to personal satisfaction$ but that HhappinessI lac6s reference to full human e0cellence$ particularly irtueAristotle considers the e0tent to which eudaimonia may be attained by one:s efforts in the Nicomachean Ethics FNE3'44b47(?G$ concluding that$ at the least$ it would be Hhighly unfitting if attainment of this greatest and noblest thing were left to fate-I To a oid misrepresenting Aristotle$ " will lea e the term transcribed as eudaimonia here$ occasionally resorting to Hflourishing-I There are three other terms important for understanding Aristotle:s concept of wisdom that can be misleading if gi en their customary translation+ aret$$ sophia$ and phron$sis- "n the glossary to his translation of NE$ %stwald describes aret$ as the qualities that enable a person Hto perform hiJrK own particular function well$I and he translates the term as e0cellence$ or goodness$ or irtue$ Hor a combination of these-I Two (&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

6inds of aretai are distinguished by Aristotle+ intellectual and moral e0cellences- The moral are courage$ Bustice$ temperance$ liberality$ gentleness$ and so on9 the intellectual are intelligence FsunesisG and Hintelligence that apprehends fundamental principlesI FnousG$ art or craft Ftechn$G$ scientific 6nowledge Fepist$m$G$ sophia$ phron$sisSophia is usually translated simply as Hwisdom-I Phronesis is translated in arious ways- "t was translated into ;atin as prudentia$ and has continued to be translated as prudence in /nglish- >oel F3444+(5&G mentions translations such as practical reasoning$ practical wisdom$ discernment$ and prudence$ and that the term is gi en different interpretations that emphasize rationality$ situational insight$ and moral character- RSmith F3444G uses the term Hpractical BudgmentI as more suited to the qualities he wants to emphasize- HPractical 6nowledge$I >atali F(''3+()G writes$ Hwhich from now on is almost always called phronesis$ or wisdom$ has features that ma6e it the opposite of science9 in many ways it is more similar to the irtues of character-I Aristotle FNE334Ab(?G says that eudaimonia His considered by some to be aret$$ by others to be phron$sis$ and by others sophia- - -I /arlier$ he stated$ H@eing a part of irtue as a whole$ by its possession and its e0ercise sophia renders a person eudaim1nI FNE33??a)7=G- H/thical irtue is a disposition that cooperates with the correct principle Fmeta tou orthou logouG- Phron$sis is the correct principle in matters of conductI FNE33??b(57(AG- That is$ it is the 6nowledge of this principle"n @oo6 C" of the Nichomachean Ethics F33&4a733?3bG$ Aristotle distinguishes fi e ways in which Hthe soul achie es truth in affirming or denying+ artisanry$ 6nowledge$ practical wisdom$ wisdom$ intelligence Ftechn$, epist$m$, phron$sis, sophia, nousG- "n their translations of the Nicomachean Ethics$ epist$m$ is translated as HscienceI by %stwald$ and HScientific ,nowledgeI by Rac6ham- "t is concerned with facts that cannot (?

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

be other than they are Fas opposed to the results of deliberationG- Artisanry$ techn$$ His a rational quality$ concerned with ma6ing$ according to true reason-I "ntelligence apprehends fundamental principles$ and sophia$ theoretical wisdom$ includes both intelligence and scientific 6nowledge- HThe wise person must 6now the fundamental principles Farch$G and that which follows from them- Thus$ sophia is intelligence and 6nowledge- "t is 6nowledge in its consummation$ as it were$ the 6nowledge of things that are alued most highlyI FNE33?3a357('GAristotle did not specify sophia as HwisdomI and phron$sis as something else#ontemplating first principles is sophia+ Hit is generally assumed that what is called wisdom FsophiaG is concerned with the primary causes and principles-I FMetaph sics "-3$ 4A3b(A74G- To discern the best choice$ the best course of action$ is phron$sis*urthermore$ it is the person with phronesis Fho phronimosG who determines what specific action a moral e0cellence calls for in a specific situation+ HEoral irtue then is a settled disposition of the mind regarding choices$ consisting essentially in the obser ance of the mean relati e to us$ determined by a rational principle as the person of practical wisdom would determine itI FNE33'=b&=733'5a3G- Phronesis is concerned with deliberating$ with decisions regarding human affairs9 the person of practical wisdom is one Hwho can arri e by calculation at the best humanly attainable goodI Ftou aristou anthr1p1i t1n pra%t1n$ NE33?3b3&73?G- Slightly adapted$ this might ser e as a generic Fthough still incompleteG definition of wisdom$ carrying forward @rown:s F('')+45=(G ninth definition of wisdom as an Hanswer to the question M2hat is good for men and women8:I quoted on page & of this te0tG+ 2isdom is the 6nowledge and use of good means to the best possible ends$ a Hbest possible choiceI model of wisdom-

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Phron$sis cannot be entirely left out of the discussion of wisdom$ as sophia Ftheoretical wisdomG$ which considers the first principles of being and not human affairs$ is considered by Aristotle as ob iously superior$ Has humans are not the best thing in the cosmosI FNE33?3a(37((G$ and yet sophia is unin ol ed with human good Fsaid to be HuselessI achr$sta$ NE33?3bAG- #ontemporary empiric inquiry has generally ignored the sophaicTmetaphysical face of wisdom$ quite understandably$ focusing on the phronetic aspect$ or simply wisdom as psychological maturity- The impossibility of continuing to do so$ in principle and in practice$ will be argued as one of the research questions of this dissertation*or Aristotle$ sophia$ being a purely contemplati e acti ity$ is the most perfect form of 6nowledge- The sophos must 6now the first principles and what follows from themThus$ sophia is a combination of nous and epist$m$- Phron$sis is distinguished from techn$$ the other of the fi e qualities Hby which the mind achie es truth in affirmation or denialI FNE33&4b3)G$ in that techn$ is concerned with ma6ing$ phron$sis with actionsTo specify eudaimonia for humans$ Aristotle suggests we see6 out the function of humans- He identifies it as that which is unique to and shared by all people+ Hthe acti e e0ercise of the soul in conformity with rational principleI Fpsuch$s energeia %ata logon $ m$ aneu logon$ NE3'4Aa574G9 and defines human good as Hthe acti e e0ercise of the soul in conformity with e0cellence Jor irtue+ %at2 aret$nK and$ if there are many e0cellences$ conformity with the best and most perfectI$ in a complete lifetime Fen bi1i telei1i$ NE3'4Aa3A734GAristotle has strayed here+ there is no reason to assume a single human good$ or that our function must be that which is unique to and uni ersal among humans F#uomo 344A+==7=4G- There may be an ultimate goal of eudaimonia$ flourishing$ or health as the (=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

2orld Health %rganization defines it$ which can attain a broad consensus$ but the details remain to be filled in- There are some things humans ha e learned since Aristotle:s time Fsuch as the basic equality of humans$ e olutionary and psychological de elopment$ and a more precise understanding of interrelatednessG- 2e can start from the point of general agreement and re ise from therePperhaps$ along with Eac"ntyre F34A?+chap- )G at the point of accepting that life does ha e a telos or goalPand elaborate a ision of Hhuman7 nature7as7it7could7be7if7it7realized7its7telosI- 2hile$ in a Darwinian understanding in which species are constantly adapting$ the telos has become sur i al rather than a fi0ed$ static$ intrinsic end$ as Aristotle:s telos appears to be$ this need not alter radically the Aristotelian idea of telos Fin NE "G as fulfillment of the particular function of a species$ obBect$ or acti ity- "f that function cannot be thought of as a static accomplishment$ it can be thought of as a dynamic state of healthy$ or optimal$ response to the en ironment- The indi idual organism:s sur i al is not$ at least for humans$ the ultimate standard/udaimonia requires certain e0ternal goods according to Aristotle FNE3'44a&37&(G$ and as a practical matter one can agree$ while not accepting his list$ and while recognizing that no single standard can be set for such e0ternals as financial resources$ physical health$ comeliness$ or social standing- Standards are a matter of interpretation+ if necessary$ it is possible to hold that a person can be flourishing if his or her Honly achie ement may consist in enduring hiJrK sufferings in the right wayPan honorable wayI$ as Ci6tor *ran6l F34A?+?4G has eloquently e0pressed-

Stoic wisdom" The Stoics were interested in wisdom$ but they too6 a dogmatic rather than an inquisiti e or analytic approach- 2riting of Stoic ethics$ Diogenes ;aertius FC""-33)73('G notes that they consider the wise person will be passionless$ austere$ (5

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

earnest$ unin ol ed with business affairs but in ol ed in affairs of state$ religiously pious$ and will marry and raise a family- They hold that only the wise person His free and bad men are sla es$ freedom being power of independent action$ whereas sla ery is pri ation of the same-I They did not problematicize wisdom9 they felt quite confident to ma6e assertions about it- Donini F3444+5((7&G speculates that their reason for putting forth a perfect$ ideal model was a felt need to portray a Hparadigm of e0cellence which could not be impro ed upon+ if it could$ it would cease to function as a criterion-I The Stoics felt there were no degrees of irtue+ a person is either perfectly irtuous or not irtuous at all- Donini F3444+535G cites Stobaeus F""-44-&73'=-('9 cf- also ""-=)-5G for this doctrine$ writing that Hit follows logically that for all the Stoics from Neno onwards humanity should be di ided into Bust two moral categories$ the irtuous For Mwise men:G and the corrupt For Mfools:$ Mmadmen:G-I Today we belie e that as wisdom considers matters of deliberation$ Budgment$ and alues$ it$ li6e intelligence$ e0ists on a scale of more or less>ote that wisdom has usually been defined as an ultimate ideal$ and therefore it is reasonable that people and decisions will approach this perfect standard to a greater or lesser degree- >- Smith F344A+5)?G writes that Hthe de elopment of fallibilism in epistemology has not ser ed to liberate wisdom from its early association with infallibility$ which was guaranteed to ma6e wisdom seem an impossible achie ement for human beings-I "t is not necessary to require that wisdom be rerum di0inarum et humanarum scientia FH6nowledge of things human and di ineI$ the Stoic definition$ e-g- Seneca Epistulae Morales ;XXX"X-)G$ that the wise person be Hone who 6nows all$ e en difficult matters$ with certitude and through their causeI FSt- Thomas Aquinas$ ,ommentar on the Metaph sics of Aristotle$ "-(-?&$ cited in #ollins 34=(+3&(G- "n this (A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

regard the efforts of empirical psychologists to measure Hwisdom7related 6nowledgeI is certainly a more promising approach- A model of a wise person as mature$ intelligent and thoughtful$ caring and engaged$ could be drawn up by positi e psychology$ and be a far more realistic and attainable ideal than that of the Stoics$ while still being recognizable as wise- And yet$ at this moment of a new interest in wisdom$ it is worth recalling that Hthere was a time$ in ancient <reece$ when philosophy- - - - was$ precisely$ a life wholly dedicated to the pursuit of wisdomI F<ilson$ 34)3+(G-

Christian New Testament- 2isdom in #hristianity continues the arious elements from the Dewish tradition- "n addition to the mention of HwisdomI FsophiaG and HwiseI FsophosG se enty times in the >ew Testament$ it is the form of many of the sayings of Desus$ and the e0hortations FparaenesesG and admonitions$ that lin6 Desus with the wisdom traditionSuch statements as ;u6e F;6G33+33$ spea6ing of paternal care$ or ;6 3=+3&$ regarding social realities$ are found by on ;ips F(''&+)3'G to be a lin6 with traditional wisdom literature- Paraeneses that go beyond strict obedience to the ;aw Fe-g-$ ;6 =+(5$ Eatthew FEtG 34+373(G are another such connection"n addition$ there are comparisons of Desus with wisdom$ as in Et 3(+?(+ the queen of the south Hcame from the ends of the earth to hear the wisdom of Solomon$ and lo$ one greater than Solomon is here-I "n Et 33+() Desus than6s <od that Hyou ha e hidden these things from the wise and the intelligent$ and you ha e re ealed them to the simple-I He goes on to in ite Hall who are weary and burdened$I reminiscent of the section of /cclesiasticus (?+347(( in praise of wisdom- 2hen he teaches in the synagogue listeners are amazed and as6 H2hence came such wisdom and powers in him8I FEt 3&+)?$ Ear6 (4

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

FE6G =+(G- "n Et (&+&? and ;6 33+?4 Hit is indicated that Desus is the Mwisdom of <od:I FEurphy$ (''&+54'G- "n ;6 (3+3(73)$ Desus foretells that his followers will be persecuted and brought to trial$ yet they are not to worry+ H*or " will gi e you words and wisdom against which none of them will be able to stand or rebut-I Desus may also be li6ened to the figure of wisdom in the %ld Testament FPro erbs 3G in that$ li6e wisdom$ he is near$ in ites others to approach but is reBected$ and thereupon disappearsEurphy F(''&+543G writes that HThe prologue to the *ourth <ospel presents so many contacts with %T wisdom that one can hardly doubt that the / angelist was rethin6ing much of the traditional sapiential heritage in presenting Desus as the ;ogos$ or 2ord-I %utside the gospels$ the epistle of Dames has much of the style of traditional wisdom literature$ although there are also eschatological elements- 2isdom is spo6en of positi ely in this letter9 recipients are ad ised regarding proper beha ior and$ if they lac6 wisdom F3+)G$ they are to as6 it of <od- This is a return to an ethical wisdom$ quite different from the direction ta6en by Paul and by the church thereafter- Dames mentions a wisdom that is Hearthly$ sensual$ de ilish$I while Hthe wisdom from abo e is in the first place chaste$ and also peaceful$ mild$ docile$ full of mercy and good fruits$ without partiality$ without dissimulationI F&+3)735G2isdom is mentioned four times in Acts$ twice with a con entional connotation of le el7headedness$ and twice in reference to Eoses+ it is mentioned that he Hwas instructed in all the wisdom of the /gyptiansI F5+((G- The Apocalypse also mentions wisdom four times$ twice neutrally in prayers of praise$ and twice with mysterious hints+ 3&+3A$ in regard to the beast whose number is si0 hundred si0ty7si0$ and 35+4$ e0plaining the beast on which the great harlot sits&'

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Paul:s references to wisdom were influential regarding the course wisdom was to ta6e in the 2est$ as his uncompromising reser ation of wisdom for <od and Desus was adopted by Augustine- The first three chapters of 3 #orinthians F3#orG account for twenty7si0 of the se enty uses of sophia or sophos in the >ew Testament$ and there Paul e0presses ery clearly that HDesus is the power of <od and the wisdom of <od$I and that H<od has turned to foolishness the wisdom of this worldI F3#or 3+347()G- His use of the term HwisdomI in the rest of the letter$ and its single use in ( #orinthians confirms this understanding- The appearances of HwisdomI and HwiseI in Romans$ and in the deuteropauline /phesians and #olossians$ confirm the sense of wisdom gi en in 3 #orinthians9 without that reference$ howe er$ the use of the terms would be nearly con entional- At (+& in #olossians$ Paul writes that Hin the mystery of <od$ #hrist$ are hidden all the treasures of wisdom and 6nowledgeI Fgn1sisG#onley F34=&+5$3=G mentions an important difference between <reco7Roman wisdom and that of #hristianity$ that the Hellenic philosopher assumed that the indi idual:s tas6 was to bring about hir own perfection$ whereas the #hristian$ de eloping the Dewish tradition$ loo6ed to the descent of wisdom from <od- There is an affecti e element to wisdom+ the lo e of the soul for the #reator who created that soul in lo e-

Augustine- 2isdom was a central theme in Augustine:s thought$ being e0tensi ely considered in se eral of his wor6s- Howe er$ the meaning wisdom too6 was radically different in Augustine from what it had been to the philosophers- This change can be seen quite clearly in the Enchiridion$ which begins by quoting Paul:s pugnacious reBection of the wisdom of this world F3#or 3+('G and asserting that Hre erence is wisdom for &3

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

humansI Fhominis autem sapientia pietas est9 see also &e Trinitate X""-3)-((GAugustine:s conception$ which can trace its ancestry to Platonic thought$ was to become a lucid and cogent ision whose influence ri als that of any other writer on wisdom in the 2est- Rice F34)A+3&G notes that Augustine:s understanding of wisdom Hdominated the Eiddle Ages until the Aristotelian re i al of the late twelfth century-I Defining wisdom has been a difficult tas6 for modern thin6ers- >ot so for Augustine- 2ith elegant simplicity$ he connected wisdom with truth$ and truth with <od$ specifically with Desus<ood Budgment regarding secular affairs no longer is part of wisdom$ but of scientia$ 6nowledge*or Augustine$ Hit is the tas6 of wisdom to guide us to happiness as our final endI F<ilson 34='+33=G- The theoretical aspect of wisdom is of interest to him only insofar as it has a practical end$ for humans- Thus$ Augustine shares with Aristotle a eudaimonistic perspecti e- He draws a distinction between the e0ternal and the inner person F&e Trinitate X""G$ with the e0ternal$ sensory aspect being shared with the animals$ and the inner person being the truly human- Actually$ the human is a trinity in that our lower nature is that which we share with the beasts$ while the inner person consists of the rational mind$ concerned with cognition of temporal things$ and that part of the mind concerned with the intellectual cognition of eternal things Falia sit intellectualis cognitio aeternarum rerum$ alia rationalis temporalium$ &e Trinitate X""-3)-()G- That which is the essential human$ the image of <od$ is the mind$ or the inner person$ and pure contemplation without in ol ement in action is the perfect e0pression of a human being$ e en though in this world we can only attain an imperfect 6nowledge of truthHTo be happy is nothing else than not to be in want9 this is to be a wise personI Fbeatum esse nihil est aliud quam non egere$ hoc est esse sapientem$ &e 'eata *ita ?-&&G&(

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

2isdom is the soul:s scales$ by which Hthe soul 6eeps its equlibrium so that it neither runs o er into too much nor remains short of its fulnessI F&e 'eata *ita ?-&?G- Happiness can only be had by one who has <od$ as <od alone is permanent and not subBect to the changes of fortune F&e 'eata *ita (-33G"t is in this regard that Augustine differs from the common ancient definition of wisdom as rerum humanarum di0inarum(ue scientia F6nowledge of things both human and di inePHas defined by the ancient philosophersI$ according to #icero$ Tusc" &isp?-(=-)59 &e off" ($ ($ )G$ distinguishing the hitherto conBoined sapientia and scientia$ wisdom and science For 6nowledgeG$ proposing Hthat intellectual 6nowledge of eternal things pertains to wisdom$ and rational 6nowledge of temporal things to scienceI Fad sapientiam pertineat aeternarum rerum cognitio intellectualis9 ad scientiam ero$ temporalium rerum cognitio rationalis$ &e Trinitate X""-3)-()G- Superior reason will be concerned with wisdom$ with the di ine rather than with sensible things- "n this wisdom$ the human recognizes that / is called to ta6e a subordinate place in the uni ersal scheme$ hir choices made through reference to the !ltimate- Scientia$ 6nowledge$ when subordinated to wisdom$ has an important place+ it aids both in acquiring and in applying wisdom F&e Trinitate X""-3?-(3G- @oth are needed- H"f wisdom is sacrificed$I <ilson F34='+3((G notes$ Hman:s dignity is surrendered$ because his dignity consists in ma6ing the best use of his higher part- "f science is sacrificed$ dangerous and useless inBury is done to wisdom itself-I The critical moral distinction between them is that wisdom cannot be used for e il ends$ while science is ery prone to the uses of a arice or prideOet this se erance of sapientia and scientia$ which H- "- Earrou found to be original in Augustine Fsee #onley 34=&+35G seems to ha e had fateful consequences for the western world&&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

"n &e &octrina ,hristiana F""-5-4733G$ Augustine describes se en steps to wisdom+ *ear of the ;ord$ mindful of our mortalityPiety$ softening our pride to accept di ine scripture,nowledge FscientiaG$ that is the 6nowledge sought by the earnest student of scripture$ who learns there to lo e <od with hir whole heart and soul$ and hir neighbor as hirself#ourage$ in which one hungers and thirsts for Bustice#ounsel of compassion$ in which one cleanses the soul$ e0ercising hirself in lo e of neighbor until the point of lo e for one:s enemy is reachedPurification of that eye by which <od is seen Fipsum oculum purgat$ quo ideri Deus potest$ quantum potest ab iis qui huic saeculo moriuntur quantum possuntGThis saintly person is of so single and purified heart that no desire to please others or a oid any of their troubles will turn hir path from truth- Such a one ascends to 2isdom$ which he counts as the se enth and final step- F"nitium enim sapientiae timor Domini- Ab illo enim usque ad ipsam per hos gradus tenditur et enitur-G

Thomas A(uinas- *or Aquinas$ Hone who considers absolutely the highest cause of the whole uni erse$ namely <od$ is called wise in the highest degree- Hence wisdom is said to be the 6nowledge of di ine things- - - - Hence sacred doctrine is called wisdom in the highest degree-I This is stated at the beginning of the Summa Theologiae FSumma "a7 "ae$ V3A=coG- As for Augustine$ wisdom is of central importance in Thomas: thoughtAquinas Budiciously does not separate wisdom and science$ sapientia and scientia$ as had Augustine+ since wisdom demonstrates conclusions from principles$ as do the sciences$ it is a 6ind of science Fsapientia est quaedam scientiaG- @ut it is something more$ &?

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

as it Budges the other sciences$ both their conclusions and their first principles FSumma "Y7 ""ae$ V)5A(ad3G"n the Summa$ there are 3) Vuestions concerned with either sapientia or prudentia"n "a7""ae$ V)5A(c$ sapientia is said to Hconsider the highest causes-I Scientia considers lesser causes- Aquinas ta6es a third intellectual irtue from Aristotle:s fi e+ understanding Fintellectus$ corresponding to Aristotle:s nousG$ and he considers wisdom to encompass both these others$ as had Aristotle F"a7""ae$ V)5A(ad(GAs Aristotle distinguished phron$sis and sophia$ Aquinas distinguishes prudentia FphronesisPas #icero had originally translated the <ree6 term$ &e 3fficiis "-?&G from sapientia$ and for both there is an o erlap between the two- The difference is stated clearly in Summa ""Y7""ae$ V?5A(ad3+ "t is e ident that prudence is wisdom in human affairs$ it is not$ howe er$ simply wisdom$ as it is not simply concerned with the highest cause$ being concerned with the good for humans9 and #omo is not the best of those things that are- And for that reason it is e0pressly stated that prudence is wisdom for a man$ not howe er wisdom simplyThis has a loud echo from Aristotle$ and Thomas: prudentia corresponds closely to Aristotle:s phronesis$ although with some difference Ffor e0ample as being related to the gift of the Holy Spirit HcounselI9 and Thomas: obser ation that all the precepts of the Decalogue pertain to prudenceG- And Aquinas cites a large number of philosophers and theologians$ as well as Scripture Fhe used a ;atin te0tG in his discussion of this trait- "n the Summa ""a7""ae$ Ves?57?4$ the many quotes from the Philosopher regarding prudentia all refer to Aristotle:s phron$sis- 2isdom$ science and intellectual 6nowledge Fsapientia$ scientia and intellectus corresponding to Aristotle:s sophia$ epist$m$$ and nousG all concern those things that are necessarily so9 prudentia Fi-e- phron$sisG concerns contingencies- And in other sections of the Summa$ prudence is Hright reason about things &)

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

to be doneI Fprudentiam$ quae est recta ratio agibilium$ Summa "Y7""ae$ V)5A?coG9 it is distinguished from art Fi-e-$ techn$G in that the latter concerns things that are made$ the former things that are doneSapientia is a theological irtue- Among the four cardinal irtues FBustice$ temperance$ courage$ and prudenceG$ prudence is foremost Fprudentia est simpliciter principalior omnibus Summa "Y7""ae$ V=3A(ad3G- Prudence$ Hnot only has the essential elements FrationemG of irtue that the other intellectual irtues possess$ it also has the essential elements of irtue of the moral irtues$ among which it is numberedI FSumma ""Y7""ae$ V?5A?coG- "t is clear$ Thomas concludes a little further on$ that Hprudence is a special irtue distinct from all other irtues-I The good counsel which prudence pro ides His perfected and aided to the greatest e0tent according as it is directed and mo ed by the Holy SpiritPand thus the Holy Spirit:s gift of counsel corresponds to prudence$ as helping and perfecting itI FSumma ""Y7""ae$ V)(A(coG- Thus prudentia indeed holds an e0ceptionally high place for Aquinas$ e en if lac6ing the sublimity of sapientiaPrudentia:s role is to pro ide right reason to action- "n doing this$ it ta6es counsel$ ma6es a Budgment and directs one:s action- "t is concerned not only with indi idual good$ but with the common good of the public Fprudentia non solum se habet ad bonum pri atum unius hominis$ sed etiam ad bonum commune multitudinis$ Summa ""Y7""ae$ V?5A3'coG$ personal$ domestic$ and political prudence belonging to different HspeciesI of the concept- Though there are different forms of prudence$ prudence plainly considered Hcorrectly ta6es counsel$ Budges$ and commands for the good end of one:s whole lifeI Fad bonum finem totius itae recte consiliatur$ iudicat et praecipit$ Summa ""Y7 ""ae$ V?5A3&coG- There are eight Hquasi7integralI parts of prudence+ Eemory$ !nderstanding or "ntelligence$ Docility$ Shrewdness$ Reason$ *oresight$ #ircumspection$ &=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

and #aution- As prudence considers means$ howe er$ it can be directed towards improper ends FSumma ""Y7""ae$ V))GThere is a path that leads from perception of the sensory world to the di ine world$ which can be tra ersed part of the way by reason- @eyond this$ di ine re elation has made it possible to proceed further$ through faith- Oet faith is not immediate 6nowledge$ not connaturalis$ of the same nature as that which it belie es- This final passage$ final as far as is possible in this world$ can only be made through a gift of the Holy Spirit- These three means correspond to the three forms of wisdom discerned by ThomasEetaphysics$ which Aquinas Hfully agreed- - - was the most perfect form of wisdom naturally acquirable by manI F<ilson$ 34)3+()G$ requires the demonstration of the e0istence of immaterial being- This is postulated to contain concepts as well as the e0istence of immaterial beings such as <od- Thomas demonstrates the e0istence of such beings through the consideration of motion$ and the ultimate dependence of motion on an immaterial cause- *ollowing Aristotle$ he requires all 6nowledge to be based in the senses9 proceeding from this e idence$ the mind is considered capable of ad ancing to the perception of non7sensible things FIn 'oet" &e Trinitate$ V)A3cG- Eetaphysical wisdom is concerned with the principles such as identity$ cause$ and contradictionPwith the principle of contradiction$ that a thing cannot both be and not be$ being the supreme principle$ without which there could be no true or false$ and in Ana0agoras: words$ HAll things ali6e-I #onley F34=&+&5G says that the important point regarding Thomas: metaphysical wisdom is that its subBect is being7as7being Fens inquantum ensG$ pro iding him with his basis for demonstrating the e0istence of <od9 and its contemplation of the highest causes- #onley F34=&+&AG pro ides a number of places in which Thomas states that the act of wisdom is contemplation of di ine things$ including Summa ""a7""ae &5

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

V3A'A?c+ #ontemplatio di inae eritatis est finis totius humanae itae$ H#ontemplation of the di ine truth is the end of all human life-I Recognition of the final cause$ <od$ brings the possibility of a criterion for ordering all things in the light of the highest cause9 thus Thomas uses Aristotle:s phrase sapientis est ordinarePto pro ide order is the office of the wise person- #ontemplation of this !ltimate$ <od$ necessarily entails a lo e for this final end FSumma ""a7""ae V3A'A5ad3G$ the di0ina amata contemplari identified as the act of wisdom in Scriptum Super Sententiis """ D&)V(A3sol&- Oet$ as a rational act e0pressed in conceptualization$ metaphysical wisdom is barred from e0periencing being$ from 6nowing the infiniteThis limitation is o ercome through di ine re elation$ re ealed truth which one is gi en the grace to belie e$ through faith- Such belief requires an act of assent from the will- #onley quotes Thomas as stating that faith is made attracti e for a person through the promise of eternal life F&e *er"$ V3?A3c+ Eo emur ad credendum dictis$ inquantum nobis repromittitur$ si crediderimus$ praemium aeternae itae- - -G- "n this second form of wisdom$ faith remains to be completed through reason Fas Ha science with non7e ident principlesIG and through lo e- As the rational mind see6s to understand that to which it had gi en assent through faith Fin Anselm:s phrase$ fides (uaerens intellectum$ faith see6ing understandingG$ theology is born- "n fact$ in In -ibrum 'oethii de Trinitate 4uaestiones$ Thomas writes that the purpose of faith is to lead us to find understanding of that which we belie e Ffides est in nobis$ ut per eniamus ad intelligendum quae credimus$ V(A($5mG- 2ithout this effort$ mere assent would pro ide little comprehension- Re elation ser es merely as the point of departure for rational in estigation$ although the principles themsel es retain their importance$ in a resultant integration of principle and conclusion FScriptum Super Sententiis """ D&)V3A(sol(G&A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Theology also organizes the articles of faith$ beginning with the question of <od7in7 Hirself$ and as Source of our happiness- "n its efforts$ theology Huses all the other sciences as handmaidsI Futitur in obsequium sui omnibus aliis scientiis quasi assallis$ Scriptum Super Sententiis "$ Prol$ V3A3solG9 and$ of course$ what is re ealed can ne er be contradicted by truths which science disco ers2hile it is a science$ theology is wisdom as well$ which means that its in estigations are centered in <od$ the first principle- "t differs from metaphysics in that it begins at this point$ while metaphysics ends there F#onley$ 34=&+54$ who quotes @ona enture:s 're0ilo(uium$ Pars "$ c3G- "t begins with re elation and considers highest causes$ whereas metaphysics begins with the natural world to attain to highest causesTheology:s end is contemplation in hea en of Truth- %n /arth$ this contemplation ta6es re ealed truth$ supplemented with rational wor6ing out of the implications$ as its obBect2hile contemplating <od$ the supreme good$ and enBoying the blessedness of this e0perience$ the theologian is also concerned to ma6e hir possession of that blessedness permanent9 thus$ theology is a sanctifying practice Fcf- Scriptum Super Sententiis "$ Prol$ V3A&sol3G- Oet theology$ while 6nowing from within as metaphysics cannot$ is still limited by ha ing started with re elation$ with acceptance of authority- "t does not 6now immediately"mmediate 6nowledge is the gift of the Holy Spirit- Drawing on the #hurch:s tradition that had its foundation in Isaiah 33+( FHAnd the Spirit of the ;ord shall rest upon him+ the spirit of wisdom and of understanding- - -IG$ Thomas distinguishes wisdom as di ine gift in that Hit belongs to the wisdom that is an intellectual irtue to pronounce right Budgment about Di ine things after reason has made its inquiry$ but it belongs to wisdom as a gift of the Holy <host to Budge aright about them on account of &4

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

connaturality with themI FSumma ""Y7""ae V?)A(coG- This HconnaturalityI or oneness is brought about by lo e FcaritasG$ which has a uniti e power9 and$ therefore$ the gift of wisdom is made possible by lo e$ although its essence is in the intellect- #onnaturality comes first$ and is the cause of lo eThomas later includes that wisdom as a di ine gift also Budges aright regarding things other than Di ine$ according to di ine rule- "t is practical$ capable of guiding us in action$ as well as speculati e FtheoreticalG- The person$ being united with di ine realities$ is able to Budge in their light$ in a way as that light2isdom as di ine gift is also distinguished from faith by Ha certain godli6e contemplation and in a certain measure clear$ of articles which faith holds obscurely according to a human mannerI FProcedit enim sapientiae donum ad quamdam deiformem contemplationem$ et quodammodo e0plicitam$ articulorum quos fides sub quodam modo in oluto tenet secundum humanum modum$ Scriptum Super Sententiis$ """ D&)V(A3qc3ad39 """ D&)V(A3qc&co is also important for e0plaining the gift of wisdom and its actG- #onley F34=&+3(&G points out that with this$ the wise person:s office of bringing order Fsapientis est ordinareG is brought to its ultimateAll the gifts of the Spirit complete the theological irtues$ such as faith and charity2isdom does so through pro iding faith with immediate e0perience and by pro iding lo e with clarity regarding its obBect- ;o e$ in turn$ is essential for wisdom to attain its 6nowledge+ talem notitiam perfecte non habent qui amori ipsius non accenduntur$ Hthose who are not set on fire by the lo e of <od do not ha e such 6nowledge perfectlyI FScriptum Super Sententiis "$ D3)V?A($ ?mG- *aith has pro ided the foundationAnd still$ H<od remains essentially un6nownI F#onley 34=&+3?'G-

?'

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

B. DEFINING WISDOM "t being the case that defining wisdom has been a maBor difficulty Fpage & hereinG$ in this section " discuss definitions that ha e been proposed$ as a necessary conte0t for the main focus of this study- The definition of wisdom as an Hanswer to the question M2hat is good for men and women8:I @rown F('')+45=(G$ as rich as it is$ does not settle the question%f any particular answer we must inquire$ H"s there something that is better8I Paul @@altes F(''?+53G writes that Hit may be possible to say on a metale el of analysis that wisdom deals with utmost e0cellence and the welfare of man6ind without specifying what this e0cellence entails at a microle el of mind and character-I Robert D- Sternberg:s research into wisdom spans two decades and includes a 34A) study of implicit theories Fi- e-$ the notions people ha e in their mindsG of wisdom$ and his F344'$ 344AG de elopment of two e0plicit theories- *ollowing common practiceP despite his e0tensi e researchPhe F(''3a+((5G refers to$ and accepts$ a dictionary definition of wisdom as the HPower of Budging rightly and following the soundest course of action$ based on 6nowledge$ e0perience$ understanding$ etc-I That an e0perienced empirical researcher and maBor theorist of intelligence$ creati ity$ and wisdom feels comfortable accepting a dictionary definition of wisdom may be a clue to de elopment of the construct as a practically useful HmetaheuristicI- @altes F(''?+ (3)G states that any psychological label of wisdom should Hentail the core of the concept of wisdom as it is contained in e eryday beliefs about wisdomI$ and that these e eryday beliefs are similar to dictionary definitions- At the same time @altes F(''?+3A=G recommends that Hthe definitional frame Jof wisdomK should be as similar to the humanist and philosophical iew on wisdom as possible-I

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

,e6es F344)+3&73?G recommended starting with a dictionary definition$ which$ he points out$ catalogs intuiti e understandings of the term$ and proceeding from there to analyze it more carefully$ always concerned to note when descriptions stray from generally understood ideas$ and to pro ide sound reasons for any such departure@altes & Staudinger F344=+5?AG write that HThere are no absolute criteria that define wisdom- Rather$ wisdom is recognized and attributed to by consensus among a number of people-I This concurs with Aleida Assmann:s F344?+34'G understanding$ and she writes$ H"f we ha e to pro ide a definition for wisdom$ we may call it alidated action$ beha ior$ or attitude-I Ta6ing a Hbroadly defined /ri6sonian theoretical framewor6I Ta6ahashi & % erton F(''(+(5'G understand wisdom Hde elopmentally as a relati ely late7emerging form of cogniti eTaffecti e understanding that grows dialectically from earlier analytic and synthetic s6ills and integrates these into a broader fabric of reflecti ity-I Ha ing started her research by questioning /ri6son:s model$ #layton F34A(+&3=G defines wisdom Has the ability that enables the indi idual to grasp human nature$ which operates on the principles of contradiction$ parado0$ and change-I /ri6son himself F3445+=3G defined wisdom as Hinformed and detached concern with life itself in the face of death itself-I "t is ironic that /ri6son should ha e been the trigger for starting the research program into wisdom$ as his definition differs quite a bit from classical and dictionary definitions/ en if a definition can be agreed on$ indi iduals will understand wisdom differently- Ta6ahashi & @ordia F('''+(G refer to the fact that in Sternberg:s 34A) study$ professors in art$ physics$ and philosophy see a positi e relationship between creati ity and wisdom9 business professors$ on the other hand$ iew the relationship as antithetical-

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

%f course$ wisdom is not a common topic of discussion and thus reaching consensus regarding its meaning has ery little to base itself on!nderstandings that differ do not necessarily present a problem$ in fact for a concept such as wisdom$ there is an ad antage in ha ing many different perspecti es@ecause of the broad range of associations the term con eys Fand in recognition of the lac6 of wisdom with which we beginG$ it will be best to wor6 from a metale el clarification$ or a definition at a high le el of abstraction and generality$ that welcomes different understandings of wisdom so long as e0plicit Bustification for them is pro idedThis approach is similar to that in regard to the concept of de elopment as ad ocated by Amartya Sen in &e0elopment As 5reedom F3444+&&7?G$ or to the process of determining the common good through the Hreiteration of deliberationI$ as described by <utmann & Thompson F3445G- Different conceptualizations$ all contributing points of iew that are well to consider$ will enrich the con ersation- This is particularly the case today when a global community has begun to form$ and we ha e become conscious of the millennia7 long silencing of the maBority of humanity- The li elier the debate in regard to wisdom$ the better it will be for encouraging the widest spread of interest in its culti ationAnyway$ there seems to be no other way to discuss wisdom than by a dialectic process of ma0imum public participation- Richard <arrett F344=+(()G writes that all attempts to Bustify claims about wisdom Hmust sooner or later ma6e arious assumptions about metaphysics$ about alues Fboth moral and prudentialG and about epistemology Fespecially about what it is to ha e a Bustified beliefGI$ and consensus regarding such assumptions is unli6ely any time soonHans Eichael @aumgartner F%elmZller 34A4+&?(7&G$ gi es a number of descriptions of wisdom$ indicating its relation to understanding significance of e0istence- "t is ?&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Hperhaps self 6nowledge of human beings in their ultimate condition FEndlich%eitGI and an He0pertise in the theoretic and practical assessment of human thingsI$ an Hinsight into the possibilities and limitsI- He notes the etymological connection between sapientia$ wisdom$ and sapor$ taste$ suggesting that wisdom is also the Hright tasteI of things as they are$ and their right and responsible use- "n ma6ing this point$ Aquinas FScriptum Super Sententiis$ """D&)V(A3qc&arg3G drew the conclusion that wisdom is seated in the affect rather than in the intellect+ Cidetur quod sapientia non sit in intellectu$ sed in affectu magisPthough in part it is a cogniti e intellectual irtueEc,ee & @arber F3444+3=&G claim that the pro ision of an a priori definition of wisdom for empirical research has been neglected- They contrast empirical with a priori definitions$ and propose their own a priori definition of wisdom as Hseeing through illusionI$ which is similar to many definitions proposed in earlier times$ such as that of Hugh of St- Cictor Fd- 33?(G+ sapientia est comprehensio rerum prout sunt$ Hwisdom is the comprehenson of things Bust as they areI F&idascalicon C"+0i G- Ec,ee & @arber show how the findings or models of fi e empiric researchers For research teamsG can be e0plained as ways of seeing through illusion- Their approach is careful and con incing9 howe er$ their definition is so general that it can be used to e0plain many beha iors that are not wisdom$ such as critical thin6ing$ decision7ma6ing$ and conflict resolutionDustice could be defined as seeing through illusion- The air is thin when you are at the le el of generality attained by interpreting empathy and balancing conflicting priorities as forms of seeing through illusion FEc,ee & @arber 3444+3='73=(G- Hugh:s definition could also apply to the concept of truthPro iding a single definition of wisdom to co er the entire range of wisdom:s manifestations and forms is a feat requiring the theorist to rise to heights of generality ??

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

that approach the oid$ and lea e a lot that escapes- FRobert >ozic6$ 34A4+(5'$ writes H" do not 6now of any one integrated structure that illuminatingly includes all the pieces of wisdom-IG The abo ementioned general definition of wisdom proposed in this study$ wisdom as 6nowledge and use of good means to the best possible ends$ is of the same comprehensi e sort as Ec,ee & @arber:s F34A4G$ attempting to be a bit more specific than theirs- As far as specific helpfulness goes$ counsel to Hsee through illusionI is of limited use$ but it does pro ide orientation- As to identifying the essence of wisdom$ it points to an important feature o erloo6ed in models that approach wisdom from the perspecti e of personal characteristics- HSeeing through illusionI complements models such as Achenbaum and %rwoll:s F3443G Hsynthetic model of wisdom-I The psychologist who has contributed most to the study of wisdom is Paul @@altes- He writes F(''?+35G$ H" submit that se en properties are generally$ if not uni ersally$ accepted as inherent in any definition of wisdom- These properties constitute a first foundation of a conceptual definition of wisdom-I Reformatting his list$ and omitting for now Fto be disputed laterG his final property$ that wisdom is Heasily recognized when manifest$I @altes: description of the 6ey properties of wisdom is that wisdom addresses important and difficult questions and strategies about the conduct and meaning of life- "t embodies a truly superior le el of Budgment and 6nowledgeP 6nowledge with e0traordinary scope$ depth$ and balance$ including especially 6nowledge about the limits of 6nowledge- And$ wise indi iduals ha e achie ed a synergy of mind and character$ particularly caring$ bene olence and compassionSternberg F(''&G presents an instructi e history of aried theories of intelligence$ and notes that HEost of the intelligence tests that ha e been used- - - are based more on the opinions of their creators- - - than on formal theoriesI Fp- )G- After more than a ?)

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

century$ the debate on intelligence is still going on$ a cautionary e0ample for wisdom theorists- 2isdom is at least as comple0 a concept as intelligence$ and resolution as to its nature can be e0pected to remain pending for the foreseeable future- 2isdom does ha e the benefit of o er a century of empirical research on intelligence to learn from#onceptualizations and measures of intelligence ha e become much more sophisticated o er timeThe current Buncture is without doubt an opportunity to ta6e stoc6 of the concept and Hput it to wor6I Fto paraphrase #icero on philosophy$ Tusc" &isp" C-i -3'G to help humans use the greatly enhanced power that has ery recently become a ailable9 and to a ert the cataclysmic disasters that ha e ery recently become real possibilities- The term HwisdomI can be considered a placeholder for Hoptimal choiceI$ and also for Hprofound insight into the meanings of e ents and e0istence in general-I *ollowing ,e6es: F344)+3&73?G suggestion to begin with the dictionary definition$ a consultation of the 3!ford English &ictionar $ (nd ed-$ finds$ as primary definition of wisdom$ H#apacity of Budging rightly in matters relating to life and conduct9 soundness of Budgement in the choice of means and ends9 sometimes$ less strictly$ sound sense$ esp- in practical affairs+ opp- to foll -I This is helpful$ but not ery- HSoundness of BudgementI and HBudging rightlyI require more specification- Here is where it will be useful to reconsider the heritage of statements on wisdom in light of present needs$ ta6ing ad antage of the tools that psychologists ha e used so well$ demonstrating that wisdom can indeed be scientifically studied- After all$ wisdom is the master s6ill$ or character trait- "t includes intelligence$ compassion and empathy$ and$ in Plato:s iew Fthe alidity of which can be testedG$ the basic irtuesPand the ability to employ them optimally- These other qualities can be present without wisdom$ but the con erse is not li6ely to hold?=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Wisdom as optimal choice 2isdom is often said to aim at the best possible life$ the best possible belief$ choice$ or action- >atali F(''3+)'G writes that for Aristotle Hit is absurd to say that one acts badly on the basis of wisdom$ as it$ (ua wisdom$ can ha e only good ends FTopics 3&5aA7('9 Eudemian Ethics 3(?=b ?7= and &&7&)G-I @lanchard7*ields & >orris F344)+3'?G refer to the wise person:s awareness of the need for the Hbest solution a ailableI and hir ability to find itThere is Bustification for declaring that the optimal choice$ in all those things that constitute or lead to a good life$ in the fullest conte0t$ ta6ing all circumstances into account$ can be gi en the label Hwise-I <arrett F344=G may be cited as typical$ holding that H2isdom is that understanding which is essential to li ing the best lifeI$ and Pasupathi & @altes F('''G say that wisdom is Hoften iewed as the ideal of human achie ement-I Eac"ntyre F3444+)7=$ 4(G describes phronesis as Hthe capacity for practical rationality$I and HThe conclusion of sound and effecti e practical reasoning is- - - that action which it is best for this particular agent to do in these particular circumstances-I ,ohl F(''3+A5G writes that Hthe goal of a wise person is not to focus upon what is merely a good life$ but to focus upon what is the best of possible actual li es-I Such considerations lead to a definition of wisdom as H6nowledge and use of good means to the best possible ends$I a Hbest possible choiceI model- ,e6es: F34A&+(5AG Hmeans to good endsI can probably be impro ed in this way$ and *rancis Hutcheson:s F(''?+)59 originally published 35()G H2isdom denotes the pursuing of the best /nds by the best EeansI Fitalics addedG is too restricti e-

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

2ithout di erting the argument along a different path$ it is worth mentioning that Dames &+3) in the >ew Testament$ and Deremiah ?+(( in the %ld Testament state that wisdom can be used for e il ends2isdom is historically associated with a special insight into the meaning of e0istence$ e0pressed in modern terms by Dohn ,e6es F34A&G$ when he calls it an interpreti e 6nowledge$ 6nowing the significance of facts- 2hile acquiring 6nowledge of means is relati ely simple$ 6nowing good ends is difficult$ says ,e6es$ and entails understanding the significance the descripti ely 6nown facts ha e for li ing a good lifeSuch understanding is a commonly held iew of wisdom- ;ehrer and Smith F344=+=G$ in another philosophic approach$ for e0ample$ write that HThe wise person understands the worth of things- - -I Ardelt:s F('''a+555755AG conception of wisdom as insight into Hthe meaning and purpose of lifeI$ results in 6nowledge that affects one:s basic perspecti e$ and Hcannot remain theoretical$ abstract$ and detached but is necessarily applied$ concrete$ and in ol edI- "n drawing the distinction between intellectual and wisdom7 related 6nowledge$ she maintains that H2isdom7related 6nowledge is social9 it refers to an in ol ed or empathic understanding- - - of intrapersonal matters- - - as well as interpersonal matters of e eryday lifeI"n discussing phronesis$ practical wisdom$ @laine *owers F(''&+?3AG points out that HSignificance always emerges in relation to our aims and therefore clarity about what is good and noble is the source of our moral ision-I Such interpretation is similar to the transition to the more ad anced positions of de elopment disco ered by Perry F345'+(3'G+ Hthe transition from the conception of 6nowledge as a quantitati e accretion of discrete rightnesses - - - to the conception of 6nowledge as the qualitati e assessment of conte0tual obser ations and relationships-I Donathan Dacobs F34A4G distinguishes ?A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

between primary FhumanG nature and second Fsocially determined aluesG nature$ which is similar to ,e6es: F344)+(''73G description+ %n classical theories of the irtues$ such as Aristotle:s$ a morally well7ordered second nature is a manner of realizing an end intrinsic to man:s primary natureThe latter is constituted of a comple0 group of capacities and powers- The former is an ordering or disposing of them in specific ways- - - - There are constraints determined by the primary or essential nature$ and there are normati e criteria of operation of the powers also grounded in the primary nature- The second nature is an e0ercise of it$ well or ill ordered to its intrinsic endsHe adds$ Hli ing a morally sound life in ol es ma%ing right +udgments- "t in ol es ha ing the right sort of second nature based upon a true conception of our primary natureI F(')GReflecti eness and Budgment are the two traits most often identified with wisdom$ according to @lanshard F34=5G- Reflecti eness indicates a tendency to thin6 before acting or deciding$ considering a decision:s grounds and consequences- Dudgment is insight into goals$ ends$ or priorities- %ne of the contemporary philosophers who has written about wisdom$ <arrett F344=G$ states H%rdinarily$ when people spea6 of wisdom$ their interest is in li0ing a better lifeI- ;i6e ,e6es F34A&G and ,ohl F(''3G$ Andrew P- >orman F344=G attempts to establish the case that sound Budgment is wisdom$ emphasizing that they are the same$ rather than wisdom being something that manifests in sound BudgmentTo the e0tent that the ability to choose is important to humans$ wisdom is important- The moment consciousness of choice dawns$ the e0istence of wisdom begins to be sensed- 2ith recognition of options$ the search for a best option Fwhether in fact there is such a thing or notG begins- That search can be defined as the search for wisdomSuch a iew has been held since the prephilosophic period$ and Socrates encouraged the pursuit of the best life as the pro ince of wisdom- The possibility of choices is related to humans: ability to represent phenomena symbolically$ and to memory$ and to imagining the future- ;abou ie7Cief F344'+)&G says that wisdom is Han age7old proBectI that Hbegan ?4

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

with the birth of reflecti e intelligence and the search for a way of life that would be go erned by rational reflection rather than the mere li ing out of tradition-I F*or HtraditionI " would substitute HhabitI-G The word HwisdomI e0ists as an eternal witness of the hope that humans can ma6e thoughtful$ caring$ and intelligent choices for the well7 being of all whom they affectDeane7Drummond F3444+)3G points out that H2isdom acts li6e a guide$ rather than a fi0ed predetermined goal to be achie ed-I Earquard F%elmZller F34A4+&3&G says H2isdom is ob iously some 6ind of life7orienting 6nowledge-I This is so despite the fact that throughout much of its history$ since Augustine at least$ wisdom$ sapientia$ has been considered opposed to 6nowledge$ scientia- Rice F34)A+3A'G notes that into the Renaissance period$ this Hin idious distinction- - - - had been made by e eryone who had discussed either wisdom or 6nowledge-I @ased on a reading of past psychological literature Fin addition to Dohn ,e6es: 34A& article on wisdomG$ @luc6 and <lZc6 F(''?+)?)G consider wisdom to be Han adapti e form of life Budgment---that in ol es not what but how one thin6s- - - - a combination of e0periential 6nowledge$ cognition$ affect$ and actionI that ser es as a resource for difficult situations Hand is often directed toward the goals of li ing a good life or stri ing for the common good-I 2hile in regard to choice$ Budgment$ and decision ma6ing$ wisdom can be considered as the ability to find an optimal solution$ the special requirement to place an issue in a holistic perspecti e gi es crucial direction to the sort of solution that can be considered optimal- *or e0ample$ cost7benefit cannot be the sole standard- Oet for many decisions to be wise$ cost7benefit analyses must be includedPincluding consideration of the importance that cost7benefit considerations carry with people in contemporary society$ and finding effecti e ways to help them alue other priorities- Perhaps a wise )'

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

person will be able to help others find Hin their Mlittle: interests the Mbig: interests that re eal higher states of order and longer range goals for the indi iduals$ for the culture$ and e entually for the entire planetary ecosystemI F#si6szentmihalyi & Rathunde 344'+?=GThe whole proBect of which wisdom is the 6ey element seems to come down to the questions HHow should we direct our efforts and use our powers8 2hat should our priorities be8I Here is where the philosophic clarification of the concept is helpful+ Aristotle FNE 33?3b473?G says Practical wisdom is concerned with human affairs and with matters about which deliberation is possible- As we ha e said$ the most characteristic function of a man of practical wisdom is to deliberate well- - - JandK that man is good at deliberating who$ by reasoning$ can aim at and hit the best thing attainable to man by action#omple0 questions can quic6ly become too difficult for a single person to preside o er the 6nowledge and s6ills necessary for a wise decision- This raises the possibility that an understanding of distributed cognition might be useful for understanding wisdom"n Hal erson:s F(''?+45G words$ HThe social and situational distribution of leadership practice suggests how we might consider phronesis as more than the possession of a particular indi idual-I The EP" group FStaudinger & @altes$ 344=G has begun to in estigate this empirically- Their se en characteristics and fi e criteria of wisdom$ and Sternberg:s @alance Theory$ described further on$ seem as well7suited for understanding the wisdom of such comple0 group decisions as for understanding personal decisions$ recognizing that$ as Hal erson F(''?+45G points out$ HThere is an essential difference$ howe er$ between political and personal phronesis-I

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Cultural differences HJ/K ery culture has its ideal of wisdom$ whether in a erbal or literary traditionI F,urt Rudolph$ (''&+?5AG-The EP" group also maintains the uni ersality of a core of wisdom$ for e0ample in Staudinger & Pasupathi F(''&+(?(G$ where they write Hthe core of what we consider to be wisdom should e ince rele ance across cultural and historical times2hat may ary across cultures are the concrete instances that call for wisdomI- Sternberg F(''(bG$ in a speech to the Positi e Psychology >etwor6$ maintained that there is Ha certain uni ersal coreI to the idea of wisdom$ in the areas of morality and interpersonal relationshipsTa6ahashi & @ordia F('''+(G discuss some of the studies of literary sources that ha e attempted to distinguish different understandings of wisdom in different cultures$ obser ing that the 2estern concept is hea ily weighted toward cogniti e abilities/astern conceptualizations Hemphasize an integration of multiple aspects of human consciousness Fe-g-$ cogniti e$ affect$ etc-GI Dason et al- F(''3+)A=G refer to the o eremphasis of cognition in the 2est and suggest wisdom as a domain that might help restore the balance- Tshiamalenga >tumba F%elmZller 34A4+&((7&G states that African concepts of wisdom do not maintain the human7di ine dualism so often found in 2estern concepts- "n their historical sur ey of wisdom in the 2estern and /astern traditions$ #layton & @irren F34A'+333G found that % erall$ it seems that all traditions described wisdom as being a type of 6nowledge in ol ing a quest to understand the meaning and purpose of life9 all traditions percei ed that this type of 6nowledge was reflected in beha ior9 all saw that a period of tutelage was necessary to acquire wisdom- There was agreement that time was a necessary component for acquisition of wisdom- @oth life e0perience and the direct e0periencing of life were considered important elements- The /astern and 2estern traditions did not agree on what human abilities were needed or essential for obtaining wisdom or what type of

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

educational procedures would be most effecti e to instill the indi idual with this particular type of 6nowledgeStaudinger & @altes F344=G ma6e the point that the wisdom related criteria of the @erlin wisdom paradigm are formulated on a HmetaplaneI that allows them to go beyond particular social standards to pro ide Hconte0t7spanning guidance for thought$ Budgment$ and action-I The current interest in wisdom is different from any such re i al in the past in that it is occurring at the moment of complete worldwide communication$ when methods of scientific scholarship ha e become established- A history of wisdom$ as it has appeared to humans to date$ worldwide$ is a most important preliminary to entering this new phaseThere is no such history$ e en for the wisdom tradition in the 2est2isdom may share significant uni ersal similarity F@altes (''?G+ #hinese apparently emphasize affect and bene olence more$ /uropeans cognition FTa6ahashi & @ordia ('''9 Oang (''3G$ but the elements appear to be the same- Research has not progressed far enough to gi e a definiti e picture of the uni ersal nature of wisdom$ or identify the le el of generality at which it can be defined with global consensus-

Kinds of wisdom "n discoursing on the aim of wisdom$ it is important to understand what type of wisdom we mean$ to a oid the situations referred to by Taranto F34A4+3'G Hwith a theorist espousing wisdom of one 6ind$ while ignoring other types-I Eost psychologist writers point out the multiform nature of wisdom$ and Deirdre A- ,ramer F344'G distinguishes fi e functions+ Solution of problems confronting self

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Ad ising others Eanagement of social institutions ;ife re iew Spiritual introspection These functions encompass the di isions of theoretical and practical wisdom that Aristotle identified Falthough Hspiritual introspectionI is being stretched if it is to co er Aristotle:s Hunderstanding of first principles and that which follows from themIG$ and the nature of wisdom as discussed by Plato- Any account of wisdom needs to recognize all of these fi e interrelated but distinct functions FHolliday & #handler$ 34A=+ iiiGDistinguishing different functions of wisdom has recei ed little attention from psychologists but appears a possibly rich area for research- The relationship each of these has to each other$ and their distinctness$ probably needs to be studied- Particularly the wise management of social institutions seems to require abilities distinct from the other fourHolliday & #handler F34A=+ iiiG informally distinguish three senses in which wisdom is understood+ the first corresponds to phronesis$ the second is abstract and philosophical$ and the third is spiritual- Theirs is a fair categorization Fsimilar to Aquinas:sG$ but their post7script notes that street7le el understanding Hinsists on the simultaneity of all of wisdom:s meanings-I *or anyone hopeful of ma6ing wisdom a goal$ or ability$ or beha ior that can be culti ated$ this presents a problem- Holliday & #handler F34A=+i0G themsel es were hoping Hto render the concept of wisdom amenable to the 6inds of empirical enquiries that might heighten its usefulness as a descriptor of adult competenceI- The three forms of wisdom that Rudolph F('')+45?5G finds are

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

similar+ an ability to cope with life$ a rational system$ and personification or attribute of <odPascual7;eone F344'+(?57(?4G also considers wisdom to ha e three aspects$ but his classification is different+ wisdom7as7will within ital reason Fi-e-$ reason in an Aristotelian senseG9 wisdom as alid e0istential counseling9 and ability for empathic e0periencing of the %ther or of nature- #si6szentmihalyi & Rathunde F344'+(AG write that the term has indicated three different dimensions of meaning+ cogniti e process$ a irtue Fa social alueG$ and a good Fpersonal alueG- They state that HThere is widespread agreement among past thin6ers that the concept has three maBor dimensions of meaning-I Three salient themes+ integration Fof arious personal aspects$ different conflicting interests$ dimensions of timeG9 emphasis on practical manifestation9 and as positi ely alued$ an optimal guide$ were found in a re iew of the literature by Oang F(''3+==(7&GSommer F%elmZller 34A4+(3?G$ distinguishes three meanings for the word wise+ 3G sayings$ ma0ims$ (G certain actions$ in a broad sense$ and &G a person"n their discussion of different 6inds of wisdom that ha e been identified$ 2in6 & Helson F3445G draw an Aristotelian distinction between two broad categories+ social or practical 6nowledge$ and metaphysical or transcendent- They include in the latter interest in self7understanding$ the quest for meaning$ and freedom of the self,e6es: F34A&G statement that wisdom is an interpreti e 6nowledge$ 6nowing the significance of facts$ is a starting place that allows the integration of the e0istential and practical forms of wisdom- His definition of wisdom as H6nowledge of means to good endsI embraces one of the two aspects of wisdom distinguished by Aristotle FNE 33&4a(?7end of @oo6 C"G+ phronesis$ practical wisdom$ whose description by Aristotle was gi en in #hapter (A- ,e6es: definition also includes aret$$ which is a combination ))

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

of irtue and e0cellence- To re iew$ HAret$ ensures the rightness of the end we aim at$ and practical wisdom ma6es us use the right meansI FNE 33??aA74G- Aristotle:s other aspect of wisdom$ sophia$ is theoretical wisdom$ Hthe science of the things that are alued most highly-I @eing 6nowledge of first principles$ wisdom is not concerned with those things from which come human flourishing Fe! h1n estai eudaim1n anthroposG-

Difficulty of distinguishing wisdom #oncerning some comple0 decisions$ it may ta6e so long for their wisdom or folly to become apparent that the issue is irrele ant by the time a erdict can be declared- "t is also possible that diametrically opposed choices can both be claimed to be wise under any definition of wisdom- This is no hindrance to the use of wisdom as a metaheuristic for guiding decisions toward the common good- Vuite the contrary+ it is in regard to highly comple0 and e0ed concerns that wisdom is most needed$ if for no other reason than that we may always bethin6 us that we may be mista6en- This awareness of human fallibility has often been ad anced as one of the generally agreed on signs of wisdom"t may be that there is a le el of goodness abo e which all choices may be considered wise$ the HsatisficingI described by <igerenzer & Todd F3444G- There is a certain amount of imagination$ creati ity$ and memory required in order to concei e that a better choice could be made- FThis is an important part of ,e6es: 344) conception of moral wisdom-G %f course$ humans are able to rationalize their beha ior to an e0traordinary e0tent$ for e0ample con incing oursel es that hateful harming of certain categories of people$ is wise and good- @ut to claim that this is wisdom would be eccentric$ as wisdom is highly associated with openness to e0perience and bene olence F,ramer$ ('''G- Regarding the constraints on their options by which people desiring to )=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

ma6e the best possible choice are bound$ the Hgood meansI referred to on page ?5$ these seem to be identical with moral considerations regarding intent$ principally intending to cause unnecessary harm- "t is easy to see how ma6ing an optimal choice could ultimately require a fundamental understanding of the purpose of e0istence$ or the fundamental nature of reality$ or of something ultimate about the uni erse- This can include a clear understanding that there is no ultimate purpose to e0istence other than that determined by humans$ with all stances towards the Absolute being tempered by an understanding of the limits to 6nowledge- And if the general authoritati e opinion comes to be that 6nowledge regarding e0istential purpose is not possible or is none0istent$ this has implications with which a definition of wisdom must rec6on-

Wisdom as a distinct, unique ability The establishment of wisdom as a construct distinct from the many that are similar Fe-g-$ sound Budgement$ critical thin6ing$ decision7ma6ing$ maturity$ intelligence$ creati ity$ and self7actualizationG is critical$ and despite assurances that wisdom appears as a unique construct Fe-g-$ Sternberg$ 34A)G$ the case still needs to be made- Halpern F(''3G e0presses doubts concerning the use of the term HwisdomI in pedagogy for this reasonStaudinger$ ;opez$ & @altes F3445+3(33G ha e pro ided the most thorough test of different correlates of wisdomPat least wisdom according to their models- After assessing the intelligence$ personality$ and personality7intelligence interface characteristics of 3() adults with && measures$ in addition to ha ing participants respond to three of their wisdom tas6s$ the researchers concluded that He en after entering all && predictors into the prediction equation$ ?4[ of its ariance Jscores on their test for wisdomK was not accounted for- - - - Thus$ wisdom7related performance$ as we ha e )5

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

construed it$ seems to possess enough uniqueness to recommend itself as a construct in its own right-I "n re iewing the findings from their study$ Holliday & #handler F34A=+=AG also came to the conclusion Hthat wisdom is a distinct$ non7redundant competency term-I @ut e en Staudinger$ ;opez$ & @altes F3445+3(33G note that Hthere is no general agreement on the definition and measurement of wisdom-I

Wisdom and the good life Though gaining wisdom is a difficult process$ #si6szentmihalyi & Rathunde F344'+&=7 ?3$ ?4G note that the pursuit of wisdom is intrinsically enBoyable and Boyous$ and quote Eontaigne:s opinion FH%f the /ducation of #hildrenIG that HThe most manifest sign of wisdom is continual cheerfulness-I Since the prephilosophic period when wisdom was considered a guide for success$ it has been identified as both intrinsically fulfilling and as instrumental for li ing a good life- @altes and ,unzmann F(''?+(4(G write of the theory of the @erlin group as concerned Hwith 6nowledge and beliefs about a good life$ e0cellence in mind and irtue$ fundamental issues concerning the meaning and conduct of life$ and ways of achie ing a perfect balance between the personal and common good-I A wise person 6nows how to construct a pattern which$ gi en the human situation$ is li6ely to lead to a good life$ ,e6es F344)G writes- *or Sharon Ryan F344=G$ another philosopher$ a person is wise if and only if / is a free agent who 6nows how to li e well and does so$ as a result of hir 6nowledge about how to li e well- She maintains that this proposition is the correct answer to the question$ H2hat is wisdom8I Thus$ li ing well is what wisdom is all about- This is a fairly consensus iew$ and has support from the philosophic accounts by Ptah7hotep and in the Tana%h$ or %ld Testament$ early dialogues )A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

of Plato as well as from Aristotle$ <arrett F344=G$ >ozic6 F344'G and >orman F344=G$ with >orman F344=+())G stipulating that it Hin ol es an understanding of how one Fin the generic senseG can li e well$ not Bust how one Fin the singular senseG can li e wellIAristotle FNE 33'3a3?73=G holds that a good life His acti e in conformity with complete J irtueK and is sufficiently equipped with e0ternal goods$ not for some chance period but throughout a complete life-I These e0ternal goods include a le el of prosperity$ freedom$ education$ status$ health$ physical appearance- "n @oo6 C" of the Nicomachean Ethics$ Aristotle lists Hthe e0cellences requisite to phronesisI- These are$ that practically wise people must be well brought7up9 they require e0posure to$ and consideration of$ e0amples of well7li ed li es9 the friendship of good people9 temperance FsophrosuneG9 intelligence FnousG9 e0perience9 understanding FsunesisG9 consideration or decency9 and irtue of character- *inally$ practical wisdom concerns not only the indi idual:s own good but the good of the community-

Wisdom and the common good The two leading figures in the recently begun scientific study of wisdom$ Paul @- @altes Fand colleagues+ the EP" groupG and Robert D- Sternberg$ consider a common good$ or the common good$ to be the goal of wisdom$ and both ha e indicated the need for wisdom in resol ing global problems F@altes & *reund$ (''&+()39 @altes & Staudinger$ ('''+3(=9 ,unzmann & @altes (''&a+33'= Sternberg$ 344A+&))$ &)49 Sternberg$ (''(a9 Sternberg$ (''&+0 iiiG- >either has described what they mean by common good- #ommon good is a ague term that can refer to a dyad$ or to the well7being of all creatures- "t can be used to indicate no more than something that wor6s for all concerned$ or to a deeply philosophical understanding of human good$ human goods$ or the <ood7in7itself- To discuss using )4

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

wisdom to resol e global problems to produce a common good$ it is impossible not to be drawn into the long debate that moral and political philosophers ha e conducted regarding the common good- #reatures who ha e labeled themsel es scientifically as #omo sapiens$ the human who is wise F;innaeus$ 35)AG$ can hardly a oid some such deliberation at some pointThe question of a common good is particularly disputed at present$ with charges that in liberal societies$ organized under the assumption that they are composed of autonomous indi iduals pursuing their separate desires$ there can be no such thingFDuprW 344&+5'3$ for e0ample$ writes of Hthe liberal idea of rights$ dispensing with any definition of the common good- - -IG- 2isdom and the common good are an ideal match+ though it can describe amour propre Ffor which eudaimonia has been faultedG$ a more complete description shows that wisdom resists narrow interests$ and considers the well7 being of the whole- Aristotle FNE 33?(a473'G already made the connection in the Nicomachean Ethics that Hone:s own welfare requires household management and a political systemI$ as humans are social beings F6oon politi%onG- HHe is con inced that indi idual well7being depends on communal well7being$I Deannot F34A4+('G obser es>atali F(''3+(3G belie es Aristotle is referring not to human good in general$ but to that of Hone:s 6insfol6 or fellow citizens-I / en the limits of communal inclusion may change in time$ say in the number of years between Aristotle and us- #onsidering humans: rapidly and fundamentally changing understanding of their world$ it may be that e erything considered best at one time will not be considered best at all times- "n Aristotle:s world$ women:s options were relati ely limited$ and sla ery unquestioned-

='

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

@oth Sternberg and the @erlin group tal6 about Hcommon good$I but wisdom has a long tradition of being one with Hthe <oodI plain and simple$ as the discussion of Plato indicates- "n the Meno 55b75Ab$ Socrates argues that all people desire the good$ or what they belie e to be good for themsel es Fand see Apolog ()dG-

C. PERSONAL ASPECTS OF WISDOM "n this section " will describe personality characteristics associated with wisdom- *irst " will present descriptions of wisdom as a comple0 of beha iors$ and then$ in brief$ indi idual person characteristics associated with wise people-

Wisdom as a complex of personal qualities 2in6 & Helson F3445+33G oice a common opinion when they write that H2isdom is a comple0$ multifaceted construct that is difficult to study empirically-I #layton & @irren F34A'+33(G pointed out that their historical o er iew Hhighlighted the multidimensional nature of wisdom-I As discussed further on$ Sternberg F344A$ (''3a$ (''&$ (''?cG belie es wisdom in ol es a balancing of intrapersonal$ interpersonal$ and e0trapersonal interests$ and a desire to attain a common good- The studies done by the EP" group Fe-g-$ Staudinger$ ;opez$ & @altes$ 3445G$ in which participants were assessed with the >/%7 Personality "n entory F>/%7P"G to identify their basic personality dimensions at the same time they were assessed for wisdom$ ha e pro ided some empirical e idence for the personality characteristics accompanying wisdom- Achenbaum & %rwoll F3443G presented a model of a wise personality$ and Achenbaum F3445+AG describes this model of wisdom which =3

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

defines a wise person as one who is able to e ince all of the following nine qualities along three basic dimensions+ self de elopment$ empathy$ and self7 transcendence in the affecti e dimension9 self76nowledge$ understanding$ and 6nowledge of limits in the cogniti e dimension9 and integrity$ maturity in relationships$ and commitment in the conational dimensionAn unpublished dissertation is discussed at length by ,ramer F('''GP;yster F344=GPin which 35A people were gi en comple0 and difficult situations to discuss Fborrowing tas6s used by the EP" groupG in order to gauge their wisdom le el- The results led ;yster F344=+3)4$ quoted in ,ramer$ ('''+4&G to suggest that wise people might ha e the ability Hto see through this comple0ity to the underlying e0istential issue at handI$ which is in line with ,e6es: idea that wisdom in ol es the ability to discern the significance of the uni ersally assumed basic realities- ;yster made a qualitati e analysis of the responses gi en by the ten highest scorers$ and found that they considered wisdom to be characterized by good listening s6ills$ tact$ silent power$ and an ability to preser e the relationship- Rather than proffer ad ice$ they preferred the role of responsi e listener,ramer F('''+4)G notes the similarity with results of the EP" group$ that wisdom is Han integration of cogniti e$ affecti e$ and beha ioral dimensions to produce a rare but adapti e form of Budgment that is conduci e to e0ceptional insight and Budgment about important life issues and situations-I ,ramer herself F('''+A?G notes that insight is one of the cogniti e abilities identified by research into wise indi iduals$ in ol ing breadth and depth of understanding to find the more uni ersal meanings in e entsHolliday & #handler:s F34A=+ iiiG research Hyielded a multifactorial portrait requiring the simultaneous presence of the full complement of attributes which together define the historical wisdom traditions-I Theyfound significant o erlap between the concepts wise$ intelligent$ and percepti e$ while Hin general$ dimensions defined by highly prototypical items demonstrated somewhat less o erlap than did dimensions =(

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

composed of moderately and slightly prototypical itemsI Fp- =AG- Precisely the fact that wisdom is holistic$ and draws on so many cogniti e$ reflecti e$ affecti e$ and social abilities$ seems to guarantee that it will share many characteristics with other psychological constructs$ as the authors point out Fp- A(G- % ercoming narrow$ technique7 oriented concepts of 6nowledge$ wisdom$ to them$ is especially associated with emancipatory 6nowledge- #omparable is Ec,ee & @arber:s F3444G definition of wisdom as Hseeing through illusion-I "n their study of implicit notions of wisdom$ Holliday and #handler F34A=+=(7=AG found that the beha iors most prototypical of wisdom could be grouped under the headings e0ceptional understanding$ and Budgment and communication s6ills$ with general competencies Fsuch as curious$ thoughtful$ well7read$ intelligentG of Hmoderately high prototypicality ratings-I The first two of these headings showed relati ely less o erlap with others$ and general competencies o erlapped particularly with the categories of intelligent and percepti e- They obser e that HThe notion that superior understanding$ social adeptness$ e0ceptional decision7ma6ing$ and proper beha iour somehow congeal to produce something which we ta6e to be prototypically wise has persisted in 2estern thought for at least )$''' yearsI Fp- 5AG- The authors mention that the fi e factors they found associated with wisdom are similar to those found by other e0periments Fpp- A(7 A=G- *or 2ebster F(''&+3?73)G$ HA re iew of the literatureI suggests that fi e dimensions Fe0perience$ emotional regulation$ reminiscence and reflecti eness$ openness$ and humorG are characteristic of a Hprototypically wise indi idualIEoni6a Ardelt:s F('''$ (''?G &7dimensional model of wisdom is based on the research of #layton & @irren F34A'G- She also mentions ,ramer 344' on one occasion$ and on another He0plicit wisdom theories from the /astern wisdom traditionsIG- Ardelt =&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

F(''&+(55G defines wisdom as a personality characteristic$ Han integration of cogniti e$ reflecti e$ and affecti e dimensionsIThe cogniti e aspect includes a desire to 6now the truth and attain a deeper understanding of life$ and includes 6nowledge and acceptance of the inherent limits of 6nowledge and of life:s uncertainties- Self7reflection is necessary for this deeper understanding9 o ercoming subBecti ity and proBections are frequently mentioned- Self7 reflection de elops Hthe ability to loo6 at phenomena and e ents from different perspecti esI FArdelt (''?+(5)G- The affecti e component consists in compassion and lo ing%penness to e0perience$ generati ity$ creati ity$ and a mental style of comparing and e aluating information are characteristics that predict higher le els of wisdom7related 6nowledge$ according to @altes & ,unzmann F(''&+3&(G- They also ha e found that ha ing Hwisdom7enhancingI mentors$ e0perience in a field that is concerned with difficult life problems$ and e0posure to such situations Fwhether at an indi idual or societal le elG increase wisdom7related 6nowledge- People relati ely high in wisdom7 related 6nowledge Hshow a preference for alues that consider the welfare of others and report engaging themsel es in the interest of others$ including strategies of negotiation in conflict resolutionI F@altes & ,unzmann$ (''&+3&&G<Znther @ien F%elmZller 34A4+&(=75G identifies three factors in the traditions of wisdom+ a passion for understanding$ e0emplary character$ and bene olence- %rwoll & Perlmutter F344'+35?G considered the personality theories of /ri6son$ ,ohut$ and Dung$ and located two mar6ers of wisdom that may be useful sta6es on which to tie empirical in estigations- 2isdom$ we found$ requires remar6able negotiation of the personality domain$ e ident in unusual self7de elopment and self7 =?

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

transcendence- @oth of these attainments are inherently contingent on concomitant cogniti e maturationAdvanced personality development Ad anced de elopment of personality is often assumed to accompany wisdom- This is often referred to as postformal thought$ cogniti e de elopment beyond the highest stage that Piaget considered$ formal operations$ and is similar to the higher positions of moral de elopment that 2- <- Perry found$ which he described as a Hcommitment in relati ism$I meaning acceptance of one:s Hresponsibility for choice and affirmationI F345'+3)&G- #layton F34A(+&3AG writes that H2hile thin6ing logically will earn an indi idual higher scores on an intelligence test and place him at a higher Piagetian stage of de elopment$ this type of mental operation would appear to be inadequate in pro iding the indi idual with an understanding of human nature-I #layton F34A(+&35G notes that tas6s used by Piaget to assess cogniti e de elopment$ and tas6s of intelligence tests in general$ are nonsocial and impersonal9 the beha ior e0hibited in wisdom is social$ whether in ol ing interpersonal or intrapersonal issues- *ly bBerg F(''3G wor6s out the implications of this real7world$ unique7situations phronetic reality for the social sciences-

ntegration of personality Stating that HThe most frequently mentioned aspect of wisdom is integrationI$ Oang F(''3+==(7&G presents probably the fullest array of aspects that wisdom is said to integrate+ intrapersonal$ interpersonal$ and e0trapersonal systems9 affecti e$ cogniti e$ and conati e processes9 technical$ practical$ and emancipatory 6nowledge9 6nowledge and doubt9 past$ present$ and future9 conflicting interests- This is much in line with Sternberg:s F344AG @alance Theory of wisdom- The organicist model of wisdom =)

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

presented by ,ramer F344'+(A'G is built on integration$ which is Hthe central tenetI of organicism- 2isdom enables a person to manage the many tas6s of life successfully "n /ri6son:s F34=&G model of the psychosocial stages of life$ the eighth and final tas6 is to achie e ego integrity$ the acceptance of one:s own life$ howe er it turned out$ to attain a Hdetached concern with life itself$ in the face of death itself-I /ri6son$ /ri6son$ & ,i nic6 F34A=+&5G offer this as the definition of wisdom@lanchard7*ields & >orris F344)G suggest that the process of integration of emotions and cognition concurs with 2erner:s F34)5G model of de elopment through differentiation followed by integration- "n this case$ the integration of emotions and cognition occurs through conscious effort- %rwoll & Perlmutter F344'G maintain that the integration of emotional and conflictual e0perience is part of maturity- ,ramer F344'G says that acceptance and integration of all aspects of personality allows greater acceptance of and empathy with others- ;abou ie7Cief F344'G discusses the integration of m thos and logos- She titles her article$ H2isdom as "ntegrated Thought$I and describes the process of integrating logos$ abstract$ thin6er7independent$ mechanical and nonemotional 6nowledge into a more fundamental m thos$ holistic$ attached$ nonrational and emotion7rich way of 6nowing- The study of common opinions of wisdom by #layton & @irren F34A'+33AG found that their respondents considered wisdom Han attribute representing the integration of general cogniti e$ affecti e$ and reflecti e qualities-I Pasupathi & @altes F('''+()'G note that research shows that people iewed as wise ha e been found to ha e Hintegrated oppositions and transcended their own personal agendas-I @altes & Staudinger F('''+3(5G describe wisdom as a metaheuristic for orchestrating mind and irtue toward e0cellence9 in this regard$ it is necessary to integrate Hcogniti e$ moti ational$ social$ interpersonal$ and spiritualI characteristics- ,unzmann ==

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

and @altes F(''&+&?3G write that Hit is the orchestration of the intellectual$ emotional$ and social underpinnings of life problems as well as the consideration of space and time dimensions o er the entire life span that sets wisdom apart from other human capacities-I Sowar6a F34A4+A4G mentions /delstein & >oam F34A(G who Hrelate wisdom to the further de elopment of partial systems of the self$ which attains a final unity in balancing affecti ity and cognition---- 2isdom plays a role in the process of maintaining the self7 system in balance-I Heinz ,ohut F34A)+3((G defines wisdom as an Hattitude- - - formed through the integration of the cogniti e function with humor$ acceptance of transience$ and a firmly cathected system of aluesISee also @altes & Staudinger F344&G9 Holliday & #handler F34A=G$ who iew wisdom as a balance of technical$ practical$ and emancipatory 6nowledge interests9 Eeacham F344'G for wisdom as a synthesis of 6nowledge and doubt9 Pascual7;eone F344'G9 Dittmann7,ohli & @altes F344'G9 Ardelt F(''?aG-

Particular qualities *ollowing are a number of abilities or characteristics associated with wisdom$ with some of the sources for this association- This section could easily be e0panded to boo6 lengthAlthough " ha e attempted to be inclusi e in identifying the personality characteristics associated with wisdom$ it may be best considered as suggesti e- References are by no means e0hausti e- Twenty7two qualities are listed and discussed+ <ood Budgment "nsight into significance and meaning Cirtuous character =5 Reflecti eness Ability to deal with comple0 problems %penness

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Relati istic thin6ing Self76nowledge #omfort with uncertainty & ambiguity @road & deep 6nowledge and e0perience @ene olence$ empathy$ compassion$ generati ity Autonomy #reati ity Serenity

Dialectical thin6ing$ critical thin6ing ,nowledge of limits$ humility Self7control Social s6ills Decentering Humor "ntuition "ntelligence

7ood +udgment" <ood Budgment is perhaps the essential trait of a wise person9 it is generally the first definition of wisdom gi en by dictionaries Fe-g-$ 3!ford English &ictionar $ 34A4G- As mentioned$ #onley F(''&+5A?G says that wisdom Hmay be gi en speculati e or practical emphasis or e en special religious alue$ but it always implies a type of 6nowing and usually a capacity to Budge-I Three of ,ramer:s F344'G fi e functions of wisdom may be considered under this heading$ as well as the foundation for the @erlin group:s model of wisdom as He0pertise in the fundamental pragmatics of life-I

)eflecti0eness- #losely related to good Budgment$ reflecti eness is one of Ardelt:s three dimensions of wisdom$ and she considers it Hthe crucial component among the three because it encourages the de elopmentI of the other two F(''&+(54G- See also ,itchener & @renner F344'G for the Reflecti e Dudgment Scale- "ntuiti ely$ it seems that the ability to thin6 o er a problem$ to concentrate on it for a lengthy period if necessary$ to draw on large amounts of information and integrate it in arious ways$ is central to the wisdom process=A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Eetacognition is the ability to reflect on our own thought and learning processesHEetacogniti e 6nowledge$I Dohn A- *la ell F3454+4'5G writes$ Hconsists primarily of 6nowledge or beliefs about what factors or ariables act and interact in what ways to affect the course and outcome of cogniti e enterprises-I Eetacognition has been mentioned as integral to wisdom by wisdom researchers- HThe wise person- - - - e0cels in what is often called metacognitionI Sternberg F344'a+3)(G writes- "t is interesting that *la ell F3454+43'G$ who introduced the concept$ wrote that our 6nowledge about it might Hsomeday be parlayed into a method of teaching children Fand adultsG to ma6e wise and thoughtful life decisionsI- Hanna & %ttens F344)+(3(G suggest that Han intrinsic aspect of wisdomI is the metacogniti e ability to sur ey an array of belief systems or patterns- The 6ey is the ability to Hemancipate oneself from meaning systems as mental habitats or en ironments so as to see them from a fresh and at the same time o erarching perspecti e-I Sternberg F(''3a+(&&G li6ens wisdom to the metacogniti e s6ills required for identifying and sol ing problems9 howe er$ wisdom has the goal of achie ing a common goodEa0well F(''?G says that wisdom Hcan be regarded as a meta7capacity$ one which enables us to marshal our other more specific s6ills and capacities so that$ in general$ we can utilize them so as to realize what is of alue$ in di erse$ specific conte0ts-I

Insight into significance and meaning, 0alues and priorities, esthetics- This has been mentioned in connection with Dohn ,e6es: F34A&+(54G description of wisdom as interpreti e 6nowledge of the basic assumptions about reality that are shared by all sane people$ with the aim of understanding their significance for a good life- >aturally$ wisdom:s connection with interpreting e0perience and finding meaning$ indicates the lin6 =4

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

between phronesis$ sophia$ and spirituality- Horn & Easunaga F('''+(?)G write Hwisdom in ol es deep insight into the meaning and purpose of life-I >ozic6 F34A4+(=5G says that H2isdom is an understanding of what is important$ where this understanding informs a FwiseG person:s thought and actionI$ and in the ne0t paragraph writes$ in italics$ H2isdom is what you need to understand in order to li e well and cope with the central problems and a oid the dangers in the predicamentFsG human beings find themsel es in-I "n the #onclusion to her sur ey of the research to that date$ ,ramer F('''+44G$ obser es that H2isdom appears to stem from a capacity to reflect on and grapple with difficult e0istential life issues-I She refers to insight as one of the three 6inds of cogniti e processes that ha e been identified with wisdom Fp- A?G#si6szentmihalyi & Rathunde F344'+&3G write that both ancient and modern concepts of wisdom emphasize Hthat the specific 6nowledge of the world we ha e at any gi en time is only a pale reflection of reality-I "n a similar ein$ ;abou ie7Cief F344'+5AG writes that H2isdom consists$ so to say$ in one:s ability to see through and beyond indi idual uniqueness and specialization into those structures that relate us in our common humanity-I ,e6es: F34A&G description of breadth corresponds to the EP" group:s F@altes & Smith 344'G criterion of relati ism for measuring wisdom- Depth$ on the other hand$ is achie ed with the understanding that no human life can be good unless a person understands the significance of the basic assumptions that all mature mentally healthy people ma6e$ e-g-$ that H" am mortalI$ that H%ther beings e0istI$ and li es in conformity with the implications- This is not an aspect easy to operationalize by psychologist in estigators into wisdom-

5'

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Abilit to deal with difficult and comple! life problems- @altes F(''?+35G has identified the realm of Himportant and difficult questions and strategies about the meaning and conduct of lifeI as one of the uni ersal aspects of wisdom- This characteristic is indicated by both the 6nowledge of first principles and by the ability to deliberate and Haim at and hit the best thing attainable to man by actionI Aristotle FNE 33?3b3?G that are discussed by Plato and Aristotle- This ability to deal with difficult and ill7defined problems as a function of wisdom is discussed also by Arlin F344'G$ and ,itchener & @renner F344'G-

*irtuous character- Aristotle discusses the connection between irtue and phronesis in Nicomachean Ethics C"-0ii70iii$ and says that it is not possible to be phronimos$ practically wise$ without being good- Sternberg F(''3a+(&5G maintains that wisdom is related to the highest stages of ,ohlberg:s F34=4G model of moral de elopment- @altes: F(''?G general wor6 on wisdom and psychology is titled Wisdom as 3rchestration of Mind and *irtue$ and the article by @altes & Staudinger F('''G$ describing the theoretical and empirical wor6 of the EP" group$ is titled H2isdom+ A metaheuristic FpragmaticG to orchestrate mind and irtue toward e0cellence-I

3penness- H%penness to e0perience is the most frequent predictor of wisdomI$ ,ramer F('''+A&G writes- The same was found$ she notes$ by Tracy ;yster in her research Fp- 43G- Staudinger$ ;opez$ & @altes F3445G tested a heterogeneous group of people with an e0tensi e array of intelligence and personality measures$ comparing results on these with scores on their tas6s assessing wisdom7related 6nowledge$ and they found %penness to e0perience Ffrom the >/%7P"G to be the single factor most highly correlated with 53

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

wisdom scores- This was confirmed in another e0periment FStaudinger et al-$ 344AG$ which found only a person:s training and e0perience in a particular profession to correlate higher with wisdom7related scores%penness includes commitment to continuing de elopment$ Shedloc6 F344A+&'G obser es- Respect for indi idual differences and di ersity is a maBor element of the higher le els of human de elopment for many theorists of adult de elopment$ as ;abou ie7Cief F344'+53G points out- ,e6es F344)+3'=733(G writes of moral imagination$ the ability to enlarge our range of possibilities9 and that this requires being able to ma6e the possibilities we become aware of truly possible$ which becomes difficult as habits are formed- "t also$ he says$ has the role of a oiding narrow7mindedness$ fantasy$ and self7 deception"n their study of people who ha e dedicated their li es to a moral commitment$ #olby & Damon F344(+AG found that Hpersonal integrity often requires one to 6eep an open mind and a recepti e outloo6+ This is a fundamental part of the personal commitment to truth that constitutes character-I See also Ardelt F('''a+5A'73G9 #layton & @irren F34A'G9 Arlin F344'G9 Taranto F34A4G9 2in6 & Helson F3445G-

)elati0istic thin%ing- The recognition that people hold different alues$ that different cultures and different historical periods prioritize different alues$ and that indi iduals themsel es hold different alues at different times of life$ is one of the fi e criteria of wisdom for the EP" researchers- The Hsecond tier thin6ingI of #laire <ra es F2ilber ('''+ch-?G describes this ery well-

5(

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Arlin F344'+(&4G writes that HPostformal reasoning is best characterized as reasoning that is metasystematic$ reflecti e$ and dialectic- Structurally$ the logic of postformal reasoning is a relati istic type of logic-I The Hinterindi idual selfI described by Sou aine$ ;ahey$ & ,egan F344'+()'75G is another e0ample- A person who has attained this stage of moral de elopment does not feel threatened by opposing iews or need to protect hirself from feelings of culpability9 / is able to iew situations more dispassionately without withdrawing emotionally-

&ialectical thin%ing, critical thin%ing- Dialectical thin6ing$ often associated with wisdom$ is defined by Eerriam and #affarella F3444+3)3G as Hthe acceptance of the inherent contradictions and alternati e truths9 and that conte0t$ including the acceptance of cultural differences$ is critical in determining what thin6ing patterns in adulthood really mean-I The most complete discussion of the literature of dialectical thin6ing in relation to wisdom appears to be in Sternberg F344A+&)'G- He describes dialectical thin6ing in terms of truth e ol ing in a process of thesis$ antithesis$ and synthesis$ and he ma6es the point that the dialectical process can indicate an e olution through time or a confrontation between contemporaneously held opinions- He concludes that H2isdom is probably best de eloped through role modeling and through the incorporation of dialectical thin6ing into one:s processing of problemsI Fp- &)&GTa6ahashi & % erton F(''(+(=4G describe the synthetic mode of wisdom as concerning the mind:s dialectic nature$ and they define dialectic Has any system or structure that mo es toward states of increased integration-I The dialectical perspecti e appears to be considered by #layton & @irren F34A'G as that in which a person is able to 5&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

consider different contradictory but equally acceptable options$ and ac6nowledge the unresol ability of the most difficult questions- They write that H%ur models of aging could concei ably be altered if$ in fact$ achie ement of a dialectical perspecti e characterized the type of 6nowledge held by an indi idual who has been de eloping wisdomI Fp- 3()G- That dialectical thin6ing is requisite for wisdom is maintained also by Ardelt F('''a+55AGThe courage to question all authority is mentioned- Pascual7;eone F344'+(?AG writes that HThe apprentice of wisdom should not be a Mbelie er: but should challenge from within Fusing the mentor:s own methods and teachingG the mentor:s teachings or deeds-I See also ,ramer F344'G$ @irren & *isher F344'G$ ;abou ie7Cief F344'G$ and Sternberg F344AG- Sternberg F(''3a+(&&G notes the relation between wisdom and analytic thin6ing$ stipulating$ howe er$ that the former is concerned with real7life problems and not the well7defined and theoretical problems emphasized in academic settings- He writes that practical thin6ing is closer to wisdom than is analytical or creati e thin6ing$ but as in creati ity$ while wise thin6ing must be practical$ the re erse is not the caseAd anced and liberati e mental ability as constituti e of wisdom is also emphasized by Hanna & %ttens F344)G$ who maintain the centrality to wisdom of dialectic thought and metacogniti e ability to e0amine meaning and belief systemsDialectical thought is also a feature of se eral conceptualizations of wisdom$ such as ,ramer F344'G$ and Ardelt F('''a+55?$ 55AG-

Self/%nowledge- This is a goal associated with wisdom since Socrates- ,e6es F344)+(33G writes that the aim of self76nowledge His not to o ercome the effects of 5?

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

permanent ad ersities Ji-e-$ contingency$ conflict$ and e ilK on our character and conception of a good life$ but to help us li e as well as possible gi en the limits and possibilities they present-I #si6szentmihalyi & Rathunde F344'+&A7?3G write of the self7 transcendence that follows from the ability of self7reflection- Ability to see oneself sub specie aeternitatis$ in the perspecti e of H<odI9 to recognize one:s conte0t and limits$ but also one:s crucial role/ri6son:s F34)4$ 3445G final stage of de elopment$ integrity s- despair$ whose successful achie ement$ he holds$ results in wisdom$ is related to self76nowledge,ramer:s F344'G wisdom functions of life planning and life re iew are also dependent on self76nowledge- 2- Andrew Achenbaum F(''?+&'3G nicely says that HThe wise$ gazing at the uni erse on se eral planes$ see6 insights within themsel es about how their true self e ol es-I Ardelt F('''aG also stresses self76nowledge-

8nowledge of limits, humilit - This is$ in part$ self76nowledge$ but includes 6nowing that there are limits to human 6nowledge- Eeacham F344'+3A3G Hconcluded that the essence of wisdom is to hold the attitude that 6nowledge is fallible and to stri e for a balance between 6nowing and doubting-I Taranto F34A4+4G ma6es the point that wisdom is not the recognition of the gap between what one 6nows and does not 6now in particular cases$ but the recognition that there will always be much more un6nown than what one 6nows- After re iewing arious contributions to an understanding of wisdom$ she writes that H"t is my conclusion that wisdom in ol es a recognition of and response to human limitationI Fp-3)G- Recognition and management of uncertainty$ of the fundamental limits to human 6nowledge$ is one of the fi e criteria for assessing wisdom in the @erlin 2isdom Paradigm F@altes & Staudinger ('''+3()7=G- Ardelt F('''a+5A(G also 5)

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

emphasizes the Hacceptance of the limits of 6nowledge for human beingsI$ as do many writers on wisdom- The Hwillingness and e0ceptional abilityI to ma6e sound Budgments while recognizing the uncertainty of 6nowledge forms the higher le els of the Reflecti e Dudgment model of ,itchener & @renner F344'GThe humility of wisdom is e0pressed by Socrates in the Apolog (3b+ H" am only too conscious that " ha e no claim to wisdom$ great or smallI9 and #onfucius is quoted as saying that HTo 6now that you 6now what you 6now$ and that you do not 6now what you do not 6now$ that is true wisdom-I

,omfort with uncertaint and ambiguit - The wise person$ Sternberg F344'+3))G points out$ is both comfortable with ambiguity and sees it as a basic reality- "n proposing that the de elopment of wisdom requires an integration of emotion and cognition$ @lanchard7*ields & >orris F344)+3'AG write that with this integration Hthere is an increased tolerance for uncertainty and a deepening in the search for meaning and purpose in life- Awareness of the parado0ical and contradictory nature of reality facilitates transcendence needed to embrace the uncertainty-I This characteristic is related with dialectical thin6ing- *or ,ramer F('''+A?G$ Hawareness of the relati istic$ uncertain$ and parado0ical nature of human problemsI is one of the three cogniti e processes historically associated with wisdom- The other two are practical and social intelligence$ and insight- She says there may be others-

Self/control- The wise person has de eloped control of desires and emotions and$ more generally$ possesses the ability to direct attention- He or she has an e0tensi e repertoire of areas in which to direct attention- This self7control is part of the irtues of 5=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

the wise person discussed by Plato and Aristotle- The contrast between see6ing to control the e0ternal world and the internal one is made by Ardelt F('''a+55=75G+ liberation from being controlled by fears$ impulses$ passions$ and desires$ and so being able Hto accept reality as it isI is a goal of wisdom- As ,unzmann & @altes F(''&a+333?G point out$ HAccording to philosophical conceptions$ wisdom in ol es affecti e modulation and$ at the same time$ reflecti ity and an understanding of comple0ityI- They predict that the de elopment of wisdom will be found to correlate with the ability to control one:s emotional feelings and responses@lanchard7*ields & >orris F344)+3'=G write that affect is a critical part of wisdom$ in helping to identify and o ercome subBecti e biases+ H"n other words$I they write$ Hemotional regulation in the face of uncertainty is seen as central to wisdom-I FSee also Ardelt F3445G$ #layton & @irren F34A'G$ Holliday & #handler F34A=G$ %rwoll & Perlmutter F344'G$ @lanchard7*ields et al- F34A5G$ ,ramer F344'G$ and ;abou ie7Cief F344'-G Sternberg F(''3a+(&?G also mentions emotional intelligence$ as well as intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences$ as related to wisdom- Temperance was a characteristic of a wise person for /ri6son$ along with deliberateness and freedom from impulsi ity FHoare$ (''(+34=G>eo7Piagetian Pascual7;eone F344'+(=(G identifies control of the will and control and direction of the mind as de elopmental tas6s necessary for attaining wisdomH2isdom deals with 0ital reason$I Pascual7;eone F('''+(?5G writes$ Hthat is$ insightful practical rationality about one:s life- - - and li ing in all its aspectsI including a person:s possibilitiesTa6ahashi & % erton F(''(G$ 2ebster F(''&G$ and ,unzmann & @altes F(''&G all mention emotional regulation in connection with wisdom55

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

'road and deep %nowledge and e!perience- 2iggins F34A'+3?=75G writes that the ma0imum practical wisdom is e idenced by a person Hwho brings to bear upon a situation the greatest number of genuinely pertinent concerns and genuinely rele ant considerations commensurate with the importance of the deliberati e conte0t-I @road factual and procedural 6nowledge are the first two criteria for the EP" group:s F@altes & Smith 344'G assessment of wisdom- ,ramer F('''+A)G$ too$ emphasizes the He0ceptional breadth and depth of 6nowledge about the conditions of life and human affairsI that is characteristic of wisdom- *or Ardelt F(''?+(53G$ Hthe goal of wisdom or interpretati e 6nowledge is to comprehend the deeper meaning of descripti ely 6nown factsI- ,e6es F34A&G$ whose description of the 6nowledge of a wise person focuses on the breadth and depth necessary to interpret the basic realities of e0istence$ uses the term HbreadthI in the sense of understanding that different conte0ts call for different responses Fwhich corresponds with the @erlin group:s criteria of lifespan conte0tualism and alue relati ismG- Depth for ,e6es is the perception of the fundamental similarities for all humans in regard to the basic realities- 2ebster F(''&+3?G$ following a re iew of the literature$ suggests Hthat it is not accumulated general e0perience per se that leads to wisdom$ but in contrast$ e0periences that are difficult$ morally challenging$ and require For perhaps enableG some degree of profundity-I

Social s%ills- Staudinger & Pasupathi F(''&+(?)G write that research indicates that wisdom7related performance in their model is not affected by a person:s le el of social intelligence beyond a basic le el$ but their colleagues ,unzmann & @altes F(''&aG also found that the conflict management style fa ored by people higher in wisdom7related 5A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

6nowledge see6s a cooperati e resolution- *or Sternberg F(''3a+(&?G$ the difference between social intelligence and wisdom is that the former can be used for self7ser ing ends$ whereas wisdom cannot- Can ;anc6er F('''+(((G point out Hthat speech formulas con ey a type of subtle$ in7the7moment wisdom- They ser e to implicitly indicate how a person feels about something$ how the spea6er wants the content of the con ersation to be e aluated$ where the tal6 is to be directed-I

'ene0olence, empath , compassion, generati0it , related to the common good- %ne of the Htwo 6ey indicators of personality7based wisdomI identified by %rwoll & Perlmutter F344'G results from the ad anced personality de elopment in ol ed in the growth of wisdom+ self7transcendence$ in which the indi idual mo es from self7 centeredness to inclusion of all beings in one:s social radius- Sternberg F(''3a+(&5G maintains that wisdom Hin ol es caring for others as well as oneselfI- He F(''&a+&45G writes that de eloping wisdom in ol es ma6ing a decision Hto ma6e a genuine effort to understand other people:s points of iew and incorporate them into one:s thin6ing-I This includes understanding that different people iew e0perience in different ways$ with different alues and opinions$ and is related to Hsecond7tier thin6ingI F2ilber ('''G- %f course$ /ri6son:s portrait of successful psychological de elopment$ leading to wisdom$ includes the ability to form intimate relationships$ and it also includes generati itySternberg:s F344AG @alance Eodel of wisdom has identified a common good as the goal of wisdom$ and the EP" group also associate the common good with wisdom- @altes & Staudinger F('''+3(=G$ for e0ample$ write that wisdom Hincludes an e0plicit concern with the topic of irtue and the common good-I

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&ecentering- To become wise is to recognize and accept all aspects of oneself$ and to go beyond proBecting unwelcome parts of oursel es onto others$ ,ramer F344'+(4=G writes$ noting the importance of seeing others as they are and separating one:s own needs from those of others- Ardelt F('''a+5A'G writes that HThe process of self7reflection ultimately results in a reduction of self7centeredness and in a more correct perception of reality-I The process of going beyond personal$ ego7centered focus to identification with the unus mundus is mentioned by Dung F3455+)&&G as the ultimate goal of psychological de elopment+ HJPKsychic wholeness will ne er be attained empirically$ as consciousness is too narrow and too one7sided to comprehend the full in entory of the psyche-I "t is questionable whether humans can$ in principle$ be wise$ e er 6now oursel es$ or understand common good$ until we ha e an accurate and thorough understanding of the ways in which the indi idual is embedded in hir conte0t$ and this understanding is reflected in our institutions- "n discussing Achenbaum & %rwoll:s F3443G study$ Atchley F344&+?A(G notes that as their intrapersonal$ interpersonal$ and transpersonal le els of wisdom all depend on the ability to iew oneself from outside one:s personal perspecti e$ the transpersonal le el His the 6ey to wisdom-I

Autonom - As ,e6es F34A&+(55G proposes$ H2isdom is a character7trait intimately connected with self7direction-I The ultimate e0pression of this was the Stoics: assertion that only the wise person is free9 all others are sla es- The liberation from proBections and defenses that Ardelt F('''a+55=75G describes as a necessary part of wisdom$ allows a person to accept reality as it is- Autonomous freedom results from Budgments and acts of will that o erride H>aturalTinstinctual feeling JthatK are indicators of the strength of- - de elopmentally more basic aluesI$ writes Pascual7;eone F344'+(=3GA'

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

#umor- To Deffrey 2ebster F(''&+3)G$ humor is an aspect of wisdom- He refers to Taranto F34A4G as also recognizing humor as part of wisdom$ and cites /ri6son as quoted by his biographer+ H" can:t imagine a wise old person who can:t laugh-I The philosopher %do Earquard$ in %elmZller 34A4+&3?$ also raises the question whether Hwisdom is possible without humor$I and suggests that$ particularly in the case of conflicting alues$ a humorous laugh opens borders$ and a deriding laugh closes them- ,ohut F34A)+3((G has remar6ed on the connection of wisdom with humor$ particularly in regard to life:s crises$ including a gentle irony about one:s own wisdom- *ran6l F34A?+))G$ too$ writes about the importance of a sense of humor in Hmastering the art of li ingI$ e en in a concentration camp-

,reati0it - Helson & Sri asta a F(''(G noted the similarities and the differences between wisdom and creati ity- Sternberg F(''3a+(&? and in se eral other placesG has noted that wisdom requires creati ity Fthe re erse is not trueG$ and while creati e thought often defies custom$ wisdom tends towards preser ation and integration- Sternberg F(''3cG says that wisdom is a synthesis of intelligence and creati ity$ requiring both-

Intuition- This ability is not as frequently mentioned$ although it seems to be a natural characteristic of a wise person- Taranto F34A4+35G points out the connection of intuition with wisdom$ and she mentions that Piaget claimed that intuition precedes logicTre or #urnow:s recent wor6 F3444G on ethical intuitionism discusses the sources of this perspecti e in writings on wisdom$ both religious and philosophic-

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Serenit - This trait is not often mentioned either$ but seems implied by se eral of the earlier traits mentioned- /ri6son:s description of wisdom as accepting the ine itability of one:s life$ as Hdetached concern with life itself$ in the face of death itselfI F/ri6son$ /ri6son$ & ,i nic6$ 34A=+&5G$ pro ides an image of this serenity- #layton F34A(+&3)G obser ed this quality in elderly people who possessed wisdom$ that they Hdid not begrudge loss of those people or things o er which they could e0ert no controlI- Taranto F34A4+3AG notes that serenity is related with recognition of the limits of 6nowledge,ramer F('''+4&G quotes Tracy ;yster:s finding that serenity was identified by all groups she polled regarding their concepts of wisdom- Eontaigne:s statement from H%f the /ducation of #hildrenI that HThe most manifest sign of wisdom is continual cheerfulnessI has already been mentioned Fabo e$ p- )AG- Eontaigne:s essay continues$ HHer state is li6e that of things in the regions abo e the moon$ always clear and serene-I FH;a plus e0presse marque de la sagesse$ c\est une esBouissance constante+ son estat est comme des choses au dessus de la lune$ tousBours serein-IG

Intelligence- Staudinger$ ;opez$ & @altes F3445+3('(G propose that creati ity$ social intelligence$ and cogniti e styles Hmay be the closest to the construct of wisdom-I Horn & Easunaga F('''G discuss the nine primary mental abilities identified in research on intelligence and the relation between these and wisdom- Pasupathi & Staudinger F(''3+?'&G point out that research indicates that$ in regard to the relationship between intelligence and wisdom$ Hgi en a minimum le el of intellectual functioning$ this relationship is not important-I "n fact$ an unpublished study discussed in Staudinger F3444+=?AG found a nonsignificant relationship between a measure of post7formal reasoning and wisdom7related performance- F"n the Relati ism and Dialectic scales of the A(

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Social Paradigm @elief "n entory there was a relationship of r = -3'-G Sternberg F34A)G found wisdom to be more closely related to intelligence than to creati ity$ but wisdom is related to both- "n his article introducing the @alance Theory of wisdom$ Sternberg F344A$ and (''&+3)573)4G discusses the differences between wisdom and se eral related concepts$ such as intelligence$ creati ity$ social intelligence$ emotional intelligence$ and interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence-

3ther (ualities- There are other qualities that could be added to the listReminiscent of Aristotle:s statement Sapientis est ordinare$ H"t is the nature of the wise man to order things$I Earquard F%elmZller 34A4+&3?G proposes that the wise person moderates e0cesses of order and of disorder$ through obser ing things hitherto unnoticed$ and by simplifying that which is becoming o erly comple0- Achenbaum F(''?G mentions lo e and forgi eness- Taranto F34A4+3?G had earlier written that H*ran6ly$ " am surprised that such words as Mcompassion$: Mmercy$: and e en Mforgi eness: are not commonly included attributes of the wise personI- And of course$ the wise person:s sense of priorities+ Saepe est etiam sub palliolo sordido sapientia$ H%ften wisdom is e en found in a shabby cloa6I F#icero$ Tusc" &isp" """-00iii-)=GDason$ et al- F(''3G suggest mystic e0periences and spirituality as concepts related to wisdom- This is a possibly fruitful place to loo6 for at least one of the functions of wisdom- The study of spirituality$ at least$ has generated a large amount of research in the past twenty years Fsee$ for e0ample$ Hall & /dwards$ (''(9 Hodge$ (''39 Eitroff & Denton$ 3444G- Euch of the wor6 on spirituality$ it should be noted$ has been done in regard to its connection with health and wellness Fe-g-$ *etzer "nstitute$ >ational "nstitute

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

on Aging 2or6ing <roup$ 3444G- Ci6tor *ran6l F34A)+))7)AG describes an insight into wisdom that occurred to him while marching to his wor6 detail in a concentration camp+ " saw the truth as it is set into song by so many poets$ proclaimed as the final wisdom by so many thin6ers- The truthPthat lo e is the ultimate and the highest goal to which man can aspire- Then " grasped the meaning of the greatest secret that human poetry and human thought and belief ha e to impart+ The sal0ation of man is through lo0e and in lo0e,ramer F344'G lists Hspiritual introspectionI as one of the fi e functions of wisdom$ but this is not the same as wisdom as religious dogma- Achenbaum & %rwoll F3443G mention spiritual commitment as part of wisdom- 2in6 & Helson F3445+=G included Hspiritual depthI in their criteria for assessing transcendent wisdom- ;e itt F3444G inter iewed thirteen Tibetan @uddhist mon6s to learn their iews of wisdom- Dason$ Reichler et al- F(''3G identified two items of their assessment tool Fcalling for ;i6ert7type responsesG for wisdom to indicate a spiritual dimension- Helson & Sri asta a F(''(+3?&4G found that a career in psychotherapy or spiritual acti ity Hadded significantly to the prediction of wisdom-I @altes F(''?+3'G$ doubts whether Ha data7dri en psychologist JcanK be sufficiently informed about and committed to the spiritual and humanist qualities of wisdomI- "t is quite li6ely that to raise or resol e the issue of wisdom:s connection with e0istential7religious concerns$ it is necessary to see6 beyond empirical psychology- This is where transdisciplinarity becomes ery important-

Wisdom as a collective product "ntroducing their study of wisdom as a possible product of Hinteracti e mindsI$ Staudinger & @altes F344=+5?4G mention that not all consultation will result in a better decision than indi idual thought- They mention the cogniti e o erload that can result in impairing decision7ma6ing ability$ the fanning of emotions$ and the Hsocial loafingI that A?

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

the presence of se eral people permits+ H%ne of the most central and also long7standing distinctions is the one between studies on the effect of social interaction on group performance and studies of the effect of social interaction on subsequent indi0idual performance-I Ardelt F(''?+(='G writes H" propose that the term Mwisdom: should be reser ed for the wisdom of peopleI$ and much of the empirical research has concerned itself with people:s wisdom- Recall that the empirical study began from an interest in the positi e aspects of aging- FArdelt:s research has been entirely with the elderly-G She is not alone in this proposal+ HansBZrgen Staudinger$ a biochemist F%elmZller 34A4+&?'G states that Hwisdom can only be encountered in wise people$I and Schn]delbach$ a philosopher$ in the same olume emphasizes his belief that Hone cannot lea e out the personal connection from wisdomI Fp- &?=G- Hal erson F(''?+45G$ though$ writes that HThe social and situational distribution of leadership practice suggests how we might consider phronesis as more than the possession of a particular indi idual-I @altes & Staudinger F('''+3(5G had written$ H"n our conception$ wisdom is fundamentally a cultural and collecti e product in which indi iduals participate- "ndi iduals are only some of the carriers and outcomes of wisdom-I

Cultivating wisdom "ncredible as it may seem$ and despite Easlow:s F3453+4G and %rwoll & Perlmutter:s F344'G urging$ there has been no study of wisdom to date that has attempted to study people actually considered wise- There was a networ6 tele ision program in the !S from 34)( to 34=)$ called by different titles$ including Wisdom and ,on0ersations with Elder Wise Men$ which featured inter iews with people such as Da id @en <urion$ @ertrand A)

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Russell$ /leanor Roose elt$ >adia @oulanger$ /amon De Calera$ Robert *rost and Eargaret Eead- FTwo boo6s were produced from these inter iews$ Wisdom9 ,on0ersations with the Elder Wise Men of 3ur &a $ and Wisdom 5or 3ur TimeG- Tony Schwartz F344)G published a boo6 of con ersations with a dozen people in a Hsearch for wisdomI across America- As aluable as these presentations are$ they do not yield the sort of systematic$ empiric insight that is desirable- @altes$ Staudinger$ et al- F344)G did assess people nominated as wise with the wisdom tas6s of the @erlin wisdom paradigm of the EP" group$ but there has been no scientific effort made to learn from people considered to be wise- /ri6son:s studies of ;uther F34)AG and <andhi F34=4G come to mind$ although ;uther would not be considered wise by most people"f we are serious about helping humans grow wiser$ it is essential to demystify the concept- The EP" group:s designation of wisdom as an e0pertise seems an e0cellent approach- Though it does not appear to ha e been mentioned by members of the EP" group$ they are no doubt more aware than most of us that e ery e0pertise must be learned through e0plicit efforts in the particular area-3 This is essential for wisdom also+ pic6ing it up as a side7effect of other endea ors is certainly not the optimal way to become wiseAnd yet training in wisdom$ or e en Hwisdom7related 6nowledgeI F#layton & @irren 34A'+3(AG is nowhere offered$ though Sternberg F(''3aG has made a start and @altes & Staudinger F('''+3&37(G ma6e suggestions- The ery idea seems pretentious and sophistic- "f wisdom is$ at least in part$ an e0pertise$ and if wisdom is important for humans$ it seems ob ious that it needs to be taught$ studied and practiced li6e any other e0pertise- *or this$ wisdom needs to shed$ at least in part$ its m sterium- This is not a recommendation for the commodification of wisdom$ but for finding an approach to it

See ,unzmann & @altes F('')+33AG$ which appeared after this dissertation was sent to committee-

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

that fits human capacities- >ot by positi istic standards either$ but by finding a way to integrate all human faculties for use as an empirically Bustifiable method- "n #hapter &$ on the method followed in this study$ " ma6e a beginning to such an approach- The importance of becoming wiser$ and the arguable necessity of admitting that metaphysical or di ine wisdom enters ery quic6ly into any discussion of wisdom$ and cannot be e0cluded$ ma6es such a method important- >or is there any imperati e to be wise$ other than a hypothetical imperati e F,ant$ 34=?+A(G+ If a person wants to become wiser or ma6e wiser decisions$ then there are guidelines to help hir$ or themA minimal definiteness is necessary to fi0 the realm of wisdom- "t is essential to note what has been said of wisdom throughout history$ not because the statements ha e final authority$ but to orient oursel es$ understand the paths that ha e been tried- / elyn !nderhill F345?G obser es in regard to religious mystics that$ once gi en an insight into the nature of e0istence$ instead of reimmersing themsel es in the stream of e eryday affairs$ they accept the as6esis necessary to reform themsel es$ and their habitual perception of the world$ according to this insight- Such can also be practiced in regard to wisdom-

D. THEORETICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL MODELS "n the Preface to his edited collection of articles on wisdom that has become a standard te0t$ Robert D- Sternberg F344'G writes that fields of 6nowledge progress through four phases from initial interest to the obsolescence of a generally accepted paradigm- The study of wisdom$ he belie ed$ was in the second phase of early de elopment$ when theories abound- "f this was true in 344'$ it is still true fifteen years later$ as research has certainly not mo ed to the third$ mature stage in which one or a small number of A5

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

paradigms dominate the field- "n this section$ before proceeding to the research$ " will describe the maBor theoretical models of wisdom proposed by psychologists- The success of Sternberg:s F344'G collection of articles$ Wisdom is apparent from the fact that such a large proportion of the theories made their appearance in this boo6@altes & Staudinger F('''+3(?G and Pasupathi & Staudinger F(''3+?'(G ma6e the same di ision of three theoretical FHe0plicitIG approaches to wisdom ta6en by psychologists- There is an /ri6sonian model of ad anced personality de elopment$ or personal characteristics F/ri6son$ 34)49 /ri6son$ /ri6son$ & ,i nic6$ 34A=G$ a neo7 Piagetian model of post7formal cogniti e operations Fe-g-$ Pascual7;eone$ 344'$ ('''9 Ale0ander & ;anger$ 344'9 ;abou ie7Cief$ 344'G9 and the @altes group:s FEP"G own e0pertise7based model- The latter is the only one that has recei ed empirical studyThe sur ey of psychological research into wisdom by ,ramer F('''G distinguishes Bust two approaches+ cogniti e e0pertise regarding human affairs and integrated$ highly de eloped personal maturity- Sternberg F(''&G re iews the research to date and describes a number of approaches+ that of the EP" group9 post7formal thin6ing9 #si6szentmihalyi & Rathunde:s e olutionary approach9 and approaches emphasizing arious 6inds of balance-

!he "erlin Wisdom Paradigm The Ea0 Planc6 "nstitute FEP"G group includes o er half a dozen researchers who ha e pro ided the bul6 of the research studies$ at least until recently$ and the most fully elaborated theory of wisdom- Paul @- @altes F344&+)A=G$ of the Ea0 Planc6 "nstitute for Human De elopment in @erlin$ writes that while the early research was concerned with common opinions about wisdom$ HEy colleagues and "$ howe er$ were especially AA

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

fascinated by the challenge of de eloping an empirical paradigm that would permit the obBecti e quantification of wisdom7related performanceI- "n an earlier article$ Dittmann7 ,ohli & @altes F344'+)?G also announced their program as Hthe study of wisdom as a form of ad anced cogniti e functioning-I As Pasupathi & Staudinger F(''3+?'(G write$ the focus of the @erlin wisdom paradigm is with wise Budgment rather than with wise actionThe EP" group:s theory of wisdom was introduced by Smith$ Di0on$ & @altes F34A4G- They write H%ur o erall obBecti e is to de elop a research analogue that will open a way toward the empirical in estigation of the content and organization of wisdom7 related 6nowledge systems and Budgmental processes- The present chapter outlines an initial step toward meeting this obBecti e-I This paper lists fi e characteristics of wisdom$ the first two differing from the fi e criteria that were soon to be put forth- @y 344' FSmith & @altesG the fi e criteria had e ol ed into the form$ more or less$ that they ha e retained- The first two$ broad factual 6nowledge and broad procedural 6nowledge$ are a part of any area of e0pertise and are deri ed from theories of e0pert performance Fas is their thin67aloud procedure for assessing the le el of wisdom a person demonstratesGThe other three$ understanding of life conte0ts$ of differences that are held regarding alues$ goals and priorities$ and of the e0tent to which 6nowledge is uncertain$ are specific to wisdom in the fundamental pragmatics of life- They are Hderi ed on a priori considerations from life7span theory--- and from studies of adult cogniti e de elopmentI FSmith & @altes 344'+)'39 see also Staudinger$ Smith$ & @altes 344(+(5(G- These metacriteria are e0pected to de elop subsequent to the basic criteria- Pasupathi$ Staudinger$ & @altes F(''3+&)37(G state that these three Hare grounded in the ancient

A4

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

wisdom literature$ neo7Piagetian research on postformal thought$ and propositions of life span psychology-I Procedural 6nowledge includes strategies for finding information and ma6ing decisions$ and monitoring emotional reactions- Regarding this last criterion$ Heffecti e strategies for dealing with uncertaintyI Pasupathi$ Staudinger$ & @altes F(''3+&)(G are necessary+ simply recognizing uncertainty is inadequate for wisdom- Smith & @altes F344'+?4?7)G add a Hsummati e criterionI+ He0ceptional insight into human de elopment and life matters$ e0ceptionally good Budgment$ ad ice$ and commentary about difficult life problems-I This does sum up the criteria ery well$ but by 344( it had been dropped$ perhaps because it was irrele ant for rating responsesStarting Hfrom an e eryday conceptionI of wisdom F@altes & Smith 344'+4)G$ the goal from the beginning of their published wor6 was Hto formulate an integrati e psychological theory of wisdom and to e0amine its alidity and usefulness on se eral le els of analysisI Fp- AAG- They describe their presentation of this theory in 344' as Hsomething a6in to a prototheoryI$ as their wor6 on wisdom was ery new at that time/0pressing dissatisfaction with the traditional iew of intelligence as in ariant$ Dittmann7,ohli & @altes F344'G describe wisdom as an e0ample of higher order intellectual functioning that is closer to #attell:s F3453G and Horn:s F34A(G construct of crystallized intelligence than to those researchers: construct of fluid intelligence- The latter$ depending mainly on speed of processing$ was considered the 6ey indicator of intelligence- As there is fairly conclusi e e idence that fluid intelligence declines from about a person:s mid7twenties$ human intelligence was li6ewise considered to enter a long decline beginning at this time- %n the other hand$ the study of crystallized

4'

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

intelligence$ which may remain the same or e en increase to the age of eighty$ was neglected"n their approach to intelligence$ Smith$ Di0on$ & @altes F34A4+&'AG associated crystallized intelligence with the Hpragmatics of intelligenceI$ meaning by this term to indicate the more comple0 aspects of mental functioning+ when studied at all$ crystallized intelligence had been studied in Hrelati ely simple erbal reasoning tas6s and abilitiesI FDittmann7,ohli & @altes$ 344'+)AG@altes: interest was with comple0$ important practical life concerns rather than with such simple$ abstract tas6s yielding a single answer- To learn about these$ a researcher would ha e to study the heuristics$ repertoire of problem7sol ing strategies$ and the reflecti e ability a person is able to call on when confronting difficult and important real life issues- These s6ills are de eloped through e0perience$ and with this focus$ a multi7 directional picture of intelligence emerges in which some abilities decline with ad ancing age$ some de elop further$ and concentration on acti ities requiring particular s6ills results in continuing de elopment of e0pertise in that area- 2isdom is seen as highly de eloped pragmatic+ intelligence in regard to the difficult questions of lifeSuch a model is useful for conceptualizing mental de elopment in adulthood$ a phenomenon that had hardly been considered prior to the 34)'s- *or e0ample$ according to Piaget:s model$ attainment of the highest le el of cogniti e de elopment occurs in adolescence- The rest of life shows only stasis and e entual decline- "n 344'+=&$ Dittmann7,ohli & @altes could write that HRelati ely little wor6 has been done$ howe er$ to identify the typical cogniti e processes and the tas6s to which intelligence can be applied at later stages of life or in problem7sol ing conte0ts outside of school life-I >o

43

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

wonder that wisdom$ which is more comple0 and indeterminable than intelligence$ too6 such a long time to appear in psychological research^ 2isdom is one of the areas where it seems there may be possibilities for continued de elopment in old age- *ollowing #attell and Horn Ffor whom see Dittmann7,ohli & @altes F344'G$ and Sternberg F(''&+347('G$ geropsychologist Paul @- @altes F344&G considers intelligence to ha e two general factors+ cogniti e mechanics or physical factors$ in ol ing such things as speed and accuracy of processing sensory input9 and cogniti e pragmatics$ a person:s 6nowledge- @eyond describing the pragmatics$ @altes is interested in the limits of human performance$ Hma0imum performance potentialI F@altes 344&+)A&G"n the EP" group:s @erlin wisdom paradigm$ wisdom is iewed Has a cogniti e e0pertise- - - - %f course$ wisdom could also be studied from a philosophical$ moral$ or religious domain- %ur focus is on wisdom7related 6nowledge in the domain of fundamental life pragmaticsI FSmith$ Di0on$ & @altes 34A4+&33G- This has remained the EP" group:s focus$ though with some re ision$ to the present- @altes & ,unzmann F(''?+(4?G write that H%ur preference was for defining a priori the meaning structure of wisdom as a body of e0pert 6nowledge about the meaning and conduct of life-I The field of this e0pertise is the Hfundamental pragmatics of lifeI+ understanding human nature in general$ and the difficult questions concerning the conduct and the meaning of life#onceptualization of wisdom in terms of these fi e criteria$ and assessing it in regard to the responses people gi e to different questions regarding difficult matters of life planning$ life management$ and life re iew Fo er fi e hundred people ha e been tested to dateG$ stresses the cogniti e element of wisdom$ or Hwisdom7related performanceI as they refer to their results- "t does not include considerations of character$ 4(

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

and this element has been added$ at least in later theoretical wor6 Fe-g-$ @altes (''?$ @altes & Staudinger ('''G@ecause wisdom is concerned with basic$ difficult life issues$ @altes & Staudinger F('''+3(5G$ in writing of wisdom as Ha metaheuristic FpragmaticG to orchestrate mind and irtue toward e0cellenceI$ state that in order to de elop wisdom$ it is necessary to integrate Hcogniti e$ moti ational$ social$ interpersonal$ and spiritualI characteristicsThey add that Hwe now thin6 that it may be important to ma6e more e0plicit the moti ational7emotional orientation associated with the use of wisdom-I "n one of the most recent statements from the EP" group$ @altes & ,unzmann F(''?+(4)G write of the need for interaction among HSpecific cogniti e$ emotional$ moti ational$ and social factorsI for the de elopment of wisdomStaudinger et al- F344A+(G mention Hthe combination of insight and irtue which characterizes wisdomI which was a further mo e away from the emphasis on cognition to a more balanced model- Pasupathi & Staudinger F(''3+?'(G state that e0pert 6nowledge and Budgment about life includes understanding of arious life conte0ts$ and that H2ise 6nowledge and Budgement also ac6nowledges ariation in alues$ but retains a small set of uni ersal standards oriented towards benefiting oneself and others-I @altes & Staudinger F('''+3(5$ 3&(G emphasize that H"n our conception$ wisdom is fundamentally a cultural and collecti e product in which indi iduals participateI$ and Hindi iduals by themsel es are only Mwea6: carriers of wisdom-I They note a recent re ision of their conceptualization$ that wisdom includes s6ill regarding processes of selection$ optimization$ and compensation$ which are Hthe 6ey elements leading to de elopmental ad anceI in adulthood- 2isdom might in part be$ they state$ a heuristic to help promote Hhuman e0cellence in the conduct of life F@altes & Staudinger ('''+3&3G$ 4&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

by identifying strategies and goals$ formed with recognition of life:s un6nowns$ for synergized indi idual and communal well7being- This can be applied to most human concerns$ including e0istential ones$ and is highly efficientPa Hfast and frugalI heuristic$ to borrow the phrase from <igerenzer$ Todd$ & the A@# Research <roup 3444- @altes & Staudinger F('''+3&(G write of the possibility of the wisdom heuristic as being Hacquired systematically-I @altes F(''?+35$ see also @altes & Staudinger ('''G lists se en properties of wisdom that he belie es are Hgenerally$ if not uni ersally$ accepted as inherent in any definition of wisdomI+ 2isdom addresses important and difficult questions and strategies about the conduct and meaning of life- 2isdom represents a truly superior le el of 6nowledge$ Budgment$ and ad ice$ 6nowledge with e0traordinary scope$ depth$ and balance$ particularly 6nowledge about the limits of 6nowledge and the uncertainties of the world- "t in ol es a perfect synergy of mind and character$ that is$ an orchestration of 6nowledge and irtues$ used for the well7being of oneself and of others- Although difficult to achie e and to specify$ wisdom is easily recognized when manifested2isdom is related to certain personality7intelligence factors$ particularly openness to e0perience$ creati ity$ and a reflecti e style of thin6ing- Pasupathi & Staudinger F(''3+?'?G note the similarity between descriptions of the characteristics of people who continue to de elop morally and the quality of openness to e0perienceThe statement in Pasupathi$ Staudinger$ & @altes F(''3+&)4G that H2e belie e research on wisdom7related 6nowledge and Budgment has a special conceptual resonance with theory7of7mind researchI is interesting- As both rely on a person:s understanding of indi idual psychological functioning and of intersubBecti ity$ research in each of these areas may pro ide useful insights for the other4?

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

"n the early writings of the EP" group$ with wisdom conceptualized in terms of e0pert 6nowledge about Hthe fundamental pragmatics of life$I that is$ about important and difficult questions concerning the meaning and conduct of life$ this 6nowledge is without any direction- A person has factual and procedural 6nowledge$ is aware of the limits of 6nowledge and the way standards ary in different conte0ts$ and ma6es Budgments accordingly- The absence of any normati e standard was not remar6ed$ but is significant"n @altes & Staudinger F('''G$ for the first time$ " belie e$ members of the EP" group began to spea6 of wisdom as ha ing the aim of achie ing a result that is good$ or for the common good-

#ternberg$s "alance !heory of Wisdom "n 344'$ Sternberg presented his first e0plicit7theoretical account of wisdom$ incorporating the results of his studies on implicit theories of wisdom- He describes wisdom in terms of si0 bac6ground ariables that ser e to mar6 it off from intelligence and creati ity+ 6nowledge$ processes$ primary intellectual style$ personality$ moti ation$ and en ironmental conte0t Fp- 3?(G- This model borrowed from implicit theories and e0plicit theories of wisdom- FSince the publication of his original research$ the EP" researchers had proposed their theoretical model-G The wise person probes inside 6nowledge and is high in metacogniti e ability$ understanding hir own limits$ presuppositions$ strengths and wea6nesses$ and the limits of what can be 6nown- He or she resists thin6ing in automatized ways and is aware of others: doing so- The primary intellectual style of a wise person Fin terms of Sternberg:s model of intelligenceG is Budicial9 that is$ he or she see6s to understand reasons for and significance of beha ior- / is comfortable with ambiguity$ engaged in an unending dialectic with the world- Hir 4)

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

moti ation is to understand more deeply$ particularly the structure$ assumptions and meaning of phenomenaThe @alance Theory Fintroduced in 344AG incorporates the earlier theory$ considering the si0 components of wisdom identified in it to be Hantecedent sources of de elopmental and indi idual differencesI FSternberg$ 344A+&)'$ and see 344'+3)(GThese components are 6nowledge Fincluding awareness of its presuppositions and limitsG$ processes FstrategiesG$ a Budicial thin6ing style$ personality Fincluding tolerance of ambiguityG$ moti ation Fparticularly to understandG$ and en ironmental conte0t Fi-e-$ the effects different conte0ts ha e on choicesGSternberg:s @alance Theory Fpresented most fully in 344A$ (''3a$ (''&G$ in its most recent formulation F(''?c+(A5G states that Hwisdom is the application of intelligence$ creati ity$ and 6nowledge to the common good by balancing intrapersonal Fone:s ownG$ interpersonal Fothers:G$ and e0trapersonal Finstitutional or other largerG interests o er the long and short terms$ through the mediation of alues$ so as to adapt to$ shape$ and select en ironments-I "t is the goal that seems to dictate the three balances+ intrapersonal$ interpersonal and e0trapersonal interests$ long and short term$ response to the en ironmentSternberg:s F344A+&)&G earlier formulations had stressed tacit 6nowledge as the core of the theory+ wisdom was Hdefined as the application of tacit 6nowledge as mediated by alues toward the goal of achie ing a common good - - -I "t is Honly a refined subset of the tacit 6nowledge in ol ed in practical intelligenceI Fp- &)&G- "ntrapersonal interests include long7 and short7term$ and competing desires Frather than integrating$ say$ cogniti e$ affecti e$ and reflecti e concernsG- /0trapersonal interests are those aspects of one:s conte0t not captured by intrapersonal or interpersonal interests$ Hsuch as one:s city 4=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

or country or en ironment or e en <odI Fp- &)?G- The second area of balancing$ that of adapting to or reshaping e0isting en ironments or selecting new ones$ recei es less attention from him than the firstTacit 6nowledge$ also a 6ey aspect of practical intelligence$ is procedural 6nowledge that is rele ant to goal attainment$ and it is typically acquired through one:s own e0perience without direct help from others- "t is entirely conte0t dependent Hso that the tacit 6nowledge that would apply in one conte0t would not necessarily apply in another conte0tI Fp- &)3G- 2isdom too is procedural 6nowledge$ rele ant to goal attainment$ and typically acquired through one:s own e0perience without direct help from others Fp- &)&GThe @alance Theory conceptualizes wisdom as arising in a person7conte0t interaction$ and thus requiring a balance between these interests- 2ise solutions are li6ely to be unique to the person7conte0t dynamicSternberg:s F344AG @alance Theory is an acti e model of wisdom+ wisdom as procedural 6nowledge F6nowing howG that is Hrele ant to the attainment of particular goals people alueI$ goals that are meant Hto achie e a common good for all rele ant sta6eholdersI Fp- &)&G- H"ts output is typically in the form of ad ice$ usually to another person$ but sometimes for oneselfI Fp- &))G- "n this model$ the 6ey feature is the goal of achie ing a common good- "n distinguishing wisdom from similar constructs$ Sternberg writes$ HPerhaps the most salient difference among constructs is that wisdom is applied toward the achie ement of ends that are percei ed as yielding a common goodI Fp- &='G$ distinguishing it from cogniti e$ emotional$ or interpersonal intelligence$ and from creati ity-

45

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Ardelt% wisdom as cognitive, reflective, and affective integration H@ased on earlier research by #layton and @irren J34A'K$ " propose a relati ely parsimonious model of wisdom$ as an integration of cogniti e$ reflecti e$ and affecti e personality characteristicsI FArdelt (''?+(5?G- Her own research led her to conclude that the presence of all these characteristics is not only necessary but also sufficient for a person to be wise Fp- (5AG- The cogniti e component refers to the desire Hto 6now the truthI Fp- (5)G and comprehend the Hsignificance and deeper meaning of phenomena and e entsI Fp- (5AG$ including the limits of human 6nowledge- The reflecti e dimension indicates clear7sighted perception of reality$ a decentering from self and ability to consider e ents from different perspecti es$ and is prerequisite to the cogniti e component- The ability to percei e life as it is$ rather than through one:s fears and proBections$ impulses and desires$ is essential for wisdom$ and thus self7reflection$ self7 6nowledge$ and openness to e0perience are requisite- Self7reflection also helps a person realize$ in humility$ the limits of human 6nowledge- 2ith the transcendence of proBections and self7centeredness$ empathy and compassion increase- These are the heart of the affecti e component of wisdom- HAs a result$ wise people are more concerned about collecti e and uni ersal issues than about their indi idual well7beingI- This implies serenity and contentment Hbecause it enables one to accept the possibilities and limitations of life$ including physical decline and deathI FArdelt ('''a+5A(G- "n research published in 3445$ she in estigated the correlation of wisdom and life satisfaction in old age- %ld age is necessary$ though not sufficient$ for the acquisition of wisdom$ as it ta6es time to transcend subBecti ity and proBections- Ardelt specializes in the study of wisdom and aging and dying well-

4A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Ardelt F('''aG ma6es a thorough distinction between intellectual and wisdom7 related 6nowledge$ pointing out that while intellectual 6nowledge will help an older person stay in ol ed in worldly affairs$ it is more important for hir to ta6e stoc6 of past e0perience$ find the meaning of hir life$ pass this wisdom along$ and learn to approach death with acceptance- "n a person:s earlier years$ Hthe immediate tas6s of childhood and adulthood require the acquisition of intellectual 6nowledgeI$ but in later years$ it becomes more ad antageous to de elop wisdom Fp- 5A)GThe goal of wisdom7related 6nowledge is deeper understanding of e0istence$ a search for proper ends- Such 6nowledge Hcannot remain theoretical$ abstract$ and detached but is necessarily applied$ concrete$ and in ol edI Fp- 555G- This 6nowledge His timeless and independent of scientific ad ancements or political and historical fluctuations because it pro ides uni ersal answers to uni ersal questions that concern the basic predicaments of the human conditionI Fp- 554GThat Ardelt F(''?+(='G belie es Hthe term Mwisdom: should be reser ed for the wisdom of peopleI has been mentioned-

Pascual&'eone *or Pascual7;eone F344'+(?)G$ who considers wisdom Has the ultimate possible achie ement of a normal person:s growthI$ it is the integration of the totality of a person:s being$ when it Hreaches sufficient breadth and cohesi enessI$ that allows wisdom to appear- This comes about through the conflicts of alternati e self schemes and formsTmodes of processingPif the person:s orientation is a Hwill7to7beI$ rather than a fearful$ neurotic$ or perhaps low energy$ will7not7to7be- Pascual7;eone also belie es that a Htrue selfI$ larger than the physical$ ego self$ orchestrates this integration and is able to 44

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

coordinate all the ego self:s conflicts- A conflict between conscious recognition of Hwhat must be doneI Fp- ()'G$ and relati ely simpler$ more biological moti es must be resol ed in fa or of the former$ if de elopment toward wisdom is to occur- The efforts of will necessary for this are most fundamentally e0pressions of the will7to7be$ or dri e to actualize the true self- The true self begins to come forth when$ through youthful assertion of willful choices$ one encounters enough conflicts that a higher Hultraself control centerI appears Fp- (=?G to coordinate them- Pascual7;eone writes Fp- (=)G that HThe ancient <ree6s called this higher and more integrati e mode of processing reasonI$ while he refers to it as H ital reason-I The acts of will in ol ed foster the growth of openness and empathic decentering from ego concerns- This decentering was a feature of ,ohlberg:s F34A3+chap- 3G stages of moral de elopment from the personal concern of precon entional$ to the group concern of con entional$ to the principled le el of postcon entional morality- "t was an important part of /ri6son:s F34=&G epigenetic model of psychosocial de elopment FStage 5 is H<enerati ity s- Self7absorptionIG$ and is a part of Ardelt:s model of wisdom as wellHThere is no authentic lifePno life conduci e to wisdomPunless the person li es by true con ictions$ using the will to control unwanted impulses or desires induced by circumstancesI$ Pascual7;eone F344'+(?5G writes- /motions play a large part in the de elopment of wisdom in this model- Pascual7;eone:s ocabulary is a bit challenging here Fp- (=5G- Humans ha e a Hscheme directoryI$ the Horganismic soulI$ which consists of three HsubrepertoiresI in which are the feelings of the self$ and preconscious and conscious e aluations of reactions to e0perience- The terms HpsycheI or Hfeelings systemI might be rough synonyms for Horganismic soulI$ and the subrepertoires are different aspects of emotional e0perience- The first of the subrepertoires is a sense of 3''

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

communion with the %ther9 the second$ which Hcorresponds to what the classics called the passions of the self and its feelingsI$ is the home of good and bad instinctual feelings$ and consciously chosen alues- The third subrepertoire is the coordination of the first two$ the ethical self or ethos$ which is the site of moral feelings$ ethical e aluations$ moti es and possible acts$ and e0periential feelings such as aesthetic Budgments2hen a person:s agency7will acts in dissonance with these$ a sense of conflict results$ which can be resol ed by new mental e0ecuti e Fand metae0ecuti eG schemes and possibilities- 2isdom is Hthe state when agency and communion ha e become perfectly coordinated into a single totality Fdialectically integratedG and Bointly determine in a harmonious way e ery performanceI Fp- (=4G- At this point the ultraself organization has de eloped fully$ and true self and persona are well coordinated-

Kramer$s (rganicist model This model was presented in an article in 344'$ and starts from the distinction by Stephen Pepper F34==G of si0 world h potheses$ philosophical articulations of beliefs regarding the basic nature of e0istence- %r rather$ the four Hrelati ely adequateI hypotheses+ formism or Platonic idealism9 mechanism$ often called materialism9 conte0tualism or pragmatism9 and organicism- FAnimism and mysticism$ more diffuse$ are the others-G The central tenet of organicism is integration$ resulting from a dialectical process of resol ing contradictions- The dynamic and holistic perspecti e sees psychological de elopment as inseparable from its conte0t- Through cogniti e and affecti e de elopment throughout the lifespan$ a person de elops s6ills conduci e to wisdomThis type of approach allows an understanding of wisdom in a person:s life that is inclusi e of practical Fboth personal and publicG and theoretical FmetaphysicalG functions3'3

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

,ramer F344'G distinguishes fi e functions of wisdom FSolution of problems confronting oneself9 Ad ising others9 Eanagement of social institutions9 ;ife re iew9 and Spiritual introspectionG and says there may be more- *ar from belie ing that a person might be wise in one area and unwise in others$ she holds that they are highly interdependent and that de elopment in all of them is possibly necessary for de elopment of wisdom in any functionAffecti e and cogniti e processes interact in relati istic and dialectical thin6ing to enable a person to interpret and direct hir e0perience$ allowing hir to decenter from e0cessi e self7concern while maintaining a strong ego- Relati istic and dialectical thin6ing are the two cogniti e processes most rele ant for wisdom- These are concerned with the contradictions of e0istence- The former Hin ol es the awareness of the subBecti e$ arbitrary nature of 6nowledge$I F,ramer 344'+(A4G and dialectical thin6ing$ which de elops subsequent to relati istic thin6ing$ 6nowledge e ol es$ becoming increasingly integrated through the process of conflicts and their resolutions-

Achenbaum ) (rwoll$s #ynthetic model Achenbaum & %rwoll:s F3443G synthetic model of wisdom presents wisdom in the form of a three7by7three grid Faffect$ cognition$ conation9 intra7$ inter7$ and transpersonalG$ thus with nine characteristics Fself7de elopment$ self76nowledge$ integrity in the intrapersonal column9 empathy$ understanding$ maturity in relationships in interpersonal9 and self7 transcendence$ recognition of limits of 6nowledge and understanding$ and philosophicalTspiritual commitmentsG- This model was wor6ed out through an analysis of the @iblical boo6 of Dob- Achenbaum F3445+AG e0plains that while a wise person

3'(

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

possesses all of these qualities$ indi idual and historic uniqueness mean that each person has a unique path toward wisdom-

(ser, #chen*er, ) #pychiger% An Action&(riented Approach Eaintaining that research on wisdom has followed three approaches+ wisdom as wise persons$ as e0pertise$ and as wise actions$ these researchers present their own wisdom as wise actions approach- "n this model$ Hwisdom is in the act itself and is treated always as situated wisdomI F%ser et al-3444+3)=G- They distinguish wise from successsful acts through se en criteria$ of which they belie e fi e must be present in any e0ample+ 3- "t goes beyond ordinary logic(- Eoral integrity$ or Hunobtrusi enessI&- Selflessness+ no ad antage for the chooser results?- % ercoming polite social restraints)- Reestablishes power relations in fa or of the wea6er+ the HRobin Hood /ffectI=- "n ol es a ris6 for the actor5- >on7acceptance of suffering while respecting authenticitySituations calling for wisdom occur Hwhen the situation under consideration seems hopeless and not sol able through applying logical7rational criteriaI Fp- 3=3GThey consider that H2isdom is a rare situated occurrenceI Fp- 3=4G$ in which the action qualifying as wise is a unique response to a unique situation- "n contradiction to Ardelt:s F(''?G positionPthe term wisdom should be reser ed for people9 and also to the EP" group:s model F@altes & Smith$ 344'GPthat wisdom is e0pert7le el 6nowledge$ the authors state$ Hwe do thin6 that the wise act is the only real alid sign of wisdomI F%ser et al-$ 344'+35'G3'&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Csi*s+entmihalyi ) ,athunde% -volutionary hermeneutics Assuming that beha ioral norms and ideals maintained for centuries sur i ed because of their success in promoting cultural sur i al$ #si6szentmihalyi & Rathunde F344'+(5G describe e olutionary hermeneutics$ which they use to help determine the adapti e alue of wisdom$ as in ol ing research into the adapti e significance of enduring themes as they ha e e0isted and changed o er time-

-ri*son$s -pigenetic model #layton & @irren F34A'+3(3G obser e that /ri6son:s is the only model of lifespan de elopment Fat least at that timeG in which wisdom is an integral part- They point out$ howe er$ that the model is limited in its concern$ to social7emotional de elopment2isdom was ne er discussed at length by /ri6sonPhe did not gi e it many wordsPand his conception certainly does not co er the full range of wisdom:s functions- 2isdom as Hinformed and detached concern with life itself in the face of death itselfI was /ri6son:s F3445+=3G definition"n discussing /ri6son and wisdom$ %rwoll & Perlmutter F344'+3=3G ma6e the point that H2isdom de elops not only in old age but incrementally throughout life by actuation of growth rather than foreclosure in response to numerous age7associated challenges-I #layton & @irren F34A'G had made the same point+ that each of the characteristic irtues of each stage were present in some form in e ery stage- And yet wisdom is always mentioned in connection with old age by /ri6son- "n The -ife , cle ,ompleted$ /ri6son F3445+)4G points out that e ery progressi e psychosocial ad ance His grounded in all the pre ious onesI$ and as a person ad ances each new basic irtue de eloped Hgi es new connotations to all the Mlower: and already de eloped stages as well as to the higher and 3'?

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

still de eloping ones-I He also held that the maturation signaled by wisdom was uni ersal across cultures and socioeconomic classes#arol Hoare:s F(''(+3A)G study of /ri6son:s unpublished papers documents that H"n his later years$ /ri6son o erturned his lifelong belief that integrity and wisdom are products of the last stage of life-I She includes the specific day and circumstance when this occurred$ as it struc6 him that Hwisdom can and$ in fact$ must be situated earlier than the last stage of life if humanity is to sur i e its destructi e tendenciesI Fp- 34)G- 2isdom is thereafter seen as beha ior that is fitting to the requirements of each stage of adult life+ H*or later young adulthood and in the middle years$ wisdom is defined by generating$ lo ing$ and caring for children$ by creating products and ideas$ and by adhering to honored principles and con ictionsI Fp- 3A=G- "n his emphasis on caring and nurturing$ /ri6son mo ed from strictly psychological wor6 to ethicsHoare F(''(+345G writes that H/ri6son:s ersion is unique in that its full constellation includes the functional attributes of beha ing in accord with nature:s blueprint of biological competencies$ at least for the intimate period of adulthood$ of showing one:s mettle as a person of con iction and care$ and of manifesting good reasoning and able Budgment-I

Kohut 2isdom is defined by Heinz ,ohut F34A)+3((G Has a stable attitude of the personality toward life and the world$ an attitude which is formed through the integration of the cogniti e function with humor$ acceptance of transience$ and a firmly cathected system of aluesI- " did not find a statement of the basis for this definition- The de elopment of wisdom is related to the transformations of narcissism effected by the ego in healthy 3')

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

de elopment$ and its possibility rests on the ability to transform narcissism for the ego:s Hhighest aimsI- Oet wisdom for ,ohut goes beyond standard de elopmental attainments and is an autonomous achie ement of the human personality,ohut mentions other similar attainments+ creati ity$ empathy$ contemplation of mortality$ and humor in the face of e0istential crises- De elopment of the last two depends mainly on the formation of a strong alue system- 2isdom in ol es the integration of the last three$ and similar to /ri6son:s iew$ ,ohut F34A)+(&4G maintains that it in ol es ma0imal decentering and acceptance of mortality while remaining cogniti ely and affecti ely in ol ed with life- Humor$ empathy$ creati ity$ and wisdom are criteria for assessing personality growth and de elopmentThere was an e eryday rough acceptance of wisdom as a positi e reality orientation for ,ohut$ at least as e0pressed in a 34=( letter to the #ommittee on Teacher De elopment of the #hicago "nstitute for Psychoanalysis F,ohut$ 345A$ ol-(+A))G- Here wisdom indicates 6nowledge of one:s strengths and wea6nesses$ ability to contemplate them Hwith tolerance and composureI- "n 345A F ol-3+?)AG$ ,ohut put forth another definition of wisdom as o ercoming narcissism to accept physical and mental limits with Han amalgamation of the higher processes of cognition-I

.ung Dung:s theory of wisdom is set forth in arious wor6s$ rather than in a single place- His ideas ha e resonance with many of the iews of wisdom pre iously discussed- "n pointing out the correspondence made by medie al alchemists between salt and wisdom$ sal sapientiae$ for e0ample$ Dung F3455+(?(G cites references from the >ew Testament$ which leads to the obser ation that Hfle0ibility of mind is neededI for wisdom- He writes 3'=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

of the necessary integration of thought and feeling for wisdom$ and the necessary recognition of the shadow side of the personality- Thus$ while the masculine pole of personality is certain of the results of its intellect$ this male Hwould be better ad ised to shroud the brilliance of his mind in the profoundest doubtI F3455+(?AG"n Aion F34)4+((G$ Dung mentions the archetype of the 2ise %ld Ean$ for a male$ and the #hthonic Eother for a female$ in regard to the completion of the self- The first stage in this process is recognition of the shadow aspect of the personality$ and then of the anima or animusPthe male aspect for a woman$ and female aspect of the self for a man- HThe missing fourth element that would ma6e the triad a quaternity is$ in a man$ the archetype of the 2ise %ld Ean- - - and in a woman the #hthonic Eother-I #oncerning these archetypes$ Dung F34=A+3A&G says Since for years " ha e been obser ing and in estigating the products of the unconscious in the widest sense of the word$ namely dreams$ fantasies$ isions$ and delusions of the insane$ " ha e not been able to a oid recognizing certain regularities$ that is$ t pes- There are types of situations and types of figures that repeat themsel es frequently and ha e a corresponding meaning- " therefore employ the term HmotifI to designate these repetitions- Thus there are not only typical dreams but typical motifs in the dreams- These may$ as we ha e said$ be situations or figures- Among the latter there are human figures that can be arranged under a series of archetypes$ the chief of them being$ according to my suggestion$ the shadow$ the wise old man$ the child Fincluding the child heroG$ the mother FHprimordial EotherI and H/arth EotherIG as a supraordinate personality FHdaemonicI because supraordinateG$ and her counterpart the maiden$ and lastly the anima in man and the animus in woman"f Dung:s ideas on archetypes is correct$ the idea of <od may be ine0pungible from human moti ations- Dung also discussed Sophia$ the female figure of wisdom$ in se eral places-

3'5

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

/all <- Stanley Hall was a pioneer child psychologist$ the first person granted a Ph-D- in Psychology in the !nited States$ and first president of the American Psychological Association- A brief biography FPsi #afe ('')G states that HHe can easily be called the founder of organized psychology as a science and profession$ the father of the child study mo ement$ and as a national leader of educational reform-I Shortly before he died$ Hall F34((G wrote a boo6 on aging that contained his thoughts on wisdom- This was not a theory of wisdom$ in fact he said ery little about wisdom per se$ but Hall spea6s with unblin6ing fran6ness of the wea6nesses of age while putting forth an inspiring ision of possibilities for the old- He felt that Hnature is trying to bring into the world a new and higher and more complete humanityI Fp- ?(5G$ through those who had arri ed at old age in good mental condition$ and recommended that people consciously prepare for old age with enthusiasm$ o ercoming its limitations through greater efficiency- >oting that people in his time were li ing longer$ and had unprecedented leisure at the end of life$ he wrote that HThe trouble with man6ind in general is that it has not yet grown up- "ts faults$ which we see on e ery hand$ and the blunders that ma6e so large a part of history are those of immaturityI Fp- &A5G- The ability of humans to arri e at old age in large numbers he calls Ha slow$ late$ precarious$ but precious acquisition of the race$ perhaps not only its latest but also its highest product- "ts modern representati es are pioneers- - -I Fp- ?'5G-

STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH QUESTION As " carried out the research " became aware that to date there is no thorough presentation of the research that has been done- "t surprises me that there has been no such re iew3'A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Taranto F34A4G was quite good as well as insightful at the time- ,ramer F('''G is most instructi e for the descriptions of others: wor6 as well as her own theorizing- Earchand F(''&G pro ides a useful o er iew- @ut none of these authors presents a systematic and inclusi e description of the research"t seemed to me that it would be a ser ice to all who are interested in this most important brea6throughPempirical science:s finding a way to study wisdom and its ontogenyPto gather together all the published research$ and on this sil er anni ersary of its first appearance$ to pro ide a summary of what has been learned- "n the course of carrying out this historical in estigation$ the question of how best to study wisdom imposed itself as a problem which would be dangerous to ignore or try to circum entThis question has not recei ed much attention from psychologist researchers$ yet as Paul @- @altes F(''?+3'G writes$ the quantitati e methods of Hdata7dri enI psychologists may fail completely to grasp wisdom- @altes is more cautious than most researchers$ and so there is something courageous in his efforts o er the past two decades to operationalize and measure wisdom- He is aware that the soil he plows may pro e to be barren"n his H@oo6 in preparation$I a ailable on the internet$ @altes F(''?+3'733G proposes that the recent psychological studies indicate that a new stage of scholarship on wisdom has been reached- "n this new stage$ wisdom will ha e been lifted from the hands of philosophers$ religious scholars$ and humanists to a new plane of collaboration and transdisciplinary discourse- - - To this end$ " hope that beha ioral scientists will bear with me as " introduce them to the impressi e and wide7ranging scholarship of wisdom in philosophy and the humanities- "n the same spirit$ " hope that philosophers and humanists will be ready to mo e beyond the opening chapters and engage themsel es with the main obBecti e of this boo6$ the understanding of the structure and function of wisdom from a psychological point of iew" ha e been moti ated by the same desire in this dissertation$ hoping to carry @altes: efforts a bit further through aG presenting a study of the results of research to date$ 3'4

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

and bG by raising three specific suggestions regarding the future inquiry into wisdom$ suggestions that can be organized under the general question$ How is wisdom to be studied8 This general question is far beyond my ability to answer$ but it will be useful to proceed stepwise into the larger problem- The mere idea of studying wisdom empirically$ and in a transdisciplinary way$ is an important brea6through- 2isdom has been so long neglected$ humanity:s 6nowledge base and perspecti es ha e changed greatly since it was last seriously ta6en up- There is much to be gained by re isiting this ancient irtue with modern tools- Perhaps H"f there is anything the world needs$ it is wisdomI FSternberg$ (''&+0 iiiG$ or in more traditional phraseology$ wisdom may still be Hmore precious than all richesI FPro erbs ?-3)GPyet so little has been assayed in its e0ploration o er the past three hundred years$ that it is as if the riches are scattered on ground abandoned long ago- A strong case can be made that each of the three suggestions made here are of utmost importance in an adequate presentation of wisdom$ its nature and de elopment+ 3- Awareness of the profound historical connection between wisdom and religion led to an assumption that an e0plicit integration of metaphysicalTreligious and practical wisdom is an inescapable necessity for an adequate understanding of wisdom- The assumption needed to confront the data(- The more " went o er the research$ the more " began to consider the possibility of gender differences regarding the concept of wisdom$ that it might mean something different to women than it does to men-

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&- The question arose$ whether the study of wise persons is a necessity for understanding wisdom and for de eloping a model of wisdom useful for helping people and the choices they ma6e become wiser" ha e limited the scope of the dissertation to these parts of the more general question- "n addition$ it is my hope that the response contained herein to the question that was my starting point+ 2hat has been learned from the research into wisdom of the past twenty7fi e years8 will also ma6e a contribution-

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0 Met!o%

Trahe me, post te curremus

"n the Preface to Wisdom9 Its Nature, 3rigins, and &e0elopment F344'G$ the boo6 that introduced the re i ed interest in wisdom to the nonspecialist community FHintended for ad anced undergraduates$ graduate students$ and professionals- - -IG$ the editor$ Robert DSternberg wrote that H2isdom is about as elusi e as psychological constructs get-I His opinion at that time was that wisdom study was in the second$ Hearly de elopmental stageI$ of the four stages that fields of 6nowledge tra erse$ preceding ascendance of a single dominating model$ which is followed by the surfacing of problems with the model*ollowing Sternberg:s description$ wisdom studies are still in their second phase$ and this applies not only to the empirical research but to the forty7fi e hundred year history of written speculations and assertions about wisdom- Recall the statement pre iously cited$ by >- Smith in the )outledge Enc clopedia of Philosoph F344A+5)?G+ H<i en its Jwisdom:sK disappearance from our discussions$ none of the claims by the early <ree6s has been sufficiently well scrutinized by philosophers-I The case can be made that in regard to wisdom$ humans are in the same position as we were regarding language before de eloping a ocabulary of symbolic references and clear grammatical structures- That is$ humans are only beginning to 6now wisdomThere are at least three crucial problems regarding wisdom on which wor6 has hardly begun+ its problematicization Fadequately questioning its natureG9 de ising methods for its study9 and e0plicit$ focused attention to its culti ation- / en the need for moral seriousness and careful thought regarding priorities is little ac6nowledged$ and humans in general$ with 33(

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

li es Hpoor$ nasty$ brutish and shortI$ not to mention ignorant and usually unaware that we are ignorant$ ha e not often been in a position to decide priorities in conditions of informed autonomyRegarding the first crucial problem$ #hapter ( has pro ided an indication of the current status$ for e0ample the focus by contemporary psychologists on a definition- "f it is acceptable that$ roughly spea6ing$ wisdom concerns the Hutmost e0cellence and the welfareI F@altes (''?+53$ quoted abo e$ p- ?3G of humanity$ what is needed are ways to manage differences of opinion concerning the matter- This includes undoing assumptions that the final answer has been found$ for e0ample pietas sapientia Fa iew which had a near7 monopoly on the debate in /urope for a thousand yearsG9 or that Hsomething is meaningful if and only if it is erifiable empiricallyI FPhillips$ 34A5+&4$ on logical positi ism:s erifiability principleG"n regard to the third crucial problem$ it is li6ely that there are many practices that facilitate growth of wisdom$ but there are none that specifically aim at this and that are informed by scientific research- 2ithout an answer for critical problem number two$ how could there be8 "t is this second problem that has e0ercised me in this dissertationThe new generation of inquirers into wisdom emphasize the importance of an interdisciplinary or transdisciplinary approach- An e0clusi ely empiric approach is too narrow- #handler & Holliday F344'+3(5G raise the possibility that the entire wisdom research proBect could go astray unless there is Hsome fundamental o erhaul in what we are prepared to regard as possible 6nowledge forms-I "t seemed essential to me to find a method of studying wisdom that is not scientistic and yet is rigorous enough to satisfy contemporary humanity:s need for epistemological Bustification- HScientismI is meant to signify the claim not only that science can pro ide man6ind with an all7embracing philosophy of life and the solution to all problems$ but that the techniques used in the physical 33&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

sciences can be used to sol e any problem- Accordingly$ those disciplines that do not use the same research techniques as the physical sciences are not really scientific F@annister$ 34AAGEy con iction is that e0act$ quantitati e methods can in principle do no more than gi e a rough and general assessment of wisdom- @ut " would be delighted to be pro en wrong9 and possibly quantitati e methods will be aluable for accomplishing certain parts of the wisdom proBect Fthat is$ ma6ing #omo sapiens the human7who7is7wise in fact as well as in ta0onomic designationG$ such as facilitating the de elopment of wisdom in groups as well as in indi iduals$ and bringing increased clarity to discussions of wisdomEodern science to date has been so little capable of producti ely addressing questions of interpretation$ significance$ or meanings of e0istence$ that little confidence is warranted in its ability$ as it is currently concei ed$ to illuminate wisdom- The dean of wisdom studies in psychology$ Paul @- @altes F(''?+3'G$ as6s$ H#an a data7dri en psychologist be sufficiently informed about and committed to the spiritual and humanist qualities of wisdom8I and says that it is quite possible that the methods such a scientist uses may fail entirely to grasp and describe wisdomThe championing of wisdom by well7established empirical psychologists seems necessary for its being ta6en seriously by those Heducated sectionsI of our community$ whose con ictions determine Hthe mentality of an epochI F2hitehead 34()+i0G- Power and influence$ not merely HtruthI$ is a determining factor for the :eitgeist- The problem is that this section of the community is li6ely to be s6eptical of the alidity of any fundamentally o erhauled 6nowledge forms2ell7established empirical psychologists ha e potentially great influence for recalling wisdom to its place as human priority9 but " too fear their methodologies may fail to comprehend wisdom- #ollaboration between empiric researchers and other 33?

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

psychologists$ philosophers$ religious scholars and cultural anthropologists could pro ide a fruitful way to proceed- "f any topic is transdisciplinary$ wisdom is- @altes F(''?+3)&G obser es that HThe figure of wisdom is in o6ed in general efforts to redirect the stream of wor6 in almost any field$ ranging from the natural sciences o er the life sciences to the social sciences and the humanities-I He maintains that Hwisdom is an interdisciplinary constructionI and considers it desirable that different disciplines contribute to the scientific study of wisdom- This is the perspecti e " ha e brought to this study- >obel Prize7winning physicist Eurray <ell7Eann proposed that H2e need a corpus of people who consider that it is important to ta6e a serious and professional crude loo6 at the whole systemI Fquoted in *riedman$ ('''G- 2isdom can hardly do more$ or stri e to do less@altes F(''?+3=4G suggests that HTo chart the structure and function of a gi en phenomenon$ such as wisdom$ ta6es a more concerted effort drawing from scholarship and 6nowledge accumulated in arious disciplines-I /arlier he had called such an approach Hone important conclusion for the completion of the wisdom proBectI Fp- 3&(G"n connection with the study of lifespan de elopment$ @altes F34A5+=((G wrote of the desirability of transdisciplinary Hintegration of 6nowledge$ as opposed to the separatist differentiation of disciplinary 6nowledge bases-I And so it seems to me- /mpiric researchers ha e a 6ey role to play in increasing people:s wisdom$ but they cannot be e0pected to be responsible for the application of their findings in society$ nor can one field of study comprehend the full implications wisdom has for humanity- And scientific research needs to maintain an obBecti e distance-

33)

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

The future of wisdom studies is probably transdisciplinary rather than interdisciplinary- Transdisciplinarity$ an integration into a single presentation drawing on arious disciplines$ in the spirit of <ell7Eann as quoted abo e$ is distinct from interdisciplinarity$ drawing together different approaches$ which nonetheless remain distinct- The former term is used by @altes$ <lZc6 and ,unzmann F(''(+&(4G who write that Hone can argue that wisdom is becoming a center of transdisciplinary discourseI and gi e thirteen citations- @altes & ,unzmann (''?+(4'73 note the recent interest in wisdom and write$ H2e ha e Boined this transdisciplinary opening of the concept of wisdom-I "n his Philosoph of Moral &e0elopment F34A3+000iG$ the psychologist ;awrence ,ohlberg wrote that H@efore fruitful empirical psychological wor6 on moral de elopment can be underta6en$ there must be a moral philosophic clarification and Bustification of the terms moral and de0elopment- - - -I There needs to be a continual e0change between philosophy and psychology for optimal accuracy of understanding and use of findings for ad ancing human de elopment- As wisdom in practice is not confined to any one academic discipline$ such transdisciplinarity is absolutely essentialPerhaps it can e en be set down as a primary directi e for an adequate scientific study of wisdom that it be transdisciplinary- As shown in the pre ious section$ wisdom is by all accounts multidimensional$ and operati e o er a wide range of human interests9 and if wisdom is to be a criterion and guide for decisions regarding personal and public affairs$ there is no way to do so without drawing on se eral areas$ including the humanities$ that at present Hdie Eode streng geteiltI FSchiller$ 35A)G- "n pointing out its wide ariety of content$ and that wisdom is Ha alue termI and not an obBecti e reality$ Assmann F344?+34=G states that HThe stri6ing disparity in the material accounts for the fact that there are as yet no general studies of wisdom a ailable- - - - %nly a cross7 33=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

disciplinary collaboration can open up the possibility of a more integral$ cross7cultural perspecti e-I "n his edition of articles by different researchers$ Sternberg F344'+0G states his belief that the boo6 will be useful for philosophers as well as psychologists$ and points out that while the contributors are all psychologists$ they are from se eral different areas of specialization within psychology- " ha e e0amined the psychological literature$ but mine is not research coming from the discipline of psychology9 it is transdisciplinary following a philosophic method2hile an interdisciplinary or transdisciplinary approach has been recommended$ implementation has yet to begin- Cery few of the research psychologists studied here draw on the philosophical literature beyond brief references- Eore often e en these are absentPa satisfactory state for a field of 6nowledge in its Hsecond stageI of de elopment- @ut it is questionable whether studies of wisdom will e er reach the third stage Fwithout fundamentally distorting the conceptG until the field of wisdom studies is truly interdisciplinary and transdisciplinaryCery little philosophical use of the psychologists: wor6$ as far as " ha e been able to disco er$ has been made$ Assmann F344?G being the only philosopher " ha e found to do so@rown:s statement F('')+45=3G that HThe subBect of wisdom literature in the @ible has flourished in the last decades of the twentieth century and the beginning of the twenty7first centuryI has been mentioned here$ and study of wisdom literature in the ancient >ear /ast in general has also made great strides- Psychologists: integration of this material into their wor6 is superficial$ at best- Ey sense is that while open to philosophic approaches and psychological insights$ their interest in wisdom is historical and

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e0egetical rather than with finding ways to further de elopment- Russian sophiology may be an e0ception FCalliere$ ('''G*ortunately the researchers recognize F" do not belie e there are any e0ceptionsG how hard wisdom is to grasp- Eethods adequate for beginning an epistemically Bustified study of this most elusi e psychological construct ha e been applied$ but whether they will get ery far without broadening their approach$ or e en fundamentally o erhauling it$ remains to be seenThe game is far too important to discourage these efforts at engagementSternberg:s F(''&+0 iiiG impassioned statement$ H2ithout it$ " e0aggerate not at all in saying that ery soon$ there may be no world- - -I$ e0presses the situation- %n the other hand$ wisdom is Bust as important for each of us indi idually in our little worlds$ and we manage to do without it-

A. STATEMENT OF THE METHODS USED "n addition to pro iding a useful tool for psychological researchers$ my intent is to ma6e empirical psychology:s contribution to the study of wisdom more accessible to those in other disciplines- " ha e drawn on a larger range of sources than ha e been consulted by any other single study " am aware of$ to pro ide information of use in a transdisciplinary approach to wisdom- This intent has determined the method followed$ which can be described as philosophic$ incorporating an integrati e re iew of the psychological research-

33A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

B. INTEGRATIVE REVIEWS "ntegrati e re iews ha e been frequently used in health and in nursing research$ for e0ample$ #annella & Scolo eno F(''&G$ #o ington F('''G$ Sil a & Sorrell F3443G$ 2instead7*ry & ,iBe6 F3444G- #ooper F34A(+(4(G writes that HThe goal of an integrati e re iew is to summarize the accumulated state of 6nowledge concerning the relationFsG of interest and to highlight important issues that research has left unresol ed-I <anong F34A5+3G states that a good integrati e re iew His an in aluable aid to researchers$ teachers$ and students$I and that the standards are high+ they must be accurate$ thorough$ obBecti e$ include considerations of the studies: theories$ as well as results$ methods$ and ariablesThe steps " followed in this integrati e re iew of the published research on wisdom parallel those of Sil a & Sorrell F3443+)74G- "n order to understand what research psychology has accomplished regarding wisdom$ " decided to include all the published peer7re iewed empirical studies of wisdom- " am aware of only two studies not in /nglish$ and one of these$ Eaerc6er$ @_hmig$ & Staudinger F344AG equals @altes$ Staudinger$ Eaerc6er & Smith F344)G with the addition of three subBects- / en this straightforward criterion for inclusion is not entirely simple+ Staudinger F34A4G is a dissertation- Howe er$ it was published and is cited$ and Staudinger has become a leader in the empiric study of wisdom- There were less weighty reasons for not including it than for including it- %rwoll & Perlmutter F344'G presents a different problem+ it too is published and often cited$ but it is not a research report- The studies it does discuss are an unpublished one$ and %rwoll:s dissertation- The standard here became its use by the community of wisdom researchers- Holliday & #handler:s F34A=G research was published as a monograph- The studies included after 344' are all from peer7re iewed Bournals334

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

An e0tensi e search of the literature was underta6en- The databases Academic Search Premier queried for the 6eyword HwisdomI$ full te0t articles$ from peer7re iewed Bournals- This broad query resulted in o er 3?'' responses in Academic Search PremierThese were followed to the early 34A's- " ha e also gone through the full list of responses to the SA</ Social Sciences request for full te0t articles in peer7re iewed Bournals by 6eyword HwisdomI- A further search of the data base Article *irst on 3'T33T(''? resulted in ('& full te0t articles in peer7re iewed Bournals with the 6eyword HwisdomI being found$ the list of which was gleaned for those germane to this study- "n addition$ " made queries for HphronesisI FHA>D >%T Dournal TitleIG and Hcommon goodI$ in Academic Search Premier and SA</ Social Sciences database$ following up these leads- The database /lectronic #ollections %nline F/#%G was queried for 6eywords HwisdomI and HwiseI$ and the results followed up- The International ;ournal of Aging and #uman &e0elopment$ one of the main sources for research on wisdom$ was searched manually from 34A( to the presentHowe er$ the most producti e sources for finding the material rele ant to this study were references in the studies themsel es and in other articles on wisdom FHthe ancestry approachI$ #annella & Scolo eno$ (''&+&()G$ and " ha e tried to be e0hausti e in following up these references$ and when necessary$ to prioritize those articles that appeared to be most importantThe database of dissertations was also searched- There are many dissertations of interest for wisdom produced in the past twenty years- 2ith a few e0ceptions F@zda6 F(''3G$ Shedloc6 F344AG$ Ta6ahashi F('''G$ and #layton:s F345=G groundbrea6ing dissertationG " was not able to access them as " would ha e li6ed$ and e en at that$ @zda6:s and Ta6ahashi:s studies did not find a way into my own dissertation3('

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

"n chapter ?$ the thirty7se en research studies that were located ha e been categorized into four general types+ 2isdom as e0pertise9 Eeasuring wisdom9 %ther9 and "mplicit theories- These then ha e been summarized in tables$ in which the model of wisdom$ basis for the model Fif applicableG$ purpose$ method$ participants$ and results are gi en- *ollowing this$ in chapter ) the results of these studies are presented in more detail$ along with the questions regarding the need for 3G an integration of religiousTmetaphysical wisdom with the practical wisdom in order for research on wisdom to contribute to the de elopment of wisdom fully For Hwith a solid basisI$ or Hmore than superficiallyIG$ (G a careful in estigation of possible differences between the way men and women concei e wisdom$ and &G the study of actual people who manifest wisdom in their li es- This discussion follows a philosophic method- "n chapter = these results are discussed in relation to the research questions-

C. PHILOSOPHIC METHOD 2hile elements of a philosophic method can be identified$ it is not so easy to describe a straightforward method- To be as straightforward as possible$ this method$ as " use it$ consists of 3- #lear statement of the question$ with its implications(- Diligent search for the best sources for resol ing$ or clarifying$ the question&- Particular attention to iews that seem alien$ and care in discarding information that appears uninteresting?- Presentation of the rele ant material fairly$ clearly$ and logically)- Presentation of a solution to the question3(3

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

=- #onfronting the proposed solution fairly and thoroughly with the e idence from the research and$ so far as possible$ with rele ant authoritati e statements- A commitment to withdraw or re ise any assertions whatsoe er if the e idence is found to contradict it5- #lear and straightforward conclusionThis method has been integrated into the entire dissertation$ including the literature re iew-

"n his "ntroduction to The -inguistic Turn$ Richard Rorty F34=5G indicates the difficulty of finding a satisfactory method in philosophy$ by noting that in order to determine one:s method there needs to be a commitment to Hcertain substanti e and contro ersial philosophical thesesI$ and yet Bustifying these remains a basic tas6 the method cannot perform- "n a similar ein$ the 3!ford ,ompanion to Philosoph reminds us that H"saiah @erlin- - - once characterized philosophy not only as lac6ing answers to many questions but also as lac6ing an agreed method for the finding of answersI FHonderich$ 344)+ ii7 iiiGHistory pro ides a aluable account of progressi e human self7awareness and growing sophistication in regard to mental operations- A philosophical method is to a large e0tent rules for use of the mind- *rom the time of Descartes$ philosophers ha e become increasingly attenti e to the methods they use in going about their wor6- "n addition to his &iscourse on Method$ Descartes himself began$ but ne er completed$ a wor6 titled )ules for the &irection of the Mind F)egulae ad &irectionem IngeniiGPhilosophers carry on their wor6 with arying le els of logical or empirical rigidity#onsider >ietzsche:s method$ for e0ample- >ot ery empirically rigid$ but highly 3((

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

influential- %f course$ philosophy is not an empirical science but an e0amination of concepts$ or interpretation of empirical obser ations- The haste of the pre7Socratics in asserting that water$ or air are the primary substances is the classic instance of philosophers going way beyond the e idence and Bumping to unwarranted conclusions9 but e en in the twentieth century$ philosophers of the first ran6 were ma6ing inBudicious assertions- The ery respected @ertrand Russell wrote in HA *ree Ean:s 2orshipI F343A+?=G+ That Ean is the product of causes which had no pre ision of the end they were achie ing9 that his origin$ his growth$ his hopes and fears$ his lo es and beliefs$ are but the outcome of accidental collocations of atoms9 - - - that all the labours of the ages$ all the de otion$ all the inspiration$ all the noonday brightness of human genius$ are destined to e0tinction in the ast death of the solar system- - -Pall these things$ if not quite beyond dispute$ are yet so nearly certain$ that no philosophy which reBects them can hope to standThe power of these Hso nearly certainI things to buc6le the legs of any philosophy reBecting them is less ob ious now$ less than a century later- %ne would thin6 that the many historical e0amples of re olutionary perspecti es and new 6nowledge would ma6e philosophers$ who are trained to e0pose assumptions$ more cautious- "f they are not Fand cf- the intemperate claims of logical positi ism and beha iorismG$ where are moderating oices to be found8 " would li6e to thin6 we could loo6 to the acti ity of philosophy before it marginalized concern with wisdomPbut to ma6e a good case for this$ one would probably ha e to go bac6 to Socrates- ;ater <ree6s$ #hristians$ and humanists all seem to ha e inclined to be Hso nearly certainI as was ;ord Russell"n regard to method$ philosophical wor6 often depends on opinionizing that is gi en force by incisi e questioning of Fothers:G assumptions$ and adherence to standards of logic Fand at times by sheer pugnacityG- Oet there is no guarantee that philosophers are always good at percei ing their own assumptions$ or at ma6ing pro ision for their blind 3(&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

spots9 and sound logic may be applied to erroneous assumptions- Susan Haac6 F(''?+?G quotes Rorty F34=5G as proposing that Hmethod and argument be gi en up as we ac6nowledge that Mto 6now your desires is to 6now the criterion of truth: `$ and that to call a statement true is Bust to gi e it Ma rhetorical pat on the bac6:-I %nly in the last century was it realized that there are no ideal iew7from7nowhere approaches to philosophic inquiry$ that is$ no obBecti e and impersonal perspecti e that holds regardless of the conte0t- R- ;- <regory F34A3G refers to this thin6er7independent method$ insisted on by Plato and followed by philosophers at least into the twentieth century$ as Hthe most profound mista6e in human historyI Fquoted by ;abou ie7Cief$ 344'+=3G- 2illiam Dames F34))+&)G remar6s of philosophical systems in general that$ H2hat the system pretends to be is a picture of the great uni erse of <od- 2hat it is$P and oh so flagrantly^Pis the re elation of how intensely odd the personal fla or of some fellow creature isI- *ar more than empirical science or logical structures of mathematics$ philosophy remains a personal statement"n The 3!ford ,ompanion to Philosoph $ Anthony Vuinton F344)G mentions two important une0amined assumptions+ that the greater cannot come from the less$ which was assumed as ob ious by Descartes and ;oc6e$ and used FunsuccessfullyG against the theory of e olution in the nineteenth century9 and the assertion that a mental or a brain e ent can occur without a corresponding occurrence of the otherAn e0ample of an important assumption about Hhow things really and truly areI$ not unconsciously made$ yet stri6ingly ephemeral$ can be found in #- S- Peirce:s F3A55G statement in HThe *i0ation of @eliefI that the Hfundamental hypothesisI of science$ stated simply$ is that HThere are Real things$ whose characters are entirely independent of our opinions about them9 - - - by ta6ing ad antage of the laws of perception$ we can ascertain 3(?

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

by reasoning how things really and truly are- - -I 2ithin fifty years of setting forth this fundamental hypothesis of science$ it could hardly be maintained without maBor pro isos$ if at all"n the e0position of philosophic method$ it should also be recalled that the two constructi e de elopments in philosophy in the modern period to the twentieth century+ Descartes:$ and "mmanuel ,ant:s transcendental or critical philosophy$ attempting to pro ide a method by which metaphysical speculation could be guided F#ollingwood$ 34&&+('G$ both assumed that 6nowledge is an obBecti e entity that is alid for all peopleThis assumption was not displaced until the twentieth centuryRorty F34=5+3G raises the interesting point on the first page of his "ntroduction to The -inguistic Turn that H/ ery philosophical rebelIPthat is$ all those who ha e proposed a new methodPHhas tried to be Mpresuppositionless:I- The alidity of such an attempt is highly questionable$ and might best be abandoned in e0change for an agreement to see6 to ma6e presuppositions e0plicit- Rorty F34=5+&?7&=G also mentions the possibility of philosophy as proposal$ not as disco ery$ creating Hnew$ interesting and fruitful ways of thin6ing about things in generalI$ citing *riedrich 2aismann as an e0positor of this iewAs the wea6nesses of philosophic method are pointed out$ it should be noted that empirical science does not innoculate its practitioners against succumbing to the belief that its consensus ersion of reality is obBecti e and e0clusi ely alid$ reality- *or e0ample$ Thomas ,uhn F345'G demonstrated how science progresses$ not through the addition of 6nowledge$ but through the replacement of one model of understanding by another that answers questions formerly irresol able- @ernard /- Rollin F344'+45G amends this insight by pointing out that the ascendancy of beha iorism occurred not 3()

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

because a fatal flaw was disco ered in the earlier model$ but because of Ha change in alue and philosophical commitment$ which pushed the Darwin7Romanes iew out of style$ and brought beha iourism in-I A scientist or a philosopher who holds a iew outside the pre ailing paradigm of legitimate inquiry$ or who is not a member of the club$ so to spea6$ will probably ha e hir perspecti e ignored- Sandra Harding F3443+&G ma6es the point that the HindigenousI people of the modern 2estPthose at home with the scientific world iewPrecognize only with difficulty that their distincti e ways of iewing the world$ their reliance on scientific rationality$ is not simply reality- H*rom the perspecti e of women:s li es$I she writes$ Hscientific rationality frequently appears irrationalI#oncerning gender$ Harding F3443+3'=G writes that until ery recently$ H>e er had women been gi en a oice of authority in stating their own condition or anyone else:s or in asserting how such conditions should be changed- >e er was what counts as general social 6nowledge generated by as6ing questions from the perspecti e of women:s li es-I >ot only are the outsiders: iews ignored$ outsiders are hindered in their opportunities to form an autonomous iew- She uses the phrase Hsocially legitimated 6nowledgeI in forcefully pointing out that the questions$ methods and practice of science ha e delegitimized ways of 6nowing other than those of the Hmodern$ androcentric$ imperial$ bourgeois 2estI Fpp- 3'=$ iiiG- #onsiderations such as these contributed to the formation of my research question"n the twentieth century$ pragmatism$ logical positi ism$ post7modernism$ and feminism are perhaps the maBor perspecti es affecting methodological questions- There is also the fact that recently the field of philosophy has become more open to non72estern perspecti es$ which bring their own methods- The Preface to the 3'7 olume )outledge 3(=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Enc clopedia of Philosoph F#raig$ 344A$ ol- 3+ i7 iiiG refers to the H/nglish7spea6ing philosophical mainstreamI$ and by the 344's the mainstream itself had become a much broader ri er than it had been twenty or thirty years before$ when a narrowly focused Bet might ha e been a more appropriate image- "t was also far less clear where the ban6s were - - - The clearest beneficiary of this policy has been what is increasingly called Mworld philosophy-: #hinese$ Dapanese and ,orean$ "ndian and Tibetan$ Dewish$ Arabic and "slamic$ Russian$ ;atin American and African philosophy- - - The method is distinct from the obBect of research$ although particularly in philosophical inquiry the two cannot be separated$ as #ollingwood F34&&G points out- The goal of freeing the human mind from the bonds of illusion and deluded thin6ing is of critical concern in the discussion of philosophical methodsPwhich happens to be the definition of wisdom as proposed by Ec,ee & @arber F3444+ Hseeing through illusionIG"t too6 o er two thousand years for philosophy to recognize a positi e role for emotions$ and this e0ample can act as a reminder that methods$ no matter how foolproof they seem$ may yet require re ision in the light of further study- 2e may still be standing on the shore of the ast ocean of 6nowledge$ or as 2illiam Dames F34))+34(G put it$ humans may stand Hin much the same relation to the whole of the uni erse as our canine and feline pets do to the whole of human life-I This recognition of the limits of human 6nowledge is also one of the characteristics typically ascribed to wisdom$ as discussed in #hapter (# of this dissertation2hile different philosophers use different methods$ and methods are e ol ing and a matter of dispute at present Fconsidering the challenges presented by post7modernist philosophy$ feminism$ and world philosophyG$ generic aspects of a philosophic method can be stated simply+ 3G a question or problem is raised and (G in estigated thoroughly and fairly$ &G a solution is proposed and ?G Bustified- Rather than proposing a solution$ the philosopher may limit hirself to clarifying the question- Disco ering and criticising 3(5

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

assumptions is such a large part of philosophical acti ity that it is Hsometimes used to define itI FVuinton$ 344)G- This transparency or attempt to unco er and ma6e e0plicit one:s assumptions or presuppositions is$ at the least$ a requirement of all philosophical inquiryThese generic aspects of philosophical method imply unrestricted questioning$ intellectual courage$ intellectual empathy$ fairness$ internal consistency to the e0tent possible$ sound$ logical argumentation$ and humility- *ollowing the e0amples abo e of all7too7fallible claims made by philosophers$ special emphasis should be placed on humilityThe abo e correspond to rules for effecti e use of the mind in all human inquiry in which we are trying Hto show the fly the way out of the fly7bottleI as 2ittgenstein F34)&+a&'4G defined the aim in philosophy- The fly7bottle is made of the delusions to which the mind is prone- There are so many of these$ and the mind is so inclined to be insensible of its assumptions$ that entanglement in the snares of Eara might be a more accurate image of the human condition than fly in a bottlePhilosophical thin6ing$ as described by 2illiam Dames in Pragmatism F34))+3(?$ 3(5G$ is the free$ careful attempt to understand the situation in which we find ourself$ recognizing the traps and the limits to 6nowledge$ questioning where our beliefs come from and the nature of belief itself- / idence that humans are only beginning to de elop the ability to understand the world or the human being can be adduced from the o eremphasis gi en to beha iorism in psychology for much of the twentieth century- 2e did not 6now enough about human psychology at the time to put this aluable but limited approach in perspecti e- 2atson:s F34&'+3'?G influential belief that he could ma6e anything of any person through operant conditioningis a fantastic notion9 but 3(A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

psychologists 6new so little about the mind:s wor6ing at that timePless than a century ago- Such e0perience with changing beliefs leads to openmindedness about the status of current beliefs a century from now-

The dialectic method followed by Socrates pro ides an e0ample of a basic philosophical method- "- E- #rombie F34=&+)(&G writes that Plato Hearns the title of a great philosopher not by the s6ill with which he forces us to agree with him but by the e0tent to which he e0poses the difficulty$ comple0ity$ and ramifying nature of theoretical questions-I "n Plato:s earlier dialogues Socrates practices the simple method of elenchus$ in which a definition is put forth and then subBected to challenges from the participants in the discussion- "n @oo6 C"" of The )epublic$ Socrates describes his fuller method of dialectic- <enuine philosophers are those whose Hpassion it is to see the truth-I The ultimate goal is reached by one who aspires$ through the discourse of reason unaided by any of the senses$ to ma6e his way in e ery case to the essential reality and perse eres until he has grasped by pure intelligence the ery nature of <oodness itself- This Bourney is what we call Dialectic F)&(GThe adequacy of this method of reasoning unaided by the senses$ and the possibility of arri ing at essential reality$ is reBected by most philosophers now- At the least$ Plato is clear in setting forth the method- "f crucial wea6nesses are long undetected$ this is more than anything a lesson in human limitations that can be ta6en into account in future methods- This dialectic process$ which is empirical only in its early stages$ is not the same as the Hdialectic thin6ingI described by psychological writers as an element of wisdom$ for e0ample$ Ta6ahashi & % erton F(''(+(=4G$ Ardelt F('''a+55AG$ and Sternberg F344A+&)'G$ who describes dialectical thin6ing in terms of truth e ol ing in a process of thesis$ antithesis$ and synthesis3(4

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Aquinas:s method in the Summa Theologica can be described as dialectic+ a proposition is made$ obBections listed$ counter obBections listed$ and then Thomas gi es his conclusion- A dialectic approach to philosophical inquiry similar to Aquinas:s is often used more or less informally+ <ill:s popular te0tboo6 The Enduring 4uestions F(''(G follows it in Derry H- <ill:s "ntroduction to the se enth edition- After presenting authoritati e statements regarding the definition of a philosopher and of philosophy$ he presents dissenting iews9 then he weighs their force$ concluding with a definition of philosophy that summarizes the discussion$ and then mo es on$ further distinguishing philosophy from science and religion"n Pragmatism$ 2illiam Dames F34))+355G e0plains that pragmatism is only a method$ and open to widely arying philosophical iews$ so long as Hconsequences useful to life flow from it-I @esides its method$ pragmatism pro ides an instrumental theory of truth$ such that Hany idea that will carry us prosperously from any one part of our e0perience to any other part$ lin6ing things satisfactorily$ wor6ing securely$ simplifying$ sa ing labor$ is true for Bust so much$ true in so far forth$ true instrumentallyI Fp- ?'P italics remo edG- *or e0ample$ if belief in the Absolute affords us comfort$ it is true to that e0tent$ that is$ in allowing a person occasionally to drop hir sense of responsibility for the course of e ents- Truth is li6e health in this regard$ a matter of empiric Budgment- "n the penultimate lecture$ HPragmatism and Humanism$I Dames discusses the question of an ultimate reality$ and says that the best account of reality will be the one that in the end is most satisfactory to peopleHumans are a long way from producing a complete$ definiti e description of the world and of human being- The questions must be ne erending and free7ranging$ allowing an escape from the narrow bonds of androcentric$ sociocentric and 3&'

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

anthropocentric thought$ and failures of imagination- Oet 6nowledge builds on the past9 current understanding must be accepted and utilized$ while remaining subBect to doubt#ollingwood F34&&+)(7)&G asse ers that HThin6ing philosophically$ whate er else it means$ means constantly re ising one:s starting7point in the light of one:s conclusions and ne er allowing oneself to be controlled by any cast7iron rule whate er-I His iew was that the philosopher proceeded in a sort of spiral fashion$ starting from hypotheses whose results in e0perience are then used to re ise the hypothesis- This is ery similar to the a priori7empiric dialectic proposed by the psychologists Ec,ee & @arber F3444G for the study of wisdom"n regard to the in estigation of wisdom$ we ha e a irtue$ or personality trait$ claimed by some of humanity:s brightest spiritual and intellectual lights$ o er a span of more than four thousand years$ to be of crucial importance for humans- @y definition it is H6nowing what is good for men and women$I to use a generic formulation- Oet throughout these millennia basic assumptions about reality ha e been disputed$ and the long7held belief in a telos for human e0istence deniedAs /tienne <ilson F34)3+(G reminds us$ Hthere was a timeI when to be a philosopher meant the single7minded lo e for wisdom$ and the effort to transform onself$ becoming wise- This is no longer an accepted method either- @ut what an appropriate method for in estigating wisdom today is$ is not 6nown- "t is not 6nown by @altes$ the most prominent of psychological researchers into the construct$ nor by any of the other psychologists- "n this study " ha e re iewed the history of inquiry into wisdom in the 2est$ and ha e ta6en a detailed loo6 at the psychological research- This has led to the basic question$ How is wisdom to be studied$ learned$ and learned about8 !nable to

3&3

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

answer this$ " suggest three directions as una oidable requirements$ and e0amine them in the light of the psychological research to dateTowards the end of An Essa on Philosophical Method F34&&+3457AG$ #ollingwood presents a scenario of the de elopment of a philosophy that gi es an insight into a method of carrying on philosophical wor6+ The person begins with many unorganized and only partly philosophical opinions- "n thin6ing these through$ criticising and organizing$ philosophical positions emerge- These also are unorganized$ perhaps contradictory and with tri ial and fundamental iews mi0ed- The process of criticising and organizing begins again$ and a connected whole begins to appear$ and is refined and adBusted- Ey ad ancement in this progression may be modest$ but ha ing a method that pro ides for correction is what is needed$ and " ha e tried to pro ide thisThe re ision of the method itself in the light of real world results is also recommended by >icholas Rescher F3455G$ in his more general discussion of a pragmatic method for legitimating factual 6nowledge- Ha ing a pragmatic perspecti e$ Rescher:s standard is the success of the method in realizing a particular end- He presents a diagram that shows the process+ the method is applied and results recorded- As it is implemented$ the consequences are e aluated in regard to their achie ement of the purposes intendedThen it is refined and impro ed and the cycle continues- Selection of purposes is the critical point<ill F(''(+3G refers to #- D- @road:s distinction between critical and speculati e philosophy$ the former of which analyzes and defines fundamental and general concepts$ the latter attempting to shed light on our place in the cosmos- According to the former$ perhaps any area can be approached philosophically9 in the latter$ all areas fall into place

3&(

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

in the general schema the philosopher de elops- @oth are ob iously rele ant to the study of wisdom" ha e followed the former- "n light of the contro ersies and comple0ities of philosophical method Bust described$ and the fascinating$ difficult nature of wisdom$ my manner of procedure is quite cautious and modest- A comprehensi e study of the research into wisdom was lac6ing$ and would li6ely pro e useful both for psychological researchers and for those Hin almost any field$ ranging from the natural sciences o er the life sciences to the social sciences and the humanitiesI F@altes$ (''?+3)&G$ as wisdom is in o6ed as a guide in them all- As this research proceeded$ the question of how wisdom is best to be studied presented itself-

*ray #risbgono de Descs F34=?G begins the "ntroduction and Historical Sources to his biography of St- Dohn of the #rossPwhose iew of wisdom will ha e to be left for another timePwith the statement$ H>ot one fact without documented e idence$ not one location without a description made on the ground- This has been our norm-I *ray #risbgono:s has become my norm$ in this case for a oiding any gratuitous or half7 thought7out assertion$ any hasty conclusion$ any reference ta6en out of conte0t or carelessly used$ or any subtle intrusion of my alues without ac6nowledgment of the fact2hile the difficulty of analogously li ing up to his standard is impressed on me e ery time " ta6e up this wor6 F" ha e not succeededG$ the patient de otion to one:s subBect that is implied by *ray #risbgono:s description of his method has also become an inspiring model- "t should be clear that while " do not e0perience the question of the e0istence of <od as necessarily important in regard to wisdom$ " do find a wealth and profundity of potential meanings$ beauty$ and lo e in the world that humans are only beginning Fat least 3&&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

insofar as my study of history and obser ation has informed meG to percei e$ and an ultimate union of all that e0ists- This has certainly colored my approach to wisdom^

3&?

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

1 Descri#tions o" t!e researc! stu%ies

A. THE EMPIRICAL STUDY OF WISDOM HThe outstanding achie ement and intellectual glory of modern times has been empirical science and the mathematics that it has put to such good use$I Eortimer D- Adler Fn-d-G wrote- Regarding modern philosophical inquiry into wisdom$ the philosopher Dames D#ollins F34=(+3(A$ 3&=G$ suggested$ H"t is legitimate to demand that a contemporary way be found for showing that wisdom has a definite meaning$ that it can come within reach of our methods of in estigation- - - - And today$ the philosopher can use the resources of psychological and sociological studies- - -I Howe er$ the psychologists got there firstPhilosophy may be said to ha e neglected the topic of wisdom$ perhaps since the generation of Descartes and Spinoza- 2elsch F%elmZller 34A4+(3=75G quotes from >ietzsche:s Nachgelassene 5ragmente <==>/<==?+ H2enn Philosophen unter sich zusammen6ommen- - - sie nennen sich nicht mehr MPhilosophen: und h]ngen Mdie ;iebe zur 2eisheit: wie eine steife Amtstracht und Eas6erade an den >agel-I FH2hen philosophers come together$ they no longer call themsel es Mphilosophers$: and hang Mthe lo e of wisdom: in the closet li6e a ceremonial outfit and masquerade-IG "n the )outledge Enc clopedia of Philosoph $ Smith F344AG writes that after the mid 35th century$ Hwisdom is mentioned only in passing$ or simply passed by altogether by philosophersI$ and that Hthe concept of wisdom has come to anish almost entirely from the philosophical mapI$ but he is e0aggerating- Though marginalized$ wisdom has maintained a continuing place in philosophical discussion$ and #ollins F34=(+(7&G is more accurate when he says that the writings of modern philosophers Hshow that wisdom is not shunted aside as lac6ing in 3&)

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

interest or as impossible of attainment- Rather$ it is treated in new ways and integrated with new conceptions- - -I The philosophic material on wisdom does not$ howe er$ re eal a renascence of interest$ despite its alue- "t is the psychologists who ha e disco ered new possibilitiesThe earliest empirical research on wisdom consisted of studies into the common opinions people ha e of it- Referred to as Himplicit theoriesI FSternberg$ 34A)G$ the first such study was conducted in the mid7345's and the first published report$ by Ci ian #layton and Dames @irren$ appeared in 34A'- "n the responses to her questionnaire$ #layton & @irren F34A'+33AG found that H2isdom was percei ed by these educated indi iduals as an attribute representing the integration of general cogniti e$ affecti e$ and reflecti e qualities-I Hershey & *arrell F3445G describe early unpublished research in common opinions of wisdom+ H@rent and 2atson F34A'G as6ed subBects to describe a wise person- Their analysis re ealed that a wise person could be characterized in terms of four clusters of attributes+ person7cogniti e$ practical e0perimental$ interpersonal and moralTethical-I This approach was ta6en a couple steps further by Sternberg F34A)G$ who not only found out the characteristics arious groups of people Fprofessors of art$ business$ philosophy and physics$ and respondents to a newspaper ad ertisementG associated with intelligence$ creati ity$ and wisdom$ and the relation of these psychological constructs to each other$ but also studied how people:s self7ratings regarding the characteristics of wisdom correlated with assessments of intelligence and personality- He found that wisdom is readily distinguished from intelligence and from creati ity in the minds of the participants- The description that emerged of a wise person Fpp- =3=$ =(&G is similar to that of other implicit and e0plicit theories3&=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

A study of common opinions by Holliday & #handler F34A=G found fi e general dimensions to wisdom+ e0ceptional understanding$ Budgment and communication s6ills$ general competencies Fe-g-$ curious$ articulate$ alert$ intelligent$ creati e$ educatedG$ interpersonal s6ills$ and social unobtrusi eness- At the time$ social unobtrusi eness seemed anomalous$ but later research Fe-g-$ ;yster:s$ reported in ,ramer$ ('''G$ produced similar findings$ and HEodesty and unobtrusi enessI was identified as one of the four factors of a wise person in Oang:s F(''3G study of the concept of wisdom held by Taiwanese #hinese- #ommenting$ she writes that in both #onfucian and Taoist traditions$ Hthe sage modeled after nature functions e erywhere while others are hardly aware of their accomplishmentsI Fp- =55GThis implicit theories approach$ which has been used to study other psychological constructs such as intelligence and creati ity FSternberg 34A)G$ is reminiscent of Aristotle:s beginning the Nicomachean Ethics FNE 3'4)b3?se("G with a discussion of opinions people ha e of the good$ proceeding from there to a more formal analysisHowe er$ Aristotle didn:t actually can ass the public to ma6e sure he was representing their iews accuratelyThe results of studies of common opinions of wisdom ha e been fairly consistentHolliday & #handler F34A=+A?G write that HThe fi e factors identified in this study completely subsume the factors reported by #layton and @irren F345A JsicKG$ and include three of the four factors identified by @rent and 2atson F34A'GI- Hershey & *arrell F3445G describe their own earlier implicit theories research as identifying Hfour common clusters of descriptors+ FaG cogniti e and intellectual abilities9 FbG percepti e and intuiti e s6ills9 FcG 6nowledge acquired through life e0perience9 and FdG problem sol ing and

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

decision ma6ing abilities-I They conclude that their findings confirmed #layton & @irren:s F34A'G and Holliday & #handler:s F34A=GThe study of implicit theories is still being used$ which gi es an indication of the stage to which research on wisdom has progressed- Dason:s et al- F(''3G *oundational Calue Scale F*CSG for assessing wisdom was de eloped by ha ing participants identify a person they 6new or 6new of$ whom they considered wise$ and list that person:s qualities that made them wise- Ardelt F(''?G bases her theory on #layton:s findings- <lZc6 et al-$ ('')$ is a study based on the participant:s ideas of wisdom- Sternberg suggests F34A)+=(?7 )G that implicit theories are most useful for initial research into psychological constructs$ and that they offer other insights Fe-g-$ correcti es for e0plicit theoriesG such that Hthe study of implicit theories is not merely an easy substitute for the formation and study of e0plicit theories of psychological constructs-I /mpirical psychology has rendered a great ser ice to wisdom by ma6ing it at last a legitimate topic for academic discussion$ and perhaps wisdom will repay the fa or@lanchard7*ields & >orris F344)+3')G recognize this important step when they write$ Hwisdom has been legitimatized in the science of psychology by operationalizing it into a 6nowledge system framewor6$ i-e-$ borrowing from an established scientific approach-I /mpiric methods ha e their own limits$ of course$ and it remains an open question to what e0tent current methods can pro ide understanding into the identification of wisdom and its nurture*inding ways to study wisdom empirically at all is a maBor challenge- As recently as the mid74's$ Smith$ Staudinger$ & @altes F344?+4A4G write HA central problem$ to date$ has been to specify aspects and dimensions of wisdom in a way that allows empirical study-I Hershey & *arrell F3445G write that H"t is only in the past two decades that 3&A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

wisdom has surfaced as a iable psychological construct to be e0amined in a systematic and scientific fashion-I And Ta6ahashi & @ordia F('''+3G write that HAlthough this concept had remained mostly within the sphere of theology and religion throughout the history of 2estern ci ilization- - -$ an increasing number of researchers ha e recently begun to re i e wisdom as a legitimate scientific construct Fe-g- Ardelt$ 34459 @altes$ 34459 ;abou ie7Cief$ 344=9 Sternberg$ 344'9 2in6 & Helson$ 3445G-I The contribution of each of these researchers is discussed in this dissertation@ut what does it mean to study wisdom scientifically8 The first published report of empirical in estigation$ #layton & @irren$ appeared in 34A'- "nterest has continued to grow$ mar6ing a new period in the study of wisdom- The progress of the inter ening years can be gauged by #layton:s F34A(+&35G obser ation$ that Hno tas6s or instruments for wisdom ha e yet been createdI$ and Taranto:s F34A4+?G at the end of the decade$ that HA test of wisdom does not e en seem to e0ist-I Sternberg F34A)+=3AG had used the <eorge 2ashington Social "ntelligence Test and the Social "nsight Test as pro0ies to measure wisdom- As late as 3445$ Staudinger$ ;opez$ & @altes could write$ HSo far$ most of the empirical wor6 has centered on subBecti e and e eryday conceptions of what constitutes wisdom and the e0pected characteristics of a wise personI Fp- 3(''G@lanchard7*ields & >orris F344)+3'?G write that H% erall$ past research on wisdom has been characterized by sporadic attempts at theoretical speculation on what constitutes wisdom Fe-g-$ #layton 34A(9 Eeacham 344'G and isolated empirical studies that reflect agreed7upon components of wisdom$ i-e-$ problem finding or reflecti e Budgment-I #urrently there are se eral measures for wisdom$ including the @erlin group:s F@altes & Smith 344'G9 2in6 & Helson:s F3445G Practical 2isdom Scale and 3&4

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Transcendent 2isdom Ratings9 Dason et al-:s F(''3G *oundational Calue Scale$ and the Adolescent 2isdom Scale FPerry et al$ (''(G that adapted it9 Ardelt:s F(''&G Three7 Dimensional 2isdom Scale9 2ebster:s F(''&G Self7Assessed 2isdom Scale9 and see Hal erson (''?$ who discusses Hartifact7based phronetic narrati es-I Hanna & %ttens F344)+(3'G suggest that the 2ashington !ni ersity Sentence #ompletion Test of /go De elopment Hmay well be aluable in measuring wisdom o erall-I Sternberg F(''3a+(&=$ and see (''&+3537(G writes$ H#urrently$ we ha e de ised a series of (? problems to measure wisdom- The alidity of these problems is currently being assessed-I "n Sternberg:s wor6 on teaching wisdom to middle7school children$ whose results ha e not yet appeared$ students will be scored on their responses to problematic situations$ along with qualitati e measures such as e aluations of assignments$ Bournals and reports@altes & ,unzmann F(''?+(4(G are o erly modest when they write$ HSo far$ there are more golden words than empirical7e0perimental nuggets to be found in the psychological wisdom literature- >ot much has changed on this score since the e0cellent olume on the psychology of wisdom edited by Sternberg J344'K-I /0cluding the wor6 of the EP" group$ in the decade 34A'734A4$ & studies were published- "n 344'73444$ there were A$ and in ('''7('')$ 3&The following includes descriptions of all the published reports of empirical and qualitati e research on wisdom " was able to find- Research$ still at an early stage$ has yet to e0ceed the ability of a single person to encompass it all- "n this section " e0amine this research from arious perspecti es- "n addition to being probably the most complete description of the empirical research on wisdom$ the presentation has the ad antage of being simple and straightforward3?'

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

B. DESCRIPTIONS OF THE STUDIES " ha e been able to identify &5 published studies of wisdom$ from the first in 34A' to the most recent$ which appeared in Eay ('')- The following list shows the trend of interest in wisdom by the research community+ there were ) published studies in the 34A's$ 3? in the 344's$ and from ('''7('') 3) ha e appeared-

C. CATEGORIZING THE RESEARCH A chronological list of the published research studies on wisdom #layton & @irren F34A'GSternberg F34A)GHolliday & #handler F34A=GSowar6a F34A4GStaudinger F34A4GSmith & @altes F344'G%rwoll & Perlmutter F344'GStaudinger$ Smith$ & @altes F344(GSmith$ Staudinger$ & @altes F344?G@altes$ Staudinger$ Eaerc6er$ & Smith F344)GDenney$ Dew$ & ,roupa F344)GStaudinger & @altes F344=GArdelt F3445GHershey & *arrell F3445GHira & *aul6ender F3445G 3?3 >umber of published research studies on wisdom by decade Total 34A's 344's ('''s ) 3) 35 EP" group ( 5 ?

)able %. *umber of studies on wisdom by decade of publication.

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Staudinger$ ;opez$ & @altes F3445G2in6 & Helson F3445GMaerc%er, '@hmig, A Staudinger B<CC= = @altes et al- 344)G Staudinger$ Eaciel$ Smith$ & @altes F344AG;e itt F3444G%ser$ Schen6er$ & Spychiger F3444GArdelt F('''GTa6ahashi & @ordia F('''GDason$ Reichler et al- F(''3GPasupathi & Staudinger F(''3GPasupathi$ Staudinger$ & @altes F(''3G Oang F(''3GHelson & Sri asta a F(''(GEontgomery$ @arber$ & Ec,ee F(''(GPerry et al- F(''(GTa6ahashi & % erton F(''(GArdelt F(''&G,unzmann & @altes F(''&GStaudinger & Pasupathi F(''&G2ebster F(''&G@luc6 and <lZc6 F(''?G;imas & Hansson F(''?G <lZc6$ @luc6$ @aron$ & EcAdams F('')G3?(

,inds of studies
The psychological studies of wisdom to date can be classified into si0 different types Fthere are other ways$ no doubtG- Se eral of the studies fall into more than one category9 this table lists only the main oneImplicit theories +,ommon opinions%( .isdom as expertise +Berlin paradigm - % /ongitudinal " 0easurement " ,ross1cultural % 2henomenological % 2erception of age as influence on perceived wisdom %
)able . 2ublished research studies on wisdom according to main type of approach.

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

The studies categori6ed according to t pe- These studies are of three main types+ studies of the opinions people hold of wisdom Fimplicit theoriesG9 studies of wisdom as an e0pertise Fthe EP" group:s @erlin wisdom paradigmG9 and other Fincluding longitudinal studies$ efforts at measurement$ phenomenological studies$ and cross7cultural studiesG!sing this di ision results in some studies fitting into more than one categoryPOang F(''3G is a study of cross7cultural implicit theories$ for e0amplePbut to begin with a simple o er iew$ this three7part di ision can be useful for categorization$ resulting in the brea6down indicated in Table (- "n the list below$ identifying the particular studies with their particular approach$ those studies that fall into more than one category are listed in all appropriate categories$ preceded with an asteris6 to indicate multiple listing in what$ for con enience$ " ha e Budged to be not the primary category- An additional category to that of Table ($ 2isdom and life satisfaction in old age$ has been added- This is a secondary category for all the studies includedPat least in this scheme-

"mplicit theories F#ommon opinionsG #layton & @irren F34A'GSternberg F34A)GHolliday & #handler F34A=GSowar6a F34A4G%rwoll & Perlmutter F344'GDenney$ Dew$ & ,roupa F344)G3?&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Hershey & *arrell F3445GdHira & *aul6ender F3445G %ser$ Schen6er$ & Spychiger F3444G Ta6ahashi & @ordia F('''GDason$ Reichler et al- F(''3GOang F(''3GEontgomery$ @arber$ & Ec,ee F(''(G@luc6 and <lZc6 F(''?G;imas & Hansson F(''?G<lZc6$ @luc6$ @aron$ & EcAdams F('')G-

2isdom as e0pert 6nowledge F@erlin groupG Staudinger F34A4GSmith & @altes F344'GStaudinger$ Smith$ & @altes F344(GSmith$ Staudinger$ & @altes F344?G@altes$ Staudinger$ Eaerc6er$ & Smith F344)GStaudinger & @altes F344=GStaudinger$ ;opez$ & @altes F3445GStaudinger$ Eaciel$ Smith$ and @altes F344AGPasupathi & Staudinger F(''3GPasupathi$ Staudinger$ & @altes F(''3G ,unzmann & @altes F(''&GStaudinger & Pasupathi F(''&G3??

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

;ongitudinal Ardelt F('''GHelson & Sri asta a F(''(G-

;ife7satisfaction in old age Staudinger F34A4GArdelt F3445G-

Eeasurement 2in6 & Helson F3445GPerry et al- F(''(GArdelt F(''&G2ebster F(''&G-

#ross7cultural dTa6ahashi & @ordia F('''GdOang F(''3GTa6ahashi & % erton F(''(G-

Perception of age as influence on perception of wisdom Hira & *aul6ender F3445G-

3?)

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Phenomenological ;e itt F3444GdEontgomery$ @arber$ & Ec,ee F(''(G-

Studies listed in all applicable categories- The following categorization puts the studies into e ery applicable category$ attempting to be as generous in distinguishing categories and including studies in them as seems reasonable- "ne itably some of this depends on interpretation- This brea6down allows disaggregation of the EP" studies- The &= studies are categorized by their specific focuses$ and a single study may thus pro ide insight into se eral different groups or aspects of wisdom-

#ommon opinions #layton & @irren F34A'G Sternberg F34A)G Holliday & #handler F34A=G Sowar6a F34A4G %rwoll & Perlmutter F344'G Denney$ Dew$ & ,roupa F344)G Hershey & *arrell F3445G Hira & *aul6ender F3445G ;e itt F3444G %ser$ Schen6er$ & Spychiger F3444GTa6ahashi & @ordia F('''G Dason$ et al- F(''3G 3?=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Oang F(''3G Eontgomery$ @arber$ & Ec,ee F(''(G @luc6 & <lZc6 F(''?G ;imas & Hansson F(''?G <lZc6 et al- F('')G

#ross cultural Studies of people in different Western societies Be"g", 7erman , ,anada, DS, are not included here, but studies of people in Eastern societies, whether or not comparisons were made with Westerners, are included ;e itt F3444G Ta6ahashi & @ordia F('''G Oang F(''3G Ta6ahashi & % erton F(''(G Studies listed in all applicable categories
with reports included in all applicable categories Implicit theories +,ommon opinions/ongitudinal 0easurement ,ross1cultural 2ersonality1mental correlates4antecedents /ife experience5 profession5 and wisdom 6ge differences in wisdom .isdom and old age .isdom5 deliberation5 and consultation 7ender 8eligious4transcendental wisdom 2henomenological 6dolescence .isdom in wor& organizations :tudy of people considered to be wise %3 $ % $ %( ' % %! % %3 9 ( ( % %

;ongitudinal studies Ardelt F3445G Not changes in wisdom 2in6 & Helson F3445G Ardelt F('''G Not changes in wisdom Helson & Sri asta a F(''(G

)able ". 2ublished research studies on wisdom according to all types of approach5 with multiple listings if applicable

Eeasurement This includes all studies that measured wisdom in some wa " An asteris% following the date indicates that scores are reported 3?5

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Staudinger F34A4G d Smith & @altes F344'G d Staudinger$ Smith$ & @altes F344(G d Smith$ Staudinger$ & @altes F344?G d @altes$ Staudinger$ Eaerc6er$ & Smith F344)G d Staudinger & @altes F344=G d Ardelt F3445G &id not assess wisdom directl Staudinger$ ;opez$ & @altes F3445G 2in6 & Helson F3445G Staudinger$ Eaciel$ Smith$ & @altes F344AG Ardelt F('''G &id not assess wisdom directl Dason$ et al- F(''3G Pasupathi & Staudinger F(''3G d Pasupathi$ Staudinger$ & @altes F(''3G d Helson & Sri asta a F(''(G Perry et al- F(''(GTa6ahashi & % erton F(''(G d &id not assess wisdom directl Ardelt F(''&G &id not assess wisdom directl ,unzmann & @altes F(''&G Staudinger & Pasupathi F(''&G 2ebster F(''&G

3?A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Personality7mental correlates or antecedents &oes not include studies of person characteristics that in common opinion are associated with wisdom Sternberg F34A)G Ardelt F3445G Staudinger$ ;opez$ & @altes F3445G 2in6 & Helson F3445G Staudinger$ Eaciel$ Smith$ & @altes F344AG Ardelt F('''G Pasupathi & Staudinger F(''3G Pasupathi$ Staudinger$ & @altes F(''3G Helson & Sri asta a F(''(G Perry et al- F(''(GTa6ahashi & % erton F(''(G Ardelt F(''&G ,unzmann & @altes F(''&G Staudinger & Pasupathi F(''&G 2ebster F(''&G

;ife e0perience$ profession$ and wisdom &oes not include common opinions regarding the relation of life e!perience, profession, and wisdom Sternberg F34A)G ,ommon opinions Staudinger$ Smith$ & @altes F344(G 3?4

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Smith$ Staudinger$ & @altes F344?G @altes$ Staudinger$ Eaerc6er$ & Smith F344)G 2in6 & Helson F3445G Staudinger$ Eaciel$ Smith$ & @altes F344AG Helson & Sri asta a F(''(G Eontgomery$ @arber$ & Ec,ee F(''(G People2s e!periences Ardelt F(''&G

Age differences in wisdom Staudinger F34A4G Smith & @altes F344'G Staudinger$ Smith$ & @altes F344(G Smith$ Staudinger$ & @altes F344?G @altes$ Staudinger$ Eaerc6er$ & Smith F344)G Pasupathi & Staudinger F(''3G Pasupathi$ Staudinger$ & @altes F(''3G Ta6ahashi & % erton F(''(G ,unzmann & @altes F(''&G Staudinger & Pasupathi F(''&G @luc6 & <lZc6 F(''?G <lZc6 et al- F('')G

2isdom and old age Studies of Age differences in wisdom will also be rele0ant here 3)'

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Staudinger F34A4GSmith & @altes F344'G Staudinger$ Smith$ & @altes F344(G Smith$ Staudinger$ & @altes F344?G @altes$ Staudinger$ Eaerc6er$ & Smith F344)G Ardelt F3445G Ardelt F('''G Pasupathi & Staudinger F(''3G @luc6 & <lZc6 F(''?G <lZc6 et al- F('')G

2isdom$ deliberation$ and consultation Staudinger & @altes F344=G

<ender Includes all studies in which gender effects were mentioned #layton & @irren F34A'G Sowar6a F34A4G %rwoll & Perlmutter F344'G Smith & @altes F344'G Denney$ Dew$ & ,roupa F344)G Ardelt F3445G 2in6 & Helson F3445G Dason$ et al- F(''3G 3)3

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Pasupathi$ Staudinger$ & @altes F(''3G Oang F(''3G Ta6ahashi & % erton F(''(G Ardelt F(''&G ,unzmann & @altes F(''&G Staudinger & Pasupathi F(''&G 2ebster F(''&G <lZc6 et al- F('')G ReligiousTtranscendental wisdom Includes all studies in which religiousEtranscendental wisdom was mentioned Holliday & #handler F34A=G Denney$ Dew$ & ,roupa F344)G Hershey & *arrell F3445G 2in6 & Helson F3445G ;e itt F3444G Dason$ et al- F(''3G Oang F(''3G Helson & Sri asta a F(''(G

Phenomenological e 2isdom as e0perienced Sowar6a F34A4G ;e itt F3444G Eontgomery$ @arber$ & Ec,ee F(''(G @luc6 & <lZc6 F(''?G 3)(

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

<lZc6 et al- F('')G

Adolescence Pasupathi$ Staudinger$ & @altes F(''3G Perry et al- F(''(GStaudinger & Pasupathi F(''&G @luc6 & <lZc6 F(''?G <lZc6 et al- F('')G

2isdom in wor6 organization ;imas & Hansson F(''?G

Study of people considered to be wise @altes$ Staudinger$ Eaerc6er$ & Smith F344)G

Tables presenting a description of the FG studies" *ollowing are a number of tables gi ing a description of the research studies- 2hat is under consideration herePbeyond an outline in one place of all the published research on wisdomPare the problem statements$ the theory of wisdom behind the research$ the approach ta6en to the study of wisdom$ the relation between the information sought and that which is gathered$ and what the results tell us about the nature of wisdom and its culti ation"n se eral of these studies$ arious psychometric tests were used in order to pro ide a fuller understanding of the mental characteristics of the participants- 2hile it is

3)&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

important to note what mental measures were made$ " ha e not e0amined the nature of these tests$ indicating only that they were administered-

3)?

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

.isdom as expertise +Berlin wisdom paradigmThe model for the @erlin wisdom paradigm is wisdom as e0pertise in the fundamental pragmatics of lifeThe first two of the fi e criteria for assessing wisdom are deri ed from theories of e0pert performance Fas is the thin67aloud procedure for assessing the le el of wisdomG- The other three+ understanding of life conte0ts$ of differences that are held regarding alues$ goals and priorities$ and of the e0tent to which 6nowledge is uncertain$ are specific to wisdom in the fundamental pragmatics of life$ are Hderi ed on a priori considerations from life7span theory--- and from studies of adult cogniti e de elopmentI FSmith & @altes 344'+)'39 see also Staudinger$ Smith$ & @altes 344(+(5(G- These three Hare grounded in the ancient wisdom literature$ neo7Piagetian research on postformal thought$ and propositions of life span psychologyI FPasupathi$ Staudinger$ & @altes$ (''3+&)37(GTa'(e 12 Stu%ies "ro& t!e Ma3 P(anc, Institute Aut!or & Pur#ose Met!o% %ate
Staudinger F34A4G Smith & @altes F344'G Staudinger$ Smith$ & @altes F344(G Smith$ Staudinger$ & @altes F344?G /0plore positi e aspects of aging$ particularly regarding the wisdom model/mpirically test the theoretic framewor69 compare scores for arious ages/0plore difference age and professional e0perience ma6es in wisdom scores/0plore difference made by e0perience in a profession assumed to facilitate higher score9 compare scores for arious agesThin67aloud responses regarding hypothetical life7re iew scored for = criteria Fsomewhat different from later studiesGThin67aloud responses to ? hypothetical life7planning tas6s scored for ) criteria Fslightly different from later studiesGThin67aloud to response to hypothetical life re iew question for a young or old fictional person scored for ) criteria$ unchanged since this studyThin6 aloud responses to ( hypothetical life7planning problems-

Partici#ants
=& female <ermans$ equally di ided in & age groups F()7&)$ ?)7))$ =)75)G college=' professional <ermans$ equally di ided in & age groups F()7&)$ ?'7)'$ ='7A3G equal E & *$ equal education & intelligence across groups?& females F(3 aged ()7&)$ (( aged =)7 A(G 35 clinical psychologists F4 youngG (= controls F3( youngG=' female <ermans F3( clinical psychologists aged (=7&5$ 3( ages =)7A(9 35 controls aged (A7&5$ 34 aged =?75)G/ducation & fluid intelligence scores similar for study & control groups-

Resu(ts
All age groups performed at comparable le els- Scores for re iews of fictional person significantly different in age were lower% erall$ younger group scored highest$ followed by middle7aged- Some older adults scored at a le el equal to younger adults- Age of fictional person affected scores#linical psychologists Fboth young & oldG scored higher for all criteria- %ld psychologists performed comparably with young9 old controls comparably with young#linical psychologists Fboth young & oldG scored Ua standard de iation higher than controls- %ld psychologists scored comparably with younger ones- Age of fictional person affected scores-

3))

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Aut!or & %ate


@altes$ Staudinger$ Eaerc6er$ & Smith F344)G Staudinger & @altes F344=G Staudinger$ ;opez$ & @altes F3445G

Pur#ose
#ompare scores of people nominated as wise with those of clinical psychologists to test for bias of model in fa or of the latter/0plore effect of consultation with another on performance on wisdom tas6s;ocate wisdom in psychometric space defined by measures of personality$ intelligence$ and personality7intelligence interfaceTesting relati e predicti e power for wisdom scores of combined e0periential and personality and intelligence factorsStudy the relationship between wisdom$ moral reasoning$ and personality characteristics-

Met!o%
Thin67aloud responses to ( hypothetical life dilemmas$ one chosen to represent Hthe most difficult type of life problem to deal with-I Thin67aloud responses for & difficult hypothetical life situationsThin67aloud responses to & difficult hypothetical life situations$ plus a ariety of mental measuresThin67aloud responses to ( difficult hypothetical life situations$ plus a ariety of mental measuresThin67aloud responses to & difficult hypothetical life situations$ plus a ariety of mental measures-

Partici#ants
3? people nominated as life e0perienced or wise Fages ?3754$ ) womenG$ and 3) clinical psychologists Fages ='75=$ A womenG- ( control groups$ (' young & (' old professionals$ equal E & */ducation comparable for all groups3(( pairs F3?A womenG$ as broad and di erse a sample as possible$ ages('75'3() persons F5? womenG$ as broad and di erse a sample as possible$ ages 347A5-

Resu(ts
>ominees and clinical psychologists scored comparably and higher than control groups which performed at a comparable le el for both young and old- A erage le el of performance stable from age ()7A'#onsultation Fwhether with a physically present person or in imaginationG resulted in higher scores- #a eat+ ha ing additional indi idual thin6ing time might be a contributing factor"ntelligence$ personality traits$ and Fmost of allG intelligence7personality interface all significantly correlated with wisdom7related scores- The largest correlation was with openness to e0perience Ffrom >/%7P"G<reatest predicti e factor was profession9 none of the intelligence or personality measures remained important after accounting for professional e0perience- A beginning for understnding predicti e power of intelligence$ personality characteristics$ and professional e0perience for wisdomAbout &A[ of the top quintile of wisdom scorers were also in the top quintile of moral reasoners$ almost doubling chance e0pectancy- A modest correlation between wisdom and moral reasoning scores was apparently due to person characteristics accounting for both- The configuratioin of personality7cognition rather than either alone is most correlated with moral reasoning and wisdom7related performanceA erage scores showed an increase up to around age (?$ after which scores le eled off- Adolescents scored lower than adults on all tas6s and criteria- *emale adolescents scored higher than male adolescents F3?7('G$ no gender differences for adultsHigh scores in 2RP correlated positi ely with high scores in affecti e in ol ement$ and with cooperati e conflict resol ing strategies9 and negati ely correlated with both pleasant and negati e affect$ with aluing a pleasurable life$ and with dominance$ submission and a oidance conflict resolutions strategies- 2ith increasing age higher 2RP correlates with higher other7enhancing alues-

Staudinger$ Eaciel$ Smith$ & @altes F344AG

4' <erman females F&= clinical psychologists ages (=7A(G$ and )? controls Fof comparable education$ ages (A75)G((' <erman citizens F?3[ femaleG$ a heterogeneous sample-

Pasupathi & Staudinger F(''3G

Pasupathi$ Staudinger$ & @altes F(''3G ,unzmann & @altes F(''&G

/0amine age differences between adolescents and young adults in regard to wisdom7related 6nowledge/0plore relationship between wisdom7related performance F2RPG and affect$ alue orientations$ and preferred strategies of conflict management-

Thin67aloud responses to = difficult hypothetical situations$ ? of them new$ concerning adolescent issuesThin67aloud responses to & difficult hypothetical situations- A ariety of mental measures-

3?= nati e7<erman7spea6ing adolescents Fages 3?7('$ )?[ maleG$ from all & <erman school trac6s9 )A young adults Fages (37&5G$ heterogeneous$ )'[ male(4& participants F4& 3)7(' years old$ 4& &'7?'$ and 3'5 ='75'G$ half female-

3)=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Aut!or & %ate


Staudinger & Pasupathi F(''&G

Pur#ose
Study and compare correlation between wisdom$ cogniti e functioning$ personality$ and cogniti e7 personality interface characteristics for adolescents and adults-

Met!o%
Thin67aloud responses to ( difficult hypothetical situations- A ariety of mental measures-

Partici#ants
The same group of adolescents studied in Pasupathi$ Staudinger$ & @altes$ (''33?) <erman adults Fages &)75)G heterogeneous regarding age$ socioeconomic statues and education$ ?'[ male-

Resu(ts
2RP for adults significantly higher than for adolescents$ and age72RP correlation strong for adolescents$ nonsignificant for adults- Positi e correlations for both adolescents and adults between 2RP and crystallized intelligence$ openness$ creati ity$ and moral reasoning- *or adults$ cogniti e7personality interface characteristics Fshowing an integration of cognition and personalityG correlated most highly with 2RP$ for adolescents crystallized intelligence and openness to e0perience basic elements of psychological functioningG-

3)5

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Ta'(e 42 Measurin* -is%o& Aut!or Mo%e( o" 5asis "or t!e & %ate -is%o& &o%e(
2in6 & Helson F3445G #ategorization into practical and metaphysical- *or personality$ similar to that of Achenbaum & %rwoll F3443G*ollows philo7 sophic & psychol7 ogical di isions-

Pur#ose
Test alidity of two measurement instruments$ one for practical FP2SG and one for transcendent wisdom FTR2G-

Met!o%
Data gleaned from earlier longitudinal study- Practical wisdom assessed by responses to AdBecti e #hec6 ;ist at ages (5 & )(9 transdcendent wisdom by response to an open7ended question$ specifically on wisdom$ as6ed at age )(%ther mental measures gi en also at ages (3 and ?&-

Partici#ants
4? female graduates of Eills #ollege$ ?? men Fhusbands of femalesG$ primarily white and socially ad antaged$ otherwise heterogeneous-

Resu(ts
P2S scores tended to increase from age (5 to )(- P2S correlated significantly with Dominance & /mpathy scales from #P" at age (3$ and with ego de elopment at age ?&$ and "nsight and Autonomy prototype scores from #AV at age ?&$ <enerati ity Prototype Fage ?&G$ enBoyment of being a mentorTR2 correlated significantly with *le0ibility$ Psychological Eindedness$ and /mpathy from #P" at age (3$ "ntuition7Sensation sacle from E@T" Fage ?&G and %ccupational #reati ity scale and #P" *le0ibility scale#P" Psychological Eindedness scale correlated with both P2S & TR2- Status le el$ marital satisfaction$ SAT scores did not correlate with P2S or TR2 scores*irst study+ Vualities most frequently mentioned were dri eTtenacityTleadership$ and insightTspirituality- Also being smart and being lo ing$ and being reliableTpractical were frequently mentionedSecond study+ *actor analysis indicated ) general dimensions of wisdom+ harmony Fe-g-$ good Budgment$ openness$ sees meaning & purpose in lifeG9 warmth$ intelligence$ connecting to nature$ and spirituality F( items+ feels lo e$ fellowship$ or union with god$ and ;i ing a spiritual lifeGThree subscales for the A2S identified+ Harmony and 2armth$ "ntelligence$ and Spirituality- Scale and subscales significantly correlated with less alcohol and cigarette use Fand for females less mariBuana useG$ fewer iolent beha iors$ less peer influence$ greater self7 efficacy$ and lower scores on the EEP"7A Scales Fwhich was the largest correlationG- The A2S did not correlate significantly with adolescent health7compromising beha iors after controlling for other 6nown ris6 factors-

Dason$ et alF(''3G

Themes identified from a first study Fcommon opinionsG$ plus items from & selected authors-

See Model of Wisdom-

Test alidity of a measurement instrument-

*irst study+ As6ed to name wisest li ing person they 6new$ with some detailsSecond study+ Response to &A7item questionnaire$ on ;i6ert7type scale FHnot at allI to HdefinitelyIG-

*irst study+ ?& adults F&) women$ mi0ed race and religion9 half with graduate degreeSecond study+ (?( undergraduate psychology students Fabout (T& female$ mi0ed race$ most #atholic($'(5 high school seniors from northeastern Einnesota$ 4=[ #aucasian$ middle to lower7middle class-

Perry$ et alF(''3G

Dason et al-:s *oundational Calue Scale

See Model of Wisdom-

#reate an Adolescent 2isdom Scale FA2SG$ and e0amine associations between it and adolescent substance use and other problem beha iors-

Self7rating for (& qualities on a ;i6ert7 type scale FHdo not at all ha e the quality or characteristicI to Hdefinitely ha e the quality or characteristicIG

3)A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Ta'(e 4 continued Aut!or Mo%e( o" & %ate -is%o&


Ardelt F(''&G 2isdom as Hintegration of cogniti e$ reflecti e$ and affecti e dimensionsI-

5asis
"or t!e

Pur#ose
De elop$ and test alidity of a self7 administered assessment of wisdom Fthe &D7 2SG Hfor use in large$ standardized sur eys of older populations-I To test a self7 assessed scale for measuring dimensions of wise persons FSA2SG-

Met!o%
Pretest to identify 3&( items- *rom response to these by 3A' participants$ &4 items retained Fthe &D72SG$ and this questionnaire F;i6ert7type responsesG responded to 3' months later by 3=& of the original participants- Responses compared w ratings of qualitati e inter7 iews by ?' participants- %ther mental measures for inter ieweesStudy 3$ response to &'7item SA2S$ F;i7 6ert7type+ Hstrongly disagreeI to Hstrong7 ly agreeIG$ to determine reliabilityStudy ($ half responded as a foolish person would$ and half as they thought a wise person would respondStudy &$ SA2S$ ;oyola <enerati ity Scale$ and measure of ego integrity-

Partici#ants
3A' adults Fages )(7A5G 5&[ female$ 5([ white$ (4[ with high school education$ ??[ with bachelor:s or graduate degree-

Resu(ts
The &D72S correlated significantly with mastery$ general well7being$ purpose in life$ and subBecti e health$ education and status of longest held Bob9 significantly negati ely correlated with depressi e symptoms$ feelings of economic pressure$ and a oidance and fear of deathScores did not correlate with marital or retirement status$ gender$ race$ income$ or social desirability inde0The &D72S correlated significantly with ratings of qualitati e inter iews by the trained ratersA large difference found in the different responsesResults seem mi0ed- SA2S scores correlated significantly with both generati ity and ego integrity- The fact that generati ity correlated with ego integrity at r L &'& presents Ha potential problem of multicolinearity when treated as Boint dependent ariablesI F('G-

&o%e(
#layton & @irren F34A'G-

2ebster F(''&G

) dimensions Fe0pe7 rience$ emotional regulation$ reminis7 cence & reflecti e7 ness$ openness$ hu7 morG as characteris7 tic of a prototypic7 ally wise indi idual-

Re iew of the literature-

Study 3+ (== participants Fabout (T& womenG$ mi0ed ethnicitiesTracesStudy (+ A4 adults Fabout half womenG$ representati e in ethnicityTraceStudy &+ A) adults F?= womenG$ arious racesT ethnicities-

3)4

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Ta'(e 62 Ot!er stu%ies Aut!or & %ate


Ardelt F3445G

Mo%e( o" -is%o&


2isdom as integration of cogniti e$ reflecti e$ and affecti e elements2isdom as combination or cogniti e$ reflecti e$ and affecti e qualities of a person2isdom as an integration of arious cogniti e$ affecti e$ and transcendent traits-

5asis "or t!e &o%e(


#layton & @irren F34A'G-

Pur#ose

Met!o%

Partici) #ants
A( women$ &4 men Fhusbands of female participantsG$ all #aucasianA( women Fsame as Ardelt 3445$ e0cluding malesG-

Resu(ts

Ardelt F('''G

#layton & @irren F34A'G-

Test whether psychosocial de elopment$ particu7 larly wisdom$ is prime predictor of life satisfaction in old ageTo learn how people de elop wisdom$ and wisdom:s benefits in old age-

Helson & Sri asta a F(''(G

To learn antecedents and de elopment of wise and of creati e persons9 how career choice and lifestyles affect measures of openness and comple0ity-

Data gleaned from an earlier longitudinal study- 2isdom assessed from inter iewer & rater responses to A items from Haan:s /go Rating Scale & 35 items from the #alifornia V7sortData gleaned from an earlier longitudinal study2isdom assessed from inter iewer & rater responses to A items from Haan:s /go Rating Scale & 35 items from the #alifornia V7sort*or wisdom+ #omposite of & assessments at age =3+ P2S Fsee 2in6 & Helson$ 3445G$ TR2 Fsee 2in6 & Helson 3445G$ written response to question borrowed from EP"$ w scoring criteria re ised%ther mental measures at ages (3$ ?&$ =3- #areer paths noted-

#orrelation between ratings of wisdom & of life satisfaction relati ely high$ and among ariables analyzed$ wisdom Fas assessedG the most powerful predictor of life satisfaction in old age for the women2isdom ratings appear to correlate with good family relations and with physical health- "t was unrelated to socieoeconomic status$ financial situation$ physical en ironment- Positi e family relaitons in childhood$ and mature personality during early years of life did not correlate significantly with later wisdom ratingScores for the & wisdom assessments correlated significantly with each other- #omparison of #alifornia Psychological "n entory ratings at ages (3 and =' found higher scorers in wisdom increased in ratings for empathy- Achie ement ia "ndependence and Psychological Eindedness associated with higher le els of wisdom- Tolerance scores at age (3 associated w- wisdom scores at age =3- A career in psychotherapy or spiritual acti ity added significantly to prediction of wisdomResults for #alifornia V Set at age ?&$ compared w- Ryff Scale for Positi e Eental Health at age ='$ show both creati e achie ement and wisdom correlate with Sense of Personal <rowth9 wisdom alone with Positi e Relations with %thers"n both cultures$ older people scored significantly higher than the middle7aged$ e0cept for /motional Regulation$ for which they scored slightly higher- @oth synthetic and analytic wisdom ariables correlated significantly with scores on ;ife Satisfaction "nde0- Superiority of older persons on wisdom indicators apparently independent of cultural bac6ground-

3?3 females at age (3$ 33' at age =3$ Eills #ollege graduates-

Ta6ahashi & % erton F(''(G

2isdom as cogniti eTaffecti e understanding growing from analytic and synthetic s6ills$ integrating them into a fabric of reflecti ity-

/ri6so7 nian Hbroadly definedI-

To integrate synthetic and analytical modes of wisdom both theoretically and methodologically$ and cross7culturally$ relating cultural conte0t to e0pression of wisdom-

2isdom assessed indirectly through measures of intelligence$ empathy$ emotional regulation$ self7actualization$ and life satisfaction-

3&= adults$ di7 ided equally between middle7 aged and elderly$ male and female$ American F ari7 ous ethnicitiesG and Dapanese Fli ing in DapanG-

3='

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Ta'(e 72 Stu%ies o" i&#(icit t!eories 8co&&on o#inions9 Aut!or & Pur#ose Met!o% %ate
#layton & @irren F34A'G To e0amine wisdom as percei ed by indi iduals of different agesTo understand 3G implicit theories of wisdom$ creati ity$ & intelligence in different subgroups$ and their relation9 (G how these theories are used in ma6ing Budgments9 &G how self7ratings compare with psychometric scoresPilot study to select 3( words describing wisdom- Supplemented w & more$ participants rated each of 3') possible pairings on a ;i6ert7 type scale 37) indicating similarity between themPrestudy+ beha iors characteristic of an ideally intelligent$ creati e$ and wise person listedStudy 3+ beha iors from prestudy rated F;i6ert7style$ H/0tremely uncharacteristicI to e0tremely characteristicIG of one ideally intelligent$ creati e$ and wiseStudy (+ top ?' beha iors in each area Ffrom pre ious StudyG sorted into groups li6ely to be found together in a person$ without ha ing the main category identifiedStudy &+ ? psychometric tests F( for cogniti e abilities$ and ( as indirect measures of wisdomG$ and top items from Study 3$ but as they pertained to themsel0es Ffor e0ternal alidityGStudy ?+ Presented w- fictional descriptions of persons indicating aried le els of intelligence$ creati ity$ and wisdom Fbased on Study 3 resultsG$ as6ed to rate the le el of each qualityStudy 3+ ;isting atributes of wise$ and for comparison$ shrewd$ percepti e$ intelligent$ spiritual$ and foolish peopleStudy (+ 54 descriptors of wise people supplemented with (? others plus (' from comparison groups on ;i6ert7type scale FHalmost ne er true of wise peopleI to Halmost always true of wise peopleIG Study &+ Descriptors presented for prototypically wise and shrewd persons plus two control persons9 after brief delay$ participants as6ed to identify items they had seen in connection with each person- ;ist included highly and moderately prototypical descriptors not presented-

Partici#ants
A& balanced in gender9 &3 young$ (& middle7aged$ (4 oldPrestudy+ 45 professors in four fields plus 35 adults not in academiaStudy 3+ (A) professors in four fields and &' laypersonsStudy (+ ?' college studentsStudy &+ &' adultsStudy ?+ ?' adults-

Resu(ts
2isdom found to be percei ed as representing the integration of general cogniti e$ affecti e$ and reflecti e qualities- "ncreasing diferentiation between descriptors was most significant age7group distinctionPeople in different professions ha e roughly the same understanding of intelligence$ creati ity$ and wisdom9 intelligence and wisdom considered more similar than creati ity and wisdom- Eultidimensional scaling for wisdom in Study ( found three dimensions$ each with two polar interpretations+ 3G reasoning ability$ and sagacity Fe-g-$ considers ad ice$ is fairG9 (G learning form ideas and en ironment and FgoodG Budgment9 &G e0peditious use of information and perspicacityStudy & showed that self7ratings matched the predicted psychometric test- 2isdom scores correlated significantly with both social intelligence tests-

Sternberg F34A)G

Holliday & #handler F34A=G

To determine if wisdom is a Hprototype7organized conceptI$ consistent across age groups$ different from intelligence$ describable in terms of underlying psychological competencies$ and if the concept people hold influences their Budgments-

Studies 3 & (+ Two groups of 3)' persons of mi0ed ages$ balanced genderStudy &+ &A undergraduates-

A principle components analysis of the 54 descriptors identified ) factors$ the first two most prototypical$ the third a bit less$ the others less still+ e0ceptional understanding$ Budgment and communication s6ills$ general competencies$ interpersonal s6ills$ and social unobrusi eness- 2isdom does appear to be a prototype7 organized concept$ which is consistent across age groupsSignificant o erlap among concepts wise$ intelligent$ and percepti e Fsomewhat less among highly prototypical itemsGRather anomalous was that the control shrewd person rated as a good e0ample of both a shrewd and a wise person at a statistically7significant le el-

3=3

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Ta'(e 7 continued Aut!or & Pur#ose %ate


Sowar6a F34A4G Determine ideas of wisdom in regard to actual peopleDistinguish wisdom as unique construct9 establish personality characteristics for wisdomTo learn age and gender of people nominated as wise$ and the reasons people consider others to be wiseTo e0tend empirical research on perceptions of wisdom9 establish a set of normati e data for use in future researchTo in estigate whether perception of wisdom is influenced by age of person being e aluated/0amined a non72estern understanding of wisdom9 e0plored the way cultural conte0t affect wisdom de elopmentTo test alidity of their model of wisdom as wise actions$ determined by 5 criteria;earning the e0tent to which traditional meanings of wisdom affect contemporary understandings-

Met!o%
Analysis of inter iew responses from an earlier studyAs6ed 3G if they belie ed wisdom is correlated with age$ gender$ education9 (G to nominate persons as wise$ gi ing age$ gender$ and education9 &G rate own wisdomAs6ed to nominate the wisest person he or she 6new$ and their areas of wisdom- Also as6ed to nominate the wisest they 6new in understanding people and interpersonal relationshipsParticipants as6ed to rate 4= occupations$ and 4= personality characteristics on 57point ;i6ert7type scale e0tremely unwise to e0tremely wiseSelected responses to Smith & @altes F344'G were spo6en by a young and an old male$ and a young and an old female$ and rated by participants<rounded theory- Semistructured inter iew Fwith interpreter where necessaryG- "nter iews categorized into ) areas+ definitions$ facilitati e conditions$ teaching process$ methods of de eloping wisdom$ personal e0perience3)7item questionnaire$ items to be rated on a =7point scale according to percei ed relation to wise actsAll possible pairings of se en adBecti es Feight for Dapanese groupG associated with HwiseI Ffrom pilot studyG rated on ;i6ert7type FHnot at all similarI to H ery similarIG scale-

Partici#ants
?3 F() womenG adults$ ages ))74($ from arious locales in !SAdults ages ('74'-

Resu(ts
Hypothesis confirmed$ that participants: concept of wisdom is used for identifying actual persons$ with men and women differing in characterizations5A[ agree wisdom related to age$ 3=[ related to gender$ =A[ related to education- Eales more li6ely to be nominated- Self7ratings differ little with age$ declining after ='A large maBority of E & * nominated a male as wisest9 a smaller maBority of E and * nominated female as most interpersonally wise- Eales were nominated for specific s6ills$ females for interpersonal s6ills- ? components of wisdom identified+ personalTemotionalTmoral$ cogniti e$ interpersonal$ & specific s6ills*or personality characteristics$ & factors Fpercepti e Budgment$ egotism Fre ersedG$ and basic temperamentG account for &&-?[ of ariance- %ccupations rated highest were surgeon$ Budge$ astronaut$ physicianOoung female and old male rated highest$ followed by old female and young male- Ratings by male and female participants were ery similar2isdom associated with @uddhist understanding of reality- Students: goal is to de elop this wisdom and li e accordingly- Carious insights into participants: educati e process*actor analysis ga e a &7factor solution of the responses$ labeled Solidarity$ Situated intelligence$ and Ris6 ta6ing2hen discussing opinions of broad groups$ groups need to be differentiated into categoriesAmericans & Australians paired HwiseI closest with He0periencedI and H6nowledgeable$I farthest from Hdiscreet-I ,nowledgeable and wise most preferred descriptors for an ideal self"ndians and Dapanese associated HwiseI closest with HdiscreetI$ followed by HagedI and He0periencedI9 for "ndians$ H6nowledgeableI least closely associated- H2iseI and H6nowledgeableI were most preferred ideal self descriptorsfor "ndians$ HwiseI and HdiscreetI for Dapanese-

%rwoll & Perlmutter F344'G Denney$ Dew$ & ,roupa F344)G

&AA adults Fages ('754G$ ='[ female$ predominately white & middle7class-

Hershey & *arrell F3445G Hira & *aul6ender F3445G ;e itt F3444G

(55 undergraduate students F3)) womenG3'? undergraduate psychology students FA= femaleG3& male Tibetan @uddhist mon6s$ ages ((7?'-

%ser$ Schen6er$ & Spychiger F3444G Ta6ahashi & @ordia F('''G

344 Hungarians Fteachers and studentsG and 3?4 Swiss Fteachers and studentsG)& American$ )' Australian$ )4 "ndian$ )) Dapanese undergraduate students Fabout 5'[ female for American & Dapanese$ )'[ female for others-

3=(

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Ta'(e 7 continued Aut!or Pur#ose & %ate


Oang F(''3G To learn components of wisdom$ and beha ioral attributes entailed in them$ for Taiwanese #hinese-

Met!o%
*irst study+ response to two questions+ How would you characterize a wise person8 and Are there any benefits or disad antages to being a wise person8 Responses organized into 3'' categories Second study+ Rate the 3'' beha ioral attributes on 57point ;i6ert7type scale FHstrongly disagreeI to Hstrongly agreeIG that they are frequently obser ed in a wise personPhenomenological- "nter iew with two primary questions+ H#an you describe one or more times in your life in which you belie e you were wise$ or acted wisely8I and H#an you describe a wise person in your life8I <i en two minutes to list as many situations as they could recall in which they had acted wisely- Then participants discussed the situa7 tion selected as wisest in a semi7structured$ inter iew- As6ed if they had learned a lesson from the e ent$ and if so what it was*irst study$ nomination of person as wise and rating of hir wisdom on a questionnaire calling for ;i6ert7type responses9 plus response to one open7ended questionSecond study$ response to a shortened form of the questionnaire$ rated for their own organization- Response correlated with participants: categorization of their place of employment according to eight types of organizational culture- They also rated e0tent to which their Bobs in ol ed Stress and ,onflict and potentially disrupti e ,hangeStudy ( used data from EcAdams et al-$ (''3Participants were mailed a boo6let$ as6ing them to narrate a time when they were wise$ were foolish$ and e0perienced a pea6 e ent-

Partici#ants
*irst study+ (4= di ersely selected from two cities in TaiwanSecond study+ =3= di ersely selected from si0 cities throughout Taiwan= people F( femaleG ages ='7AA$ from bac6grounds described as Hwisdom facilitati eI by the EP" groupA= <ermans F(A 3)7(' years old$ (5 &'7?'$ and &3 ages ='75'G<ender$ education$ and professional status Hbalanced within age groupsI*irst study+ ((( adults Fages 3A75?G$ )4[ female$ ==[ #aucasianSecond study+ 3') employed adults Fages 357=AG$ ='[ female$ 54[ #aucasian-

Resu(ts
*irst study+ 3$A4& entries$ organized into 3'' categoriesSecond study+ *actor analysis into four factors+ competencies and 6nowledge Fe-g-$ passion for truth and 6nowledge$ thin6s clearlyG$ bene olence and compassion$ openness and profundity$ modesty and unobtrusi eness#onceptions of wisdom seem to ary significantly according to education le el) essential elements to wisdom identified+ guidance Fi-e-$ mentoring or being mentoredG$ e0perience$ moral principles$ time Fthe time it ta6es to realize an action was wiseG$ and compassionate relationships- The first element was used much more than the others in coding responsesParticipants a eraged recalling four wisdom7related situations- About 4'[ of e ents selected as wisest referred to HfundamentalI life situations- >o outcomes were more negati e than the eliciting e ent or situation- % er &T? of older adults related the e ent to other parts of their life9 (T& of younger adults$ and about 3T& of the adolescents did so5A[ said they had learned a lesson from the e ent9 about ?'[ of adolescents ga e no indication of learning a lesson*irst study found four factors of wisdom in the wor6place+ @roadly "ntegrati e in Perspecti e9 Respect for Human Di ersity9 Practical Political Acumen9 and Sensiti ity to %rganizatioinal #ulture- Responses to open7ended question were categorized into fi e areas in which the wise nominee contributed to the organization+ 3G pro ided stability9 (G pro ided unity in stress9 &G helped create a ci il and humane wor6 place9 ?G contributed to a culture of equity9 and )G pro ided needed ision and leaderhsipStudy ( found wise persons of influence most important in cultures aluing Supporti eness and a Team %rientation9 least important for organizational cultures aluing Attention to Detail$ Aggressi eness$ and Decisi enessStudy 3$ "n addition to findings reported in @luc6 & <lZc6 (''?$ in almost 4'[ of situations whose reason for selection was identified$ the process was gi en- Significant differences in form of wisdom across age groups- % er half the adolescents selected an Hempathy and supportI situa7

Eontgom7 ery$ @arber$ & Ec,ee F(''(G @luc6 and <lZc6 F(''?G

To understand wisdom as e0perienced-

To test alidity of autobiographical narrati es for studying wisdom- Also interested in wisdom e0periences at different ages$ and how these connect to other life e ents or themes$ and the lessons learned*irst study+ de elop an instrument for studying wisdom in wor6 organizations$ in estigate how wisdom contributes to well7being in wor6 organizations$ and e0amine age7 differences in perceptioins of organizational wisdomSecond study focused on types of organizations most li6ely to need and alue wise persons of influence-

;imas & Hansson F(''?G

<lZc6$ @luc6$ @aron$ & EcAdams F('')G

Study 3 FL@luc6 & <lZc6 (''?GStudy ($ to replicate findings of Study 3$ concerning differences in types of situation and forms of wisdom$ and fundamentality of e ent-

Study 3 L @luc6 & <lZc6 (''?- Study (+ )3 Americans Fages &'75(G$ 5'[ female$ ('[ ethnic minority-

3=&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

tion$ the least common form selected by the other two age groups- % er half early midlife adults selected a Hself7 determi7nation and assertionI situation- Almost half the older adults selected a H6nowledge & fle0ibilityI situationStudy (+ Eore than 4'[ of e ents selected as wisest referred to HfundamentalI life situations Fa much smaller [ of pea6 and foolish e ents did soG- 5A[ contained the three types of life situations found in study 3$ only about f of pea6 e0perience and foolishness narrati es did- /arly midlife and older adults were almost e enly di ided between identifying a self7 or other7related e ent Fcompared with Study 3$ in which o er A'[ selected a self7 related situationG- A?[ of the wisdom narrati es in ol ed one of the three forms from Study 39 ery small numbers of pea6 e0perience or foolishness narrati es did- Howe er$ relati e frequency of the different forms reported in the wisdom narrati es was significantly different for the adults in this study-

3=?

4 Resu(ts

This section centers on the question 2hat has been learned from the research into wisdom of the past twenty7fi e years8 and on the questions dealt with as part of the more general question$ How is wisdom to be studied8 namely 3- The need for e0plicit integration of metaphysicalTreligious and practical wisdom in research(- The possibility of gender differences regarding the concept of wisdom$ that it might mean something different to women than it does to men&- 2hether the study of wise persons is a necessity for understanding wisdom and for de eloping a model of wisdom useful for helping people and the choices they ma6e become wiser-

"n addition$ there are e aluations of different theories Fe-g-$ the @erlin 2isdom Paradigm$ Sternberg:s @alance Eodel$ Ardelt:s Three7Dimensional EodelG-

A. WHAT HAVE THESE 37 STUDIES FOUND OUT ABOUT WISDOM? "n this section the main results of the studies are presented- This pro ides a clear synoptic iew- %f course$ it is quite possible that findings that to me appear insignificant may to a shrewder obser er$ or e en owing to chance circumstances$ pro e most aluable- The e0ample *ly bBerg F(''3+chap-3'G gi es of coming across fi e lines of crucial$ though seemingly insignificant$ information as he pored o er thousands of pages of documents$

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

is a good lesson to retain- @ut an all7inclusi e wide7screen tableau is useful too$ and that is what " try to present here- "n this section " will first report the cumulati e results of the studies of common opinions of wisdom$ as chronologically prior$ followed by those of the EP" group$ and the other research$ which is considered chronologically for each researcher FHelson & Sri asta a$ (''( follows 2in6 & Helson$ 3445G-

#tudies of common opinions 0implicit theories1 #layton & @irren F34A'GHThe results from this empirical in estigation indicated that young$ middle7aged$ and older indi iduals all percei ed wisdom as a multidimensional attribute in ol ing the integration of general cogniti e$ affecti e and reflecti e componentsI Fp- 3&'G- Ooung and middle7aged respondents attributed wisdom to the older persons$ but older indi iduals did not Budge themsel es as possessing more or less wisdom than did the others- %lder indi iduals identified a time component of wisdom- !nli6e the two younger groups$ the older indi iduals also percei ed the affecti e qualities of understanding and empathy as being more similar to wisdom than to chronological age or to e0perience-

Sternberg F34A)G"n general$ intelligence$ creati ity$ and wisdom are percei ed as positi ely correlated attributes in people$ although intelligence and wisdom are more closely related than is either of these two constructs to creati ity- Ratings did not differ significantly across groups in terms of mean le els of particular attributes- Three dimensions of wisdom were found$ each with two polar characteristics+ Hreasoning ability$ sagacity FDimension 3G9 learning from ideas and en ironment$ Budgment FDimension (G9 3==

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

e0peditious use of information$ perspicacity Fdimension &GI Fp- =((G- The prototype measure for wisdom showed its greatest correlations with psychometric tests of social intelligenceI Fp- =((G-

Holliday & #handler F34A=GThe hypothesis that wisdom may be thought of as a well7defined$ prototypically7 organized competency descriptor was supported$ and it appears that the word wise references a well7formed and prototype7organized concept- The researchers identified the prototype as consisting of fi e factors+ e0ceptional understanding$ Budgment and communication s6ills$ general competencies$ interpersonal s6ills$ and social unobtrusi eness- The first two factors contain the ariables found to be most prototypical$ with the third a bit less$ and the others less still-

Sowar6a F34A4G/lderly people$ who were inter iewed after ha ing been nominated for possible 6nowledge about wisdom$ were found readily able to identify people in their own li es who could be considered wise$ and able to describe attributes$ situations$ and actions that would so qualify them- There were significant differences in the descriptions offered by men and by women Fsee pp- 3457344 hereinG-

%rwoll & Perlmutter F344'GThere was fairly high agreement regarding some demographic characteristics of wise people+ 5A percent of the respondents agreed that wisdom is related to age$ and =A percent to education- 2hile only 3= percent held that it is related to gender$ when as6ed 3=5

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

to name three wisest people they could thin6 of$ males were far more li6ely than females to nominate males$ though both nominated more males than females- >ominees were generally older people Fa erage about )' years old for young nominators$ =) for older nominatorsG and with a high le el of education- Self7ratings of wisdom showed little difference with age$ self7rated wisdom increasing slightly until the respondents: age of around ?'$ and declining after age ='-

Denney$ Dew$ & ,roupa F344)GThe researchers as6ed participants to nominate the wisest person and the most interpersonally wise person she or he 6new$ and in what areas that person was wiseAlmost A' percent of all males$ and =5 percent of the females nominated a male as most wise9 only ?' percent of males and ?5 percent of females nominated a male as most interpersonally wise- >ominees were said to be particularly wise in four distinct areas+ interpersonal relationships and specific s6ills Fabout &' percent eachG$ wise in general Fabout (' percentG$ and small numbers were Budged particularly wise in the cogniti e or personalTemotionalTmoral areas- "n general$ for both male and female nominators$ male nominees were considered wise for specific s6ills$ female nominees wise for their s6ills in interpersonal relationships- The researchers conclude that Himplicit theories ary as a result of the nominees: se0 but not as a function of the subBects: se0I Fp- ?=GThe researchers suggest that their findings indicate Hthat subBects: implicit theories of wisdom may ha e four main componentsI$ i-e-$ personalTemotionalTmoral$ cogniti e$ interpersonal$ and specific s6ills Fp- ?)G- They point out that people:s idea of what wisdom is tends to ary with age$ that this may be due to cohort effects or to age changes$

3=A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

and for the most part both men and women Hha e ery similar iews about wisdomI Fp?=GHershey & *arrell F3445GParticipants were presented with a list of occupations and personality characteristics and as6ed to rate each on a scale from e0tremely unwise to e0tremely wise- *actor analysis found three resulting factors+ percepti e Budgment$ egotism Fre ersedG$ and basic temperament- The first includes intrapersonal$ interpersonal$ and cogniti e characteristics- The second includes characteristics that are unwise Fe-g-$ arrogant$ impulsi eG$ and the third includes such characteristics as withdrawn$ reflecti e%ccupations requiring ad anced education$ and carrying high social status$ tended to be ran6ed as more indicati e of wisdomThe findings show that HThe wise indi idual is one who is capable of ma6ing percepti e Budgments$ and has a quiet$ reflecti e nature-I The researchers note that there does not seem to be any other study of the association people ha e regarding arious occupations and wisdom$ and that the inclusion of personality characteristics that could be rated unwise pro ides a unique sur ey of the characteristics associated with lac6 of wisdom-

Hira & *aul6ender F3445G Desiring to learn Hwhether a person:s perception of wisdom is influenced by the age of the person he or she is e aluatingI Fp- A4G$ the researchers had a young and an old male$ and a young and an old female ariously deli er$ ia ideotape$ responses that had been made to four different life7planning tas6s in research by the EP" group- %n a 57 point scale$ the 3'? undergraduate psychology students ga e the young male a mean 3=4

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

rating of ?-=?$ the young female )-34$ the old male )-3($ and the old female ?-A&The scores gi en by these untrained raters were consistently higher than those gi en by the trained raters for the EP" group9 otherwise$ the untrained raters: e aluations of wisdom were not substantially different- "t is possible that the manner of presentation by the actors influenced the scores for wisdom that were gi en- @y themsel es$ age and gender do not seem to influence the perception of wisdom- The ability of the young participants to assess wisdom is questionable-

%ser$ Schen6er$ & Spychiger F3444GThe researchers wanted to test the alidity of their model of wisdom$ that Hwisdom is in the act itselfI Fp- 3)=G- 2ise actions are distinguished through 5 criteria Fsee abo e$ page 3'&G$ and &?A Hungarian and Swiss teachers and students responded to a 3)7item questionnaire$ with the items to be rated on a =7point ;i6ert7type scale according to their percei ed relation to wise acts- *actor analysis resulted in a three7factor solution of the responses$ labeled Solidarity$ Situated intelligence$ and Ris6 ta6ing- Hungarians rated solidarity higher than the Swiss$ although the Swiss teachers rated it more highly than either Hungarian teachers or students*i e of the 3) items were included in Solidarity+ Recognition of human dignity9 %rientation by idealistic notions9 Transcending own interests9 Sign of deep 6nowledge of humans9 2arding off inBustice and suffering- ( formed Situated intelligence+ Strictly logical thought9 Sign of high intelligence of the actor- & were included in the Ris6 ta6ing factor+ !ne0pectednesssTunusualness of outcome9 !na oidableness of ris67ta6ing9 % ercoming resistance- ) items were eliminated-

35'

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Ta6ahashi & @ordia F('''GAmerican$ Australian$ "ndian and Dapanese undergraduate students rated the similarity of all possible pairings of 5 adBecti es Faged$ awa6ened$ discreet$ e0perienced$ intuiti e$ 6nowledgeable$ and wiseG on a scale from Hnot at all similarI to H ery similarIThere were A adBecti es for the Dapanese$ as two words connoting wisdom were includedThe 2esterners did consider wise to be closer to cognition FH6nowledgeableI and He0periencedIG9 the /asterners closer to social beha ior$ and more associated with age and e0perience- The high alue gi en to HdiscreetI by the /asterners contrasts mar6edly with the low alue gi en it by the 2esterners- The authors note the relati ely close pairing of HwiseI and HagedI for both /astern and 2estern participantsPand that both also chose HwiseI as most fa ored ideal7self descriptor- Determining that both Dapanese descriptors of wisdom were highly comparable was a useful step for further research-

Oang F(''3GThe purpose of the study was to learn the components of wisdom for Taiwanese #hinese$ and the beha ioral attributes entailed in them- *actor analysis showed that the results could best be arranged in four factors+ #ompetencies and 6nowledge Fsuch as$ a passion for truth and 6nowledge9 thin6s clearly$ has high mental abilitiesG9 @ene olence and compassion Fis good hearted9 brings about Boy and harmonyG9 %penness and profundity Fsuch as$ enBoys life fully$ with a sense of contentment9 able to thin6 about all aspects of things$ in great detailG9 and Eodesty and unobtrusi eness Fnot showy$

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conceited$ arrogantG- Taiwanese #hinese emphasized that a wise person is able to bring harmony to home and societyThese four factors were fairly in ariant for all demographic samples- Those with graduate le el education considered wisdom more related to #ompetencies and 6nowledge$ %penness and profundity$ and Eodesty and unobtrusi eness$ than those who did not ha e this le el of education- #onceptions of wisdom seem to ary significantly according to education le el-

Eontgomery$ @arber$ & Ec,ee F(''(G*rom phenomenological inter iews with si0 people considered to ha e life e0periences facilitati e of wisdom$ the researchers identified fi e essential elements to wisdom+ guidance$ e0perience$ moral principles$ time Fthe time it ta6es to realize an action was wiseG$ and compassionate relationships- The element HguidanceI was used much more than the ne0t most frequently used code term$ HrelationshipsI Fthough the accuracy of this label is questionable )#TG- The researchers note that the gradual re ealing of the wisdom of an action does not seem to ha e been reported in earlier research$ nor their respondents: association of wisdom with close relationships$ nor the confronting of mista6es as aspects of wisdom-

@luc6 and <lZc6 F(''?GParticipants discussed the situation that she or he selected as that in which / had acted wisest- About 4' percent of the e ents selected as wisest referred to HfundamentalI life situations- About two7thirds of the eliciting e ents were negati e situations$ and none of the outcomes were more negati e than the eliciting e ent or situation- % er three7 35(

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

quarters of the older adults related the e ent to other parts of their li es9 two7thirds of the younger adults$ and about one7third of the adolescents did so- ,eeping in mind that participants had been requested to list HsituationsI$ The fact that so many brought up repeated$ or long7term situations as opposed to discrete e ents$ is telling in regard to the way people consider their life narrati e and the place of wisdom e0perienceThe method appears a alid way to study wisdom$ as e ents chosen concerned fundamental life situations$ and were the types of situations that theorists describe as calling for wisdom- The fact that few adolescents reported learning a lesson from the e ent or related it to other parts of their li es$ Hsupports the iew that wisdom is still being de eloped in this life phase FPasupathi$ Staudinger$ & @altes$ (''3GI Fp- )=AG2isdom appears to manifest in qualitati ely different ways at different periods of life-

;imas & Hansson F(''?G There were two studies- The first had three obBecti es+ to de elop an instrument for studying wisdom in wor6 organizations$ to in estigate how wisdom contributes to well7 being in wor6 organizations$ and to e0amine differences in perceptions of organizational wisdom according to age- The second Hfocused on those types of organizations most li6ely to need and alue wise persons of influence in their midstI Fp- A4G*or the first study$ HResults- - - indicated that the core themes of indi idual wisdom could be meaningfully translated to the le el of the organizationI Fp- 4?G-The findings Hsuggest the rele ance of studying wisdom in di erse social and cultural conte0ts such as the wor6place$ where realistic characteristics and demands of the en ironment may uniquely temper and shape perceptions of the nature and rele ance of wisdomI Fpp- 3''7 3G- Also$ Hthe nature of one:s JorganizationalK culture is probably more important than the 35&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

nature or intensity of one:s adapti e challenges with respect to the need for wisdomI Fp3'(G- Study ( found that Hha ing wise persons of influence appears most important in cultures aluing Supporti0eness - - - and a Team 3rientation-I This was least important for organizational cultures aluing Attention to &etail$ Aggressi0eness$ and &ecisi0enessThe correlation of importance of a wise person in a position of influence was unrelated to the ratings for Stress and ,hange and had a small$ significant correlation with ,onflict-

<lZc6$ @luc6$ @aron$ & EcAdams F('')GThe hypothesis was confirmed that wisdom and pea6 e0perience narrati es would pertain to fundamental life e ents$ and that narrati es regarding a foolish beha ior would not- The three forms of wisdom F/mpathy & support9 self7determination & assertion9 and 6nowledge & fle0ibilityG were found frequently in wisdom narrati es$ ery infrequently in the comparison e ents Fpea6 e0periences and foolish e0periencesG as hypothesizedHowe er$ the relati e frequency of the different forms reported in the wisdom narrati es was significantly different for the adults in Studies 3 and (- 54 percent of the narrati es in Study ( concerned empathy and support- There were significant differences in form of wisdom across the three different age groups- % er half the adolescents selected an Hempathy and supportI situation$ while this was the least common form selected by the other two age groups- % er half the early midlife adults selected a Hself7determination and assertionI situation- Almost half the older adults selected a H6nowledge & fle0ibilityI situation- The possibility that this might be due to cohort effects cannot be discountedThe study Hpro ides e idence for theories suggesting that wisdom in ol es fundamental e ents$ and is elicited chiefly in response to life decisions and negati e life e entsI Fp- ('=G- HTheoretical claims suggest that wisdom is applied in response to 35?

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fundamental life issues---and emerges in the face of uncertainty---or when confronting challenging situations---- These theoretical ideas recei e their first empirical support from the high le els of fundamentality$ and the types of life situations described by participants across these studiesI Fp- ('5G-

Summar - Studies of common opinions of wisdom ha e identified characteristics people associate with wisdom+ reasoning ability$ e0ceptional understanding and lac6 of self7centeredness$ good Budgment and morality$ learning and using information well$ fle0ibility$ and good communication s6ills- "ndependence of Budgment seems identified with wisdom- "n general wisdom is associated with an integration of cogniti e$ affecti e$ and reflecti e components- Social intelligence seems to correlate well with a model of wisdom resulting from a study of implicit theories of wisdomPeople were found readily able to identify qualities of wisdom$ and people in their own li es who could be considered wise- 2isdom appears to be associated with age and education- Theoretical ideas that wisdom is applied in response to fundamental life issues$ and emereges in the face of uncertainty or challenging situations recei e Htheir first empirical supportI from studies in which people were requested to describe a situation in which they acted wisely2esterners queried considered the term HwiseI to be closer to cognition9 the /asterners considered it closer to social beha ior$ including bene olence and unobtrusi eness$ and more associated with age and e0perience- An intercultural study found that both /asterners and 2esterners chose HwiseI as the most fa ored ideal7self descriptor from a list of self7descriptors-

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#ore themes of indi idual wisdom seem capable of being meaningfully translated to the le el of the organization9 it is the nature of the organizational culture that seems to determine the need for wisdom in that setting-

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"erlin wisdom paradigm Staudinger F34A4G%lder adults generally performed as well as younger adults on the criteria indicati e of wisdom- *or the criterion Hawareness of uncertaintyI$ one of the more elaborate and specific criteria$ old and middle7aged participants FcombinedG scored higher than young subBects- The age ad antage was e en stronger when participants responded to a difficulty concerning a hypothetical person in their own age group+ here$ middle7aged subBects as well as younger subBects were rated lower than the old subBects for the old hypothetical- "n general$ similarity between subBect and target7re iew age seemed to enhance the quality of the response- *or the old participants$ there was less ariation between scores in different criteria than for young subBects- Results seem to indicate a de elopmental process from the more general s6ills to later de elopment of e0pertise in 6nowledge specific to wisdomStaudinger Fpp- 3)'73)3G writes that Hthe primary result is age7related stability and that there is ad ancement in one aspect of the 6nowledge system Mfundamental pragmatics of life-: Thus$ the resultsPwea6 as they may be Budged by othersPare consistent with the dual process model of intellectual de elopment across the life span which predicts stability andTor growth for the pragmatics of intelligence-I Staudinger argues that life re iew e0ercises may be useful for assessing wisdom7related 6nowledge and also for increasing such 6nowledge-

Smith & @altes F344'G"n addition to testing their theoretical model FStaudinger:s earlier study was her dissertationG$ age differences in response were tested- "n general$ the young participants 355

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scored highest$ then the middle7aged$ and the old scored lowest- Howe er$ for one of the four tas6s Fa response to a less typical problem encountered by an old personG$ scores for old participants were roughly equal to those of the others$ and a bit higher than the young people:s- *ew responses qualified as HwiseI by the researchers: standards$ but among the 33 highest scores$ four were from older adults- HThe study of top performances ha e rarely been the focus of past wor6 on the aging of fluid intelligenceI Fp- )'(GApart from Staudinger:s F34A4G study$ this was the first study of wisdom and age%n the one hand$ wisdom is commonly associated with age$ and at the same time$ modern studies of intelligence in ariably tested fluid intelligence$ which found steady decline after early adulthood- This study found that older people did not e0cel in a test for wisdom$ but that at least for one tas6$ and for the highest scorers$ they maintained parity with younger people- The fact that participants scored higher for tas6s concerning people in their own age group was also a new finding-

Staudinger$ Smith$ & @altes F344(GThis was an Hage7by7e0perienceI paradigm$ to study the difference that age and professional e0perience ma6es in wisdom7related 6nowledge- 2isdom tas6 scores were compared for young F((7&)G and old F=)7A( yearsG clinical psychologists and others of comparable education and socioeconomic le el- Results were positi e and support earlier studies- The clinical psychologists scored significantly higher than the control group$ and in general$ young and old clinical psychologists scored the same$ as did young and old controls- Si0 of the ele en highest scores were by old participants- HSuch a finding is clearly different from aging research on fluid intelligence- - - where the dominant picture

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is one of aging loss$ with no e idence that older adults score in the top range of performanceI Fp- (A'G"t was shown that professional training and practice facilitated high scores$ although the possibility e0ists that the relation goes in the opposite direction+ people apt to score high in wisdom tas6s chose the field of clinical psychology- A bit discrepant to earlier findings$ old clinical psychologists did not score higher than young clinical psychologists in general for the old target problem$ though the old control group scored significantly higher for the old target problem than did the young control group- Ooung clinical psychologists scored a bit higher for the young target problem than did old clinical psychologists$ and young controls scored slightly higher for the old target than they did for the young target- FThe authors: statement to the contrary on p- (A' appears to be in error-G

Smith$ Staudinger$ & @altes F344?GAnother Hage7by7e0perienceI study- 2isdom tas6 scores were compared for young F(=7&5G and old F=?7A( yearsG clinical psychologists and others of comparable education and fluid intelligence le el- The difference between the 344( and 344? studies is that the 344( study presented participants with a life7re iew problem9 this study ga e them a life7 planning problem"n general$ young psychologists scored higher for the young target problem and old psychologists scored higher for the old target problemPand the pattern was the same for the control group- Scores for both young and old clinical psychologists were roughly a standard de iation higher than those of the control group$ and scores for old clinical psychologists were equi alent to those of young clinical psychologists- Scores in general 354

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

were only of Ha erageI le el$ while among the highest scores$ for the young target problem$ ) young and ( old clinical psychologists scored highly9 for the old target problem$ 5 older and ( young clinical psychologists$ as well as 3 old control group member reached the highest le els- The finding regarding higher scores for the psychologists Hcould also be due to initial group differences in career selectionI Fp- 44=GThe fact that once again old people did so well is important e idence indicating the possibility of cogniti e abilities in some areas remaining high into ad anced age-

@altes$ Staudinger$ Eaerc6er$ & Smith F344)GTo chec6 whether the @erlin wisdom paradigm might ha e a bias fa oring clinical psychologists$ the four groups tested in this e0periment were old clinical psychologists Fage ='75=G $ people from other fields who had been nominated as wise F?'754G$ and two control groups Fyoung$ ()7&)$ and old$ ='7A'G- All were of comparable educational le elThe two hypothetical problems participants responded to were 3G a life planning tas6 for an old person$ and (G a call from a friend who says heTshe is going to commit suicideThere appeared no decline in scores from age () to A'- A erage scores for all groups were below a erage+ raters were told that a score of ? Fon a 57point scaleG indicated an a erage le el response$ and the mean score was below &- Among the top scores$ = were from the nominees$ ) from the clinical psychologists$ ? from the young control group and 3 from the old control group- "n general$ wisdom nominees and old clinical psychologists performed at about the same le el$ and almost one standard de iation abo e the old controls- *or both younger and older control groups$ a erage le el of performance was the same-

3A'

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

The EP" group:s wisdom measure does not seem to be biased toward the particular e0pertise of psychologists- 2isdom nominees and clinical psychologists were e0pected to perform higher than the control group on the three metacriteria$ which were hypothesized by the model to de elop subsequent to the two basic criteria of rich factual and procedural 6nowledge$ than the control groups- Howe er they performed better on all criteria- Perhaps because wisdom scores are relati ely low$ with e0perience impro ement is to be e0pected for all criteria$ not Bust the three metacriteria Fp- 3=?G-

Staudinger & @altes F344=GThis study in estigated the effect that consultation with another person$ whether present physically or in imagination$ would ha e on performance- >either age nor profession were ariables$ the participants consisted of as representati e a general sample as possible$ of 3(( pairs- "t was found that aG the opportunity to tal6 o er the problem with a partner$ and then thin6 o er the problem alone$ bG the opportunity to thin6 o er the problem alone$ prompted to consider what others whose opinions the respondent alued might say$ and cG the opportunity to thin6 o er the problem Has they usually thin6 about life problemsI resulted in the highest scores$ with no significant difference among aG$ bG$ and cG- Howe er$ scores for each of these conditions were almost one standard de iation abo e the standard condition$ in which the participant is presented with the problem and as6ed to respond immediately- This was the form in which the response had been gi en in all the pre ious studies$ and the difference in scoring is dramatic and mar6ed a brea6through in understanding of wisdom$ at least in this conte0t- The opportunity to consult with another$ and time to thin6 o er a response$ may impro e the wisdom of a Budgment significantly3A3

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

*or the highest (' percent of the scores Fa erage scores abo e ?-4G$ a far greater proportion came from the E!ternal dialogue plus F?3[G and the Internal dialogue F(=[G groups than from the other three- The Standard and the E!ternal dialogue conditions each contributed A[ to the top performances- The researchers conclude that Hany performance setting that ignores the interacti e7minds aspect of wisdom clearly underestimates wisdom7related performance capacityI Fp- 5)AG- "t is interesting that the positi e effects of mental consultation with another$ when followed with indi idual thin6ing time$ was as facilitati e of higher scores as actual consultation with a partner- "t is possible that the higher scores for these two groups resulted at least in part from the fact that they had an e0tra fi e minutes to thin6 o er the tas6- *uture studies$ the researchers note$ will need to Huncontaminate this confound-I "n all fi e conditions$ older adults Fage ?)75'G performed at le els comparable to younger adults F('7??G$ e0cept for the E!ternal &ialogue plus condition$ in which they performed at a significantly higher le el- The fact that older respondents benefited more than young ones from E!ternal dialogue plus indi0idual thin%ing time is particularly noteworthy$ as the researchers state that they are unaware of any other inter ention performed in cogniti e training studies in which older people benefited more than younger ones Fp- 5)4G-

Staudinger$ ;opez$ & @altes F3445GThe se enth of the tests of the @erlin wisdom paradigm F@wpG continued the mo e into new territory$ this time a study of the relationship of wisdom7related performance to measures of personality$ intelligence$ and personality7intelligence interface- This last term refers to social intelligence$ creati ity$ and cogniti e style- Again the participants 3A(

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

were chosen to be as di erse a group as possible- Scores were found to correlate with one of the two measures for fluid intelligence and one of the two for crystallized intelligence9 two of the personality measures Fpsychological7mindedness and openness to e0perienceG9 and si0 Fof nineteenG of the personality7intelligence interface measures Fthe conser ati e$ monarchic$ oligarchic$ Budicious and e0ternal styles on the Sternberg F344=G mental self7 go ernment measure$ along with creati ity- >ot$ it should be pointed out$ with social intelligence-G- The largest correlation was with openness to e0perience- 2hile wisdom7 related scores are significantly correlated with intelligence$ personality traits$ and the intelligence7personality interface$ the highest correlations are with the last- This finding pro ides e idence that the @wp is not e0clusi ely cogniti e in its focus"n addition$ the li6elihood that their measure of wisdom7related performance indicates a unique mental construct is confirmed by the fact that all && predictors Fall of the intelligence and personality factorsG together accounted for only )3[ of the ariance in wisdom7related scores- %n the other hand$ if each of the three wisdom tas6s is considered separately$ after the && predictors were accounted for$ the other two could account for a significant additional amount of the ariance-

Staudinger$ Eaciel$ Smith$ & @altes F344AGThis study returns to the comparison of clinical psychologists Fchosen as ha ing e0perience facilitati e of the de elopment of wisdomG and controls of comparable education- Age was not of interest$ as earlier studies indicated that wisdom7related performance remains stable from around age () to A'- This time$ the researchers wanted to correlate aG e0perience and training$ bG personality characteristics$ and cG intelligence

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

with wisdom scores- The researchers are interested in learning H2hat predicts wisdom7 related performances8I They found that the greatest predicti e factor for wisdom7related scores was profession$ with personality characteristics somewhat less predicti e$ and intelligence less still- "n fact$ Hneither standard personality nor intelligence measures remained important once the predicted effect of professional specialization was accounted forI Fp3?G- The main correlations with high wisdom7related performance were profession$ and %penness to /0perience$ and a negati e correlation with /0tra ersion as measured by the >/%7P"- The Ra en Progressi e Eatrices$ a test of fluid intelligence$ also showed a significant correlation- The measure for crystallized intelligence had ery little correlation with wisdom scoresThe question still remains whether it is the e0perience in the profession that caused the ariation$ or the fact that people of a particular psychological ma6eup enter such a profession- The e idence is that training and e0perience are more important- This study is a beginning toward understanding the predicti e power of intelligence$ personality characteristics$ and professional e0perience for wisdom- The researchers conclude that Hthis study has suggested that it is the Boint effect of person characteristics and e0periential conte0ts that ma6e a strong contribution to the prediction of wisdom7related performanceI Fp- 3)GAgain$ wisdom as operationalized by the EP" model appears to be a unique construct$ distinct from intelligence and personality measures- As little of the ariance was accounted for by the psychometric measures$ Hit seems defensible to pursue wisdom as a construct in its own right$ and that it is not easily captured by e0tant measuresI Fp3?G3A?

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Pasupathi & Staudinger F(''3GThe correlation between le els of moral reasoning$ personality characteristics$ and wisdom scores of a heterogeneous group of participants was the focus of this study- A significant correlation between wisdom7related scores and moral reasoning was found$ though it Hwas about the same as many other correlations reported in the literature on personality$ creati ity$ and cogniti e stylesI Fp- ?33G- There was a tendency for those in the top quintile of wisdom scores to also be in the top quintile of moral reasoners$ and ery few were from the lowest quintile of moral reasoners- "t appears that higher le els of wisdom7related performance almost require high le els of moral reasoning$ while the association between moral reasoning and wisdom is mediated by characteristics such as creati ity$ cogniti e styles$ and intelligencePand not by personality or cogniti e factors aloneThe researchers found once more that age did not correlate with wisdom performance- *or those whose moral reasoning scores were abo e median$ wisdom7 related performance increased with age Fthe oldest in this category was about 5'G- *or those whose moral reasoning scores were below median$ wisdom7related scores were quite stable throughout the age range F(' to upper A'sG- Apparently the responses were gi en in their Hstandard conditionI without any consultation or time to thin6 o er the response-

Pasupathi$ Staudinger$ & @altes F(''3G*or this study$ the EP" group loo6ed for the first time at adolescents F3?7('G and their wisdom7related 6nowledge- They were compared with young adults F(37&5G- An increase in scores up to around age (? was found$ after which scores le el off3A)

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Adolescents scored lower than adults on all tas6s and criteria- 2hile adults scored comparably across all criteria$ adolescents showed considerably more ariance$ with scores particularly lower for two of the metacriteria$ confirming the hypothesis that adolescents are de eloping discrete mental abilities at different rates$ and that the metacriteria$ being wisdom7e0pertise specific$ de elop subsequent to the basic criteria$ which are general e0pertise abilities- %n their 57point scale$ female adolescents: o erall a eraged scores were &-3$ and boy:s (-A- Prior to responding$ participants were gi en ) minutes to thin6 o er the test dilemma-

,unzmann & @altes F(''&GThis study e0amined alues$ affect$ and conflict resolution style as correlates of wisdom7related 6nowledge- HJAK ery first step in broadening our definition of wisdom as 6nowledge to also include other human strengthsI Fp- 33')G- They found that people high in wisdom7related 6nowledge are li6ely to e0perience high affecti e in ol ement Fe-g-$ feelings such as interestG$ and at the same time to e0perience pleasant feelings less frequently than others- 2isdom$ age$ and pleasant affect$ negati e affect$ and other7 enhancing alues were found to correlate together- Thus it is age and wisdom together$ neither by themsel es$ that account for the correlation with e0periencing both positi e and negati e affect less- "t is only with increasing age that higher wisdom7related 6nowledge correlates with alues that are other7enhancing- Those scoring highly on the wisdom criteria demonstrate self7 and other7enhancing alues to a similar e0tent$ and their conflict7management styles in ol e efforts towards cooperati e resolution/0amples of self7enhancing alues are self7actualization and insight into life- 2isdom7 related 6nowledge is negati ely correlated with hedonistic alues3A=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Staudinger & Pasupathi F(''&GThis is a study of the correlation between wisdom$ cogniti e functioning$ personality$ and cogniti e7personality interface characteristics$ for adolescents and adults2hile crystallized intelligence and openness to e0perience show the greatest correlation with wisdom7related performance F2RPG for adolescents$ for adults it is the three interface measures- HAs predicted$ the proportion of unique ariance as compared with the zero7order relations of the interface ariables is significantly smaller in the adolescent sample than in the adult sampleI Fp- ()5GThe age72RP correlation was much stronger for adolescents than for adults$ for whom it was nonsignificant- *or adolescents intelligence and personality factors show greater correlation with 2RP than do characteristics that de elop later- *or adults$ it is those characteristics that require Hintegrated cogniti e and personality functioningI that correlate most with 2RP-

Summar - The EP" group:s dozen studies Fbeginning with Staudinger:s F34A4G published dissertationPalthough her research did not initiate the rather systematic progression the other studies ha e followedG ha e proceeded methodically to study arious factors influencing scores for their fi e criteria of wisdom as e0pertise in the fundamental pragmatics of life- "n studies two through fi e F344'7344)G$ the effect of age and professional e0perience was tested- Studies ten and twel e FPasupathi$ Staudinger$ & @altes$ (''39 and Staudinger & Pasupathi$ (''&G e0tended this line of research to adolescents- "t was found that after age twenty7fi e$ until around age eighty$ age does not account for ariances- The biggest factor is a profession that facilitates de elopment of wisdom$ such as clinical psychology or ministerial counseling- At the same time$ people 3A5

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in public life who were nominated as being wise scored as highly or higher as clinical psychologists"n their si0th study$ they as6ed whether consulting with another Feither in person or mentallyG would affect scores on their wisdom tests$ and found that it did$ and that perhaps ha ing$ in addition to time to consult$ e0tra time to thin6 o er the question$ also affects scores- All pre ious tests had as6ed for an immediate response to the wisdom tas6$ with no consultation@y the se enth study FStaudinger$ ;opez$ & @altes 3445G they were testing the effect personality$ intelligence$ and qualities e incing a personality7intelligence interface$ ha e on scores for their wisdom criteria- The eighth study FStaudinger$ Eaciel$ Smith$ & @altes 344AG added the effects of e0perience and training to this direction of inquiry into the relation of personality and intelligence characteristics and wisdom- The ninth FPasupathi & Staudinger (''3G brought in the correlation between le el of moral reasoning$ personality characteristics$ and wisdom scores- Eost recently$ in the ele enth study F,unzmann & @altes (''&G alues$ affect$ and conflict resolution style as correlates of wisdom7related 6nowledge were tested- %penness to e0perience$ and negati e correlation with /0tra ersion Fboth from the Hbig fi eI personality characteristicsG seem to correlate most strongly$ after profession$ with wisdom7related performance F2RPGHigher le els of 2RP seem to almost require high le els of moral reasoning$ and for testees with abo e7median scores in moral reasoning$ 2RP increases with age-

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Ardelt Ardelt F3445GArdelt has a &7component model of wisdom+ cogniti e$ affecti e$ and most importantly$ reflecti e- "n this study of correlates of life satisfaction in old age$ she found that the cogniti e component of wisdom was most highly correlated with life satisfaction*or men and women considered together$ life satisfaction correlated most significantly with wisdom$ then with physical health$ and social in ol ement- 2isdom correlated most closely with life satisfaction$ then with social in ol ement and physical health- *or women$ obBecti e life conditions correlated significantly with life satisfaction$ but not significantly with wisdom Fp- P(3G- *or the women$ the data show that Hwisdom has a strong and highly significant positi e impact on women:s life satisfaction in old ageIP significantly more than the strongest obBecti e condition Ffinancial situationG Fp- P((G$ and more than the influence of physical health- 2isdom counterbalances the negati e effect of age on women:s life satisfactionHAmong the ariables analyzed$ M2isdom: is clearly the most powerful predictor of life satisfaction in old age for women in the sampleI Fp- P((G$ and it is highly and positi ely related to the life satisfaction of both men and women$ regardless of their obBecti e conditions- The influence of obBecti e conditions on life satisfaction depended on circumstances and the participants: H ulnerabilities$ an0ieties$ and strengthsI Fp- P(?G-

Ardelt F('''G/0panding on the pre ious study$ Ardelt sought to learn how people de elop wisdom$ and what its benefits are in old age$ beyond life satisfaction- She found that wisdom is positi ely correlated with family relationships$ as hypothesized$ but almost 3A4

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

equally correlated with physical health$ which is contrary to the hypothesis- H%n the a erage$ wise elderly women were not only more satisfied during their later years of life$ they also tended to be healthier and to ha e better family relationships than women with a lower degree of wisdomI Fp- &A&G- 2isdom was found to be Hunrelated to older women:s socioeconomic status$ financial situation$ and physical en ironmentI Fp- &A3G- %nly wisdom and the respondent:s financial situation were found to ha e a positi e significant effect on subBecti e well beingShe found a lac6 of influence of fa oring factors in childhood and early adulthood on wisdom in old age$ which indicates that such factors are not necessary- The fact that mature personality characteristics in early adulthood correlate positi ely with life satisfaction in old age but not with later wisdom is interesting- There are apparently ery few longitudinal studies that pro ide data for a range of psychological and social characteristics$ and fewer still that pro ide data usable for assessing wisdom- HThe results from this research may be iewed as an important first step in de eloping a model for the antecedents and effects of wisdom in old ageI Fp- &A=G-

Ardelt F(''&GThe purpose of the study was to de elop and test the alidity of a self7administered assessment of wisdom$ Hfor use in large$ standardized sur eys of older populationsI Fp(5=G- As predicted$ the reflecti e component of this &4 item instrument had the highest factor loading- %ther mental measures were gi en the participants$ and the &7Dimension 2isdom Scale F&D72SG was significantly7positi ely correlated with mastery$ general well7being$ purpose in life$ and subBecti e health9 and significantly7negati ely correlated with depressi e symptoms$ feelings of economic pressure$ and a oidance and fear of 34'

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death- Scores were less$ but still significantly7positi ely$ correlated with education and status of the respondent:s longest held Bob- Scores on the &D72S did not correlate with marital or retirement status$ gender$ race$ or income- Those who scored high on the &D7 2S were more li6ely to ha e been nominated as wiseHThe analyses show that the &D72S is a reliable and alid instrument and a promising scale to assess respondents: indicators of the latent ariable wisdom in large standardized samples of older populations if the latent ariable wisdom is defined and operationalized as a combination of cogniti e$ reflecti e$ and affecti e personality characteristicsI Fp- &33GSummar " Ardelt:s three published studies focus on wisdom and old age$ and ha e found FArdelt 3445+P((G that wisdom Fher &7component modelG His clearly the most powerful predictor of life satisfaction in old age for women in the sample-I "t positi ely correlates with positi e family relationships and physical health$ not with financial situation or physical en ironment- She de eloped a quic6 &4 item instrument F;i6ert7type responsesG to assess wisdom in large samples of older people-

Win* ) /elson 023341, and /elson ) #rivastava 056651 2in6 & Helson F3445GThe researchers wanted to get away from approaches to wisdom that leaned hea ily toward the cogniti e$ and de eloped two measures of wisdom to assess personality and de elopmental correlates+ the Practical 2isdom Scale FP2SG$ which seems so simple as to rouse s6epticism$ and the Transcendent 2isdom Ratings FTR2G- The P2S is scored by responses to the &''7item AdBecti e #hec6 ;ist$ of which 3? items were selected as

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indicators of wisdom and ? counter7indicati e- The total of indicators minus counterindicators chec6ed gi es the score for the P2S- *or the TR2$ testees are as6ed one question+ HEany people hope to become wiser as they grow older- 2ould you gi e an e0ample of wisdom you ha e acquired and how you came by it8I Responses are rated on a )7point scale$ and for the highest rating the response needs Hto be abstract Ftranscending the personalG$ insightful Fnot ob iousG$ and to e0press 6ey aspects of wisdom$ such as a recognition of the comple0ity and limits of 6nowledge$ an integration of thought and affect$ and philosophicalTspiritual depthI Fp- =GThe researchers found a nonsignificant correlation between the P2S and T2R Fat age )(G for the women$ and for the men a correlation significant at a trend le el- A number of other mental assessments were correlated with results- Status le el in wor6 or life$ and marital satisfaction$ did not correlate with either practical or transcendent wisdom scores- The researchers consider that the construct alidity of both measures was established Fp- 3(G- HDointly$ these results suggest that high scorers on both measures tend to be cogniti ely comple0 and morally serious$ insightful$ percepti e$ and obBecti e- 2e belie e that the abo e findings pro ide support for the claim that both the P2S and the T2R are measures of wisdomI Fp- 33G-

Helson & Sri asta a F(''(GThis was a longitudinal study of the personality correlates of wisdom and creati ity from age (3 to age =3- The P2S and the T2R were administered$ along with one of the @erlin wisdom paradigm tas6s$ although the criteria for rating this were adapted- So all the wisdom measures were ta6en at age =3- Scores$ which were considered as a single

34(

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composite$ were not reported as the researchers were concerned with the correlates of wisdom and creati ityA career in psychotherapy or spiritual acti ity Hadded significantly to the prediction of wisdom but not of creati e achie ementI Fp- 3?&4G- This seems to indicate that the choice of a particular life path shapes one:s personality- Selection of items from the #alifornia V Set F#AVG$ which had been performed by three psychologists For graduate studentsG for each woman at age ?&$ were chec6ed against results for the Ryff scale for positi e mental health$ measured at age ='$ for correlations- #reati e achie ement and wisdom both correlated with a Sense of Personal <rowth9 wisdom alone correlated with Positi e Relations with %thers- There was e idence Hof greater dynamism in creati ity and greater balance in wisdomI Fp- 3?&AGThe researchers found support for the finding that wisdom is Hassociated with increased awareness of and confidence in one:s place in societyI Fp- 3?&4G- The interests associated with wisdom at midlife correlated with measures of continued growth and comple0ity from youth$ such as Hbeing open to and s6illful in appraising the feelings of othersI Fp- 3?&4G- H#ogniti e7affecti e italityI appears essential for both creati ity and wisdom$ and in wisdom this is combined with bene olence- The signs of future wisdom were present from age (3$ but required subsequent beha ioral commitments to result in later wisdom-

Summar - 2in6 & Helson F3445G and Helson & Sri asta a F(''(G de eloped two wisdom measures+ one for practical wisdom FP2SG and one for transcendent wisdom FT2RG- The P2S consists of responses to a &''7item adBecti e chec6 list$ 3? of the items either indicating or counterindicating practical wisdom- The T2R consists of a response 34&

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to a single question$ a request for an e0ample of the wisdom the respondent has acquired>o information other than scoring criteria for the T2R has been published-

(thers ;e itt F3444G"n her grounded theory study of Tibetan @uddhist mon6s$ ;e itt found that wisdom is associated with altruism and compassion$ distinguishing good from e il$ self7 e0amination and monitoring of beha ior$ and with personal characteristics such as honesty$ humility$ and respect for all creatures- To gain direct personal benefits of wisdom seems self7contradictory for these practitioners$ as H@y definition$ the wise person acts to meet the needs of othersI Fp- 4&G- Howe er$ recognition of the personal 6harmic costs of bad deeds pro ides a moti e for altruism$ and these costs are frequently emphasized Fp- 45G- /0traordinary power Freading past li es of others$ seeing the future$ for e0ampleG are considered as Hsignifying ery high le els of wisdomI Fp- 3''G-

Dason$ Reichler$ ,ing$ Eadsen$ #amacho$ Earchese F(''3GThe purpose of the study was to test the alidity of a measurement instrument designed by the authors- *actor analysis of the responses to the *oundational Calue Scale F*CSG in the second study indicated fi e general dimensions of wisdom+ harmony Fsuch as good Budgment$ sees meaning and purpose in life$ opennessG$ warmth Fe-g- humor$ 6indness$ being in the presentG$ intelligence Fgenius$ intelligence$ problem7sol ing abilityG$ connecting to nature Fe-g-$ re erence for nature$ childli6e wonder and aweG$ and spirituality Ffeels lo e$ fellowship$ or union with god$ and li ing a spiritual lifeG-

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Perry$ ,omro$ Dones$ Eunson$ 2illiams$ Dason F(''(GThe researchers adapted Dason et al-:s F(''3G *oundational Calue Scale for use with adolescents Fto produce an Adolescent 2isdom ScaleG$ as6ing them to respond as they felt they possessed the (& characteristics or qualities on a ;i6ert7type scale- Three subscales were identified+ Harmony and 2armth$ "ntelligence$ and Spirituality$ and all correlated with less alcohol and cigarette use$ and for females less mariBuana use9 with fewer iolent beha iors$ less peer influence$ greater self7efficacy$ and lower scores on the EEP"7A ScalesPwhich last pro ided the largest correlation- The study was not primarily intended to learn more about wisdom$ but the correlation between the Adolescent 2isdom Scale and health7compromosing beha iors- The scale Hdid not remain significant after controlling for other 6nown ris6 factors$ with the e0ception of female cigarette smo6ingI F='G- % er half the items reflect spirituality$ directly or indirectly$ though they do not necessarily reflect religiousness-

Ta6ahashi & % erton F(''(GThis is a cross7cultural study FDapanese and AmericansG$ hypothesizing that old adults will e0hibit higher scores on wisdom indicators than the middle7aged$ independent of culture- This study did not assess wisdom directly$ but as indicated through measures of intelligence$ empathy$ emotional regulation$ self7actualization$ and life satisfactionThe synthetic features of wisdom are e0pected to correlate with life satisfactionSynthetic features are those in ol ing holistic e0pression and intrinsically7 alued e0perience- "t was assessed here by the Short "nde0 of Self Actualization- The analytic aspect concerns adaptation and instrumental means$ attainment of practical goals rather than self7e0pression34)

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

*or both cultures$ older people scored significantly higher than the middle aged on all the indicators$ e0cept for the /motional Regulation ariable$ on which they scored slightly higher- @oth synthetic and analytic ariables correlated significantly with scores on the ;ife Satisfaction "nde0- There was a difference between the American and Dapanese respondents$ in regard to collecti istTindi idualist attitudes$ indicating that the superiority of older persons on wisdom indicators is independent of cultural bac6groundThe superiority of older respondents to wisdom measures has been found in other studies$ but Hthe present study e0tends these findings both cross7culturally and in terms of broadening them into the synthetic mode of wisdomI Fp- (5)G-

2ebster F(''&GA test of a self7assessed scale for measuring dimensions of wise persons FSelf7 Assessed 2isdom Scale$ SA2SG$ a &'7item self7assessed wisdom scale FSA2SG$ which contains si0 statements for each of the fi e dimensions Fe0perience$ emotional regulation$ reminiscence and reflecti eness$ openness$ and humorG considered to represent wisdom2ebster concludes that HThe SA2S appears to be a highly reliable scaleI Fp- ('G and suggests a number of possible impro ements and directions for future study-

Summar - ;e itt F3444G inter iewed thirteen Tibetan @uddhist mon6s Fmainly through a translatorG for their ideas of wisdom- Ta6ahashi & % erton F(''(G conducted a cross7cultural study of Dapanese and Americans assessing wisdom indirectly through measures of intelligence$ empathy$ emotional regulation$ self7actualization$ and life7 satisfaction- Dason$ et al- F(''3G and 2ebster F(''&G de eloped ;i6ert7type questionnaires to assess wisdom$ the former a &A item test including items such as re erence for nature$ 34=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

imagination and creati ity$ and compassion9 and the latter a &' item test including items regarding emotional regulation$ openness$ e0perience$ reminiscence and reflecti eness$ and humor-

B. INTEGRATION OF METAPHYSICAL AND PRACTICAL WISDOM Sowar6a:s F34A4G secondary analysis of inter iews with ?3 people regarding descriptions of people identified as wise Ftheir qualities$ and the acts that qualify them as wiseG indicates that the concept of wisdom is easily brought forth by the respondentsPand that there are no religious or spiritual associations- Holliday & #handler F34A=+)4G found HspiritualI to rate third from the bottom in the ratings of 54 descriptors people ga e on a 57point scale FHalmost ne er true of wise peopleI to Halmost always true of wise peopleIGDenney$ Dew$ & ,roupa F344)G found that people nominated as particularly wise were considered so because of such things as inner strength$ alues$ integrity$ compassion$ life priorities$ lo e$ and religionTspirituality- HSpiritualI was one of the 4= personality characteristics Hershey & *arrell F3445G as6ed their subBects to rate according to their association with wisdom$ but the association was not particularly strong- Ta6ahashi & @ordia:s F('''G cross7cultural study of si0 adBecti es associated with wisdom$ chosen as being those most frequently mentioned by people in a pilot study who had been as6ed to list words associated with HwiseI$ did not include any terms associated with religion or spiritualityDason$ et al- F(''3+)4'G found that categories of HDri eTTenacityT ;eadership and "nsightTSpiritualityI were the categories most mentioned by the forty7three participants as associated with people they nominated as wise- They thoughtfully include the religious affiliations of the participants in their study+ =)[ were #atholic$ Protestant$ or Dewish$ 345

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and &?[ without religious affiliation- "n the test of the *oundational Calue Scale de eloped from these responses$ they found a feeling of Hlo e$ fellowship$ or union with godI$ and H;i ing a spiritual lifeI were included$ but the correlation between ratings participants in the second study ga e to these and other indicators of their wisdom is not specified2in6 & Helson F3445+?G belie e that the highest scores on their Transcendent 2isdom Ratings FTR2G should indicate$ among other things$ HphilosophicalTspiritual depthI but no rele ant findings are reported- They did find Ha positi e but modest correlationI between the TR2 and their Practical 2isdom Scale F3445+4G- "n Helson & Sri asta a:s F(''(G study$ participants also responded to the question for the TR2$ but as responses were not rele ant for the purpose of their research Fcorrelating personality factors and career paths with creati ity and wisdomG they are not reported- ;i6ewise with Ardelt F3445$ ('''$ (''&G$ who theorizes a strong spiritual component to wisdom but whose studies ha e not included religious or spiritual connections with wisdomThe themes mentioned by participants requested to describe a situation in which they had acted wisely$ in @luc6 and <lZc6 F(''?G$ and <lZc6 et al- F('')G$ do not include mention of religion or spirituality;e itt F3444G was studying Tibetan @uddhist mon6s- "n her study of the concepts of wisdom held by Taiwanese #hinese$ Oang F(''3+=5=G found them to correspond with #onfucian ideals of humanity$ although Hthe spiritual aspect is not salientI"n a phenomenological study of si0 people selected as being li6ely to ha e de eloped some wisdom$ Eontgomery$ @arber$ & Ec,ee F(''(G found moral principles and compassionate relationships to be among the fi e essential elements to wisdom-

34A

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There was no mention by any of them of wisdom in connection with spirituality$ or as accessible through dogmatic faith$ as residing with <odReligion and spirituality are not mentioned in #layton & @irren 34A' or Sternberg 34A)9 they are not a part of the studies of Ta6ahashi & % erton (''( or 2ebster (''&$ and are not mentioned- The studies of the EP" group$ iewing wisdom as He0pert7le el 6nowledge and Budgment in the fundamental pragmatics of lifeI FStaudinger & Pasupathi (''&+(?'G$ and assessing wisdom on the fi e criteria of rich factual 6nowledge and rich procedural 6nowledge about life$ life7span conte0tualism$ alue relati ism$ and awareness and management of uncertainty$ are not in ol ed with the religious or spiritual dimensions of wisdom$ e en if the fundamental pragmatics include insights into the e0istential questions Hsuch as birth$ death$ or transcendenceI FPasupathi & Staudinger (''&+(?3G-

C. POSSIBLE DIFFERENCES IN GENDER REGARDING UNDERSTANDING OF WISDOM There is some indication from the studies of implicit theoriesPthe opinions a erage people hold about wisdom FDenney et al- 344)$ %rwoll & Perlmutter 344'$ Sowar6a 34A4Psee below for detailsGPthat women ha e a different idea of what wisdom is than men do- Since classic sources of theory on wisdom are almost all men F#hristine de Pizan F3&=?73?&'G and the tenth century canoness and playwright Hrots itha may be the only e0ceptionsG$ it is most important to ascertain whether$ in fact$ there is a masculine bias to theories of wisdom$ whether implicit or e0plicitDason$ et al- F(''3G found no significant gender differences- Ardelt F3445+P34G found that Hwisdom for men is more strongly characterized by cognition and less by 344

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affect than for womenI$ although the small sample size ma6es this result no more than worth notingThe EP" group has not specifically studied gender effects$ but has tested for them in regard to their in estigations of other factors that correlate with wisdom7related 6nowledge- The first mention of gender seems to be in Staudinger$ Eaciel$ et alF344A+)G$ a study in which the participants were 4' females+ HPrior research on wisdom has demonstrated no gender effects Fsee e-g- @altes et al-$ 344)9 Smith and @altes$ 344'9 Staudinger and @altes$ 344=G-I "n Smith and @altes F344'G$ in which equal numbers of men and women participated$ a factorial A>%CA of the results with gender as one of the factors found no significant main effects for gender Fpp- ?447)''G- " did not find any reference to gender effects in @altes et al- F344)G$ or in Staudinger & @altes F344=G#layton & @irren F34A'+33&G state that they found no significant gender differences in the comparisons between paired adBecti es descripti e of wisdom$ though they did find significant age cohort differences through a Points of Ciew indi idual differences procedure in their multidimensional scaling analysis of the data"n the most thorough consideration of gender differences in regard to wisdom$ Sowar6a F34A4G found significant differences between the responses of men and women in their descriptions of wise people in their li es and the actions they too6- As this has not appeared in /nglish the description here$ with my translations$ is more detailed than it would ha e otherwise been- 34 women and 3? men nominated roughly equal numbers of wise people F)5 and =& respecti elyG- *or women$ ?4[ of their nominations were in the category H%wn familyI$ s- ([ for the men- =)[ of the women named a person from either their own or their husband:s family$ although this figure decreased to )5[ for women who had e0perience in the wor6force- The men chose ()[ of their nominees (''

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

from HProfessional acti ityI s- A[ of the women who did so- Een were much more li6ely to name an H"dealized figureI than the women- 2omen were more balanced in the gender of the person they named+ ?3[ of their nominees were female$ as opposed to 3([ for the male participants"n Sowar6a:s study$ a total of 3$=&= person attributes were gi en by the && participants F4'A by the 34 womenG$ which were grouped into si0 categories and 55 general statements- ;oo6ing at these general statements$ women were much more li6ely to characterise their nominees as ha ing their own financial resources$ and also as of low financial resources$ with a well7educated bac6ground$ as maintaining lifelong contacts$ ha ing se eral children$ and the date of the nominees: death not being forgotten- There were (4 instances by women of the general statement Hcontribute to the well7being of a familyI$ and only one for the males- Eale participants were more li6ely to gi e instances of intellectual capability and ha ing a good reputation- Eale and female participants both tended to describe male nominees in terms mainly of their role attributes$ and female nominees in terms of personal characteristics FSowar6a$ 34A4+4AGThe women contributed )' narrati es about &' different nominees$ and the men (5 narrati es for 34 different nominees- These also showed mar6ed differences in response depending on the narrator:s gender- Though there were almost twice as many narrati es from females as from males$ there were almost equal numbers of narrati es categorized as Situationen 6ur So6ialisation$ and four times as many narrati es of Positi eTcreati e lifestyle F&aseinsgestaltung$ p- 3''GThere were also many similarities between responses of men and women$ for e0ample regarding the effect the wise nominee had on them$ and the interpersonal nature of the narrati es$ often occurring in a negati e or conflict situation- Also there was ('3

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

agreement across the se0es regarding their multifaceted and thoroughly positi e image of the wise reference person- ?( percent of the narrati es in ol ed actions that many people could carry out in their daily li es$ the others portrayed actions that would be within the capabilities F#andlungsrepertoireG of only a few people- "n regard to the beha ioral pattern F#andlungsmusterG of the narrati es$ eight of the narrati es by women and none of the narrati es of the men concerned HActing according to one:s own philosophy of lifeI- >ine of the narrati es by women and one by a man concerned Er6iehung nach 'ewHltigungsprin6ipien Fp- 3'(G- Although there were almost twice as many narrati es by females as by men$ nine of the males and only fi e of the females told of instruction in particular areas of 6nowledge FDnterrichtung in besonderen 8enntnisgebietenGSowar6a notes a Hthoroughly distinct point of iew ta6en by men and women F5rauen und MHnner durchaus 0erschiedene Schwerpun%te set6enG when they characterized the reference persons in concrete termsI Fp- 3')G- She attributes the differences in response by different genders to a se07differentiating store of 6nowledge and e0perience Fp- 3'&G- "nternalized social gender stereotypes may ha e played a part in the descriptions$ although a comparison between women who had and who had not been employed spea6s against this- The ascription of e0cellence of character to the wise person is a Hpossibly significant de iation from the scientific7psychological definitionsI Fp- 3')GSmith & @altes F344'+?447)''G performed an analysis of ariance FA>%CAG on the data in their study$ using SubBect age X Se0 X Rating criteria X ;ife decision type X Problem target age as factors$ and found no significant gender effects%rwoll & Perlmutter F344'+35'73G report that$ requested to Hnominate the three wisest people they could thin6 of and to specify the age$ gender$ and educational bac6grounds of the wise nomineesI$ males were far more li6ely than females to nominate ('(

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

males- They do not report figures$ but the graph shows a roughly 5)7()[ split for the male nominators$ and a ='7?'[ split for femalesDenney$ Dew$ & ,roupa F344)+?=G conclude that there was no difference between the ideas of wisdom held by male or female participants$ but both se0es concei e there is a difference between a wise male and a wise femaleHira & *aul6ender F3445G in estigated whether age and gender play a part in the wisdom ascribed to people by undergraduate psychology students$ and whether this aries with the gender of the person ma6ing the ascription- They found no apparent differences depending on the gender of the person ma6ing the ascription$ but the old male was consistently rated higher in wisdom than the young male$ and the young female consistently rated higher than the old female Fwhile trained raters had gi en them equal ratingsG2in6 & Helson F3445G found that the correlation between scores on the P2S and T2R Fboth at age7)( testingsG was nonsignificant for the women$ and significant at a trend le el for the men- *or the P2S$ the researchers found no significant gender differences in age7related changes from the age7(5 to age7)( testings Dason$ et al- F(''3+)4?G found Hno significant differences between males and females on the *CS J*oundational Calue ScaleK factors-I "n Pasupathi$ Staudinger$ & @altes F(''3G$ gender differences were found for performance among adolescents F3?7('G$ when girls outperformed boys$ but there was no difference in performance between adult males and females$ and H>o other effects in ol ed genderI Fp- &)AGOang F(''3+=53G did not find significant gender differences in ratings of the beha ioral attributes of a wise person in their study('&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Ta6ahashi & % erton F(''(G found no significant gender differences in their indirect measures for wisdom$ although there were significant age and culture correlations with results,unzmann & @altes F(''&aG found that$ while gender is meaningfully associated with affecti e e0periences$ after controlling for gender in an analysis of co ariates$ Hthe relationships between wisdom7related 6nowledge and the three affecti e dimensions remained significant and basically unchangedI Fp- 333'G- <ender was also unrelated to the correlation between wisdom7related 6nowledge and the si0 alue dimensions measured Fp- 333&G- Age was found to ha e a more significant effect$ for the affecti e e0periences7wisdom correlation and for the alue7wisdom correlationArdelt F(''&+&')G found no correlation between gender and results on the &D72S2ebster F(''&+34G found that scores correlated with gender at r =-(43-on the Self7 Assessed 2isdom Scale$ but not much can be concluded from this<lZc6 et al- F('')+('3G found Hno significant gender effects for any of the ariablesI for their first study FL @luc6 & <lZc6 (''?G- "n study ($ in which participants F5'[ of the )3 were femalesG responded in writing to a request to describe an e0perience or episode in which they had displayed wisdom$ the females reported higher relations indicating /mpathy and support Fone of the & forms in which responses were categorizedG than the males reported+ A5-3[ to )A-&[-

D. STUDY OF EXEMPLARS The research to date has focused on randomly7chosen people:s ideas of wisdom$ and not a single study of wise people has been found-

('?

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

6 Discussion

A. WHAT HAS BEEN LEARNED FROM THE RESEARCH OF WISDOM?? The distinguishing characteristics of this new Fpost734A'G phase of interest in wisdom are methodological carefulness$ an empiric attempt to specify the mental factors in ol ed in wisdom F@altes$ <lZc6$ & ,unzmann (''(G$ and transdisciplinarity- As wisdom is a multidimensional construct$ there are many approaches to its study-

The EP" <roup:s @erlin 2isdom Paradigm Perhaps it is the idea of wisdom as e0pertise$ and its use as a heuristic that are the most original and suggesti e ideas to emerge from the @erlin wisdom paradigm- The idea of wisdom as an ability that can be assessed$ and culti ated as a distinct area of acti ity$ seems to represent the best of what methods of modern science can pro ide for contributing to better li es and a better world- FThe @alance Theory of Sternberg$ directed more toward action$ pro ides a complementary approach-G The biggest wea6ness of their approach is that it is focused on cognition$ Hwisdom7 related 6nowledge-I At best$ this is only a part of wisdom$ it omits an essential aspect+ if 6nowledge is not used$ it is not wisdom- There is nothing in their model that touches on this necessary feature of wisdom- 2isdom requires doing and being as well as 6nowing#onsidering wisdom as He0pertiseI is promising- HProceeding from a theoreticical definition of wisdom as Me!pert/le0el %nowledge- - -:I F@altes$ Staudinger$ Eaerc6er$ & Smith$ 344)+3))$ emphasis addedG is a problem- Perhaps$ as Sternberg F34A)+=(?7)G said in regard to studies of Himplicit theoriesI$ this approach is most useful as an entry into the study of wisdom(')

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

The ellipsis in the abo e definition of wisdom is supplied by the term Hin the fundamental pragmatics of life-I H*undamental pragmatics of lifeI is an interesting phrase- "t certainly escapes any urge toward romantic esotericism$ and ma6es consideration of meaning and interpretation of e0istence more of a down7to7business inquiry and craftli6e practice than a mystic quest- The three metacriteria are all negati e$ all about nuances$ uncertainty$ and relati ismThe influence that the study of e0pertise has had on the @erlin group is large- Their idea that age alone is not sufficient for bringing wisdom follows the Hage by e0perienceI paradigm of /ricsson & Smith F3443G- %ne difference$ of course$ between the e0pertise which the @erlin group patterns their model of wisdom performance on$ and wisdom as demonstrated by the people they test$ is that e0perts in the systems that ha e been studied generally require years of systematic training to reach that high le el$ whereas the wisdom people demonstrate is de eloped indirectly and almost certainly with no specific intent2hen Staudinger & Pasupathi F(''&+(?'G write that their research indicates that Hwisdom7related 6nowledge and Budgment - - - reaches a plateau around age ()I$ this raises a question about the alidity of the model$ as it seems that much e0perience is necessary in order to consider all the things needful for a wise decision- "n this regard$ Aristotle FNE 33?(a+3(73)G wrote that Halthough young people may be e0pert FsophoiG geometers and mathematicians and in such areas$ we do not consider a young person to be phronimos- The reason is that phron$sis also requires 6nowledge of particulars$ 6nown from e0periencePwhich a young man does not ha e-I Eembers of the EP" group ha e shown how the age7() plateau is simply the results of their research$ but " am still left thin6ing$ How can this be8 ('=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

%f @altes: F(''?+35G se en properties Hgenerally$ if not uni ersally$ accepted as inherent in any definition of wisdomI$ mentioned pre iously$ properties two through se en loo6 li6e glosses on property one- Perhaps in the first property$ the word HinterpretationI could be substituted for Hmeaning$I in order to a oid implying that the wise person has special insight into Hthe meaningI of e0istence- Oet this is not quite right either$ as any interpretation that qualifies as wise will be more than HanI interpretation+ it will be a particularly insightful interpretation$ one that is recognized Fby whom8G as insightful regarding what is most centralRegarding criticism of the @erlin wisdom paradigm$ wisdom defined as He0pert7 le el 6nowledge in the fundamental pragmatics of lifeI$ fundamental pragmatics considered as Hthe quintessential aspects of the human condition and human lifeI F@altes$ Staudinger$ Eaerc6er$ & Smith$ 344)+3))G as being e0clusi ely cogniti e or technique oriented Fe-g-$ the critique of the EP" group by #handler & Holliday$ 344'+3&'73&=9 and Ardelt$ (''?G it can be as6ed whether this e0pert7le el 6nowledge is possible without an ad anced moral character and de elopment of noncogniti e aspects of one:s personality$ emotions and social sensiti ity- #an one ha e ad anced 6nowledge of the quintessential aspects of e0istence and yet be unwise through lac6 of fellow7feeling or a flawed moral character8 @altes & Staudinger F('''G9 and @altes F(''?G addressed this specific question$ and as early as @altes & Smith F344'+3'5G$ the authors raised the question of Hwhether we should e0plicitly add this aspect Je0cellent characterK to our theoretical definition-I "n the 3445 study of Staudinger$ ;opez$ & @altes$ comparing the influence on results of testing for wisdom of a large number of intelligence$ personality$ and intelligence7personality interface factors$ the authors concluded that "n our iew$ these results indicate that wisdom7related performance$ as we ha e construed it$ is not Bust another measure of cogniti e ability or a measure that ('5

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

e0clusi ely focuses on the cogniti e side of wisdom- - - - %ur conception of wisdom7related 6nowledge and Budgment and its operationalization is more closely related to measures of personality and of the personality7intelligence interface than to intelligence Fp- 3('4GTheir results to date show that wisdom is an e0ception to other mental abilities in that it remains the same$ and possibly increases throughout adulthood rather than declines9 and responses to the difficult hypothetical situations by which they e aluate the testee:s Hwisdom7related 6nowledgeI are generally rated higher if the tas6 concerns a person of the same age group as the respondentThe idea of wisdom as He0pertise in li ingI opens up rich istas for isualizing possibilities for a better life- ;i6e ars 0i0endi$ it is a lapidary description that spea6s olumes- H/0pertiseI unfortunately is not HartI$ and wisdom may ultimately be closer to the latter- @ut for contemporary #omo sapiens the term He0pertiseI has ad antages and HartI has wea6 or negati e connotations- FSee Staudinger$ 3444a$ HSocial #ognition and a Psychological Approach To an Art of ;ifeI-G Horn & Easunaga F('''+(=?7)G write that wisdom His ery close to what is described as e0pertiseI in that it in ol es a comple0 and detailed representation of a situation and its integration with comple0 and detailed 6nowledge of pre ious e0perienceTrying to tease out the specific antecedents of wisdom is a nice problem that the EP" group has been wor6ing on- *or e0ample$ Staudinger$ Eaciel$ et al- F344AG$ find that the greatest predicti e factor for wisdom7related scores was profession$ with personality characteristics somewhat less predicti e$ and intelligence less still- Oet$ as they note$ $ longitudinal studies will be necessary Hto disentangle whether e0periential conte0t or personality set7up has primacyI Fp- 3?G"t was interesting that in the first published empirical study of wisdom by the EP" group FStaudinger$ 34A4+3=3G$ found that responses to the difficult life situation question ('A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Hmay be under certain conditions further away from an indi idual:s competenceI than responses to supplemental questions- Oet this hint was not followed up in any way until Staudinger & @altes F344=G e0amined the effect that consultation with another person Feither physically or in mental con ersationG might ha e on scores- There they concluded that Hany performance setting that ignores the interacti e7minds aspect of wisdom clearly underestimates wisdom7related performance capacityI Fp- 5)AG- Smith$ Staudinger$ & @altes F344?+44=G had pointed out that the response format might not be ideal for generating Hthe highest le el of performance a ailableI- The finding that the Standard condition contributed a quite small percent of the highest scores$ and on a erage was significantly below the scores for E!ternal dialogue plus and Internal dialogue$ is particularly noteworthy$ as all the earlier participants in the studies of the @erlin group responded in the Standard condition"n Staudinger & @altes F344=G$ it was found that participants scored higher if they were able to consult with another person$ e en if this was only a mental consultation- "n real life$ a person might want to spend e0tended time considering the problem$ and consulting different people and sources- Some people are undoubtedly better at using the a ailable resources than others$ and this is an important factor in the le el of their wisdom responses- @ut why stop at brief consultation with a single person8 The question arises of tutoring people in wisdom- 2hat about training people to become s6illful in approaching difficult situations through the ) criteria8 Perhaps they would still not be wise$ but they would certainly become wiser- There is also the possibility of assessing the wisdom of decisions reached by a group$ rather than by an indi idual after consultation Fp- 5?4G-

('4

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Are there aspects of wisdom that are not being noticed in the fi e criteria8 FSee page A4 in this document for the fi e criteria-G #onsider Smith$ Staudinger$ & @altes F344?G$ in which young and old clinical psychologists ga e responses for problems faced by young and old fictional people- The young psychologists scored higher in their responses to the problem faced by a young person$ and scored about the same as old psychologists for the problem faced by an old person- @ut in general$ can an old person count on the same quality of understanding from a young psychologist as / can from an older one8 As the ) criteria correlate with each other Fand Smith & @altes$ 344'+)'($ write that HTheoretically$ we e0pected a fair degree of homogeneity$ inasmuch as we consider each rating criterion to be assessing an aspect of the general concept$ wisdom-IG$ it might be possible to de elop a simplified test for measuring wisdom7related 6nowledge by using one of the e0pertise criteria and one of the metacriteria- The highest scores on the wisdom scale ha e been consistently attained by the raters- "t might be worthwhile to s6ip the e0periment and report the raters: responsesRegarding hypothetical dilemmas+ a wise response is acutely sensiti e to the nuances of the situation$ and is li6ely to be unique in addressing the situation:s uniqueness9 presenting people with hypothetical situations may miss wisdom altogether#f- Aristotle:s statement in EN 33'4a(=7(A$ that Hany one can get angry- - - @ut to get angry at the right time$ and for the right purpose$ and in the right wayPthis is not within e eryone:s power and is not easy-I A response for a hypothetical situation is not the same as for a unique actual one"n discussing the highest scores$ at least through 344=$ the top (' or () percent of the performers in the particular e0periment are considered- Staudinger & @altes (3'

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

F344=+5)=G write that H@ecause we reser e the label wise for only the highest performances$ it is of interest to pay special attention to the upper range of performance F@altes & Staudinger$ 344&G- As in past wor6$ we used a top7('[ criterion-I "f wise people are the interest$ we are relati ely less interested in who might ha e been among the highest scorers on a particular test- Scores are figured on a 57point scale$ from the a erage score on the fi e criteria- How many people ha e attained scores abo e )-'8 F"n the 344) study$ nobody did-G The protocols of high scorers may contain rich insights into the thought processes of people high in wisdom7related 6nowledge$ but they ha e been reported only in ery fragmentary formAgain$ the EP" researchers single out the highest (' percent of the scores$ rather than the highest absolute scores- "n a couple of their reports FStaudinger & @altes$ 344=+5=(9 Eaerc6er$ @_hmig7,rumhaar$ & Staudinger$ 344A+3(G$ researchers from the EP" group ha e included e0cerpts of typical high7rated responses$ and a more phenomenological loo6 at the responses might be interesting- " am puzzled as to why the highest percentages are always considered$ and the highest absolute scores seldom considered$ that is$ a detailed loo6 at the one or two highest scorers- After all$ if this test is to be of use beyond the @erlin group:s e0periments$ it needs to be able to assess the wisdom of respondents against some absolute scale$ not only in relation to other people who were tested at the same time- *or e0ample$ in Staudinger & @altes F344=G$ there were se eral a erage scores abo e )-' for each of the fi e conditions$ whereas in @altes et al- F344)G$ there was not one$ although that group included older clinical psychologists and distinguished people who had been nominated as wise by a 6nowledgeable group of Bournalists- So this group of randomly7selected participants seems to ha e performed

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

higher than people whose training and whose li es should ha e facilitated the de elopment of wisdom#omparing the scores with the pre ious e0periments$ the wisdom nominees and the old clinical psychologists in @altes$ Staudinger$ et al- F344)G$ scored lower for conte0tualism and relati ism than did all groups Fyoung$ middle7aged$ and older professionals$ but not psychologistsG in Smith & @altes F344'G- "n Staudinger$ Smith$ & @altes F344(G$ young clinical psychologists a eraged about &-= for their responses to the two life re iew problems$ and old clinical psychologists a eraged about &-)- "n @altes$ Staudinger$ et al- F344)G$ the scores for the criterion Awareness and Eanagement of !ncertainty were not printed with the others in the graph$ Hbecause of floor effectsI Fp3=&G- "n Staudinger et al- F344(G$ also$ scores for !ncertainty were ery much lower than for the other four criteria- "n Smith$ Staudinger$ & @altes F344?G$ the a erage wisdom score for young psychologists for the two wisdom7related problems was ?-'$ and for the old psychologists it was &-5- Scores for the !ncertainty criterion tended to be slightly lower than for the other criteria$ but roughly the same as for scores for the Calue relati ism criterion- The report concludes with the statement that Hwe now thin6 that such a low production le el Ji-e-$ low scoresK may also reflect the limitations of a single7person paradigm when applied to bodies of 6nowledge that ha e a strong interacti e7social featureI Fp- 3=)G"n @altes$ Staudinger$ et al- F344)G$ the composite scores of eminent people specifically nominated for their wisdom barely attained an Ha erageI le el- This seems to be a sign that what is being measured may not be the same as actual wisdom- "n this particular case$ the standard might be the people nominated as wise rather than any rating system- Dust as if a theory contradicts popular opinion it is the theory that needs to be (3(

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

defended F,e6es$ 344)+3&G$ if the scoring rubrics classify eminent wisdom nominees as barely a erage$ it is time to ta6e a loo6 at the scoring systemStaudinger & @altes F344=+5?AG mention that scores on their 57point rating scale are quite low$ e en for people e0pected to perform highly+ median results to that time were &-'?$ with a standard de iation of 3-'APasupathi & Staudinger F(''3+?'5G note that their study of wisdom and moral reasoning is the first study that has been done He0ploring a threshold relationship between wisdom7related performance and moral reasoning-I The alidity of the results$ of course$ depends on the ability of the researchers: measure of wisdom to actually measure wisdom-

Sternberg:s @alance Theory Sternberg:s @alance Theory is not$ any more than the others$ an all7inclusi e modelTheoretical or metaphysical wisdom is not represented$ nor is Ec,ee & @arber:s F3444G definition of wisdom as Hseeing through illusionI$ nor /ri6son:s F3445+=3G notion of wisdom as Hinformed and detached concern with life itself in the face of death itself-I >or does the @alance Theory include the sort of intrapsychic balance that Ardelt F(''&$ following #layton & @irren$ 34A'G defined wisdom by- Sternberg F344A+&)&G writes that Hthe balances proposed by the theory are in the interaction between a person and his or her conte0t$ rather than$ say$ in internal systems of functioning Fsuch as cogniti e$ conati e$ and affecti eG-I "n fact$ although HThe definition of wisdom proposed here- - draws both on the notion of tacit 6nowledge- - - and on the notion of balanceI F&)&G$ it seems to ha e little connection with any other theories on wisdom- References to philosophers are more rare in Sternberg than che6 Ardelt$ where they are scarce(3&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

The lac6 of connection with the tradition of thought regarding wisdom is not necessarily a problem+ the @alance Theory does not contradict traditional definitions$ there is o erlap in the conceptual space between this theory and traditional ones$ and humans ha e not ad anced so far in de eloping our wisdom that we need cling to past guides- There are three difficulties " see with the @alance Theory of 2isdom- *irst$ 2hy should wisdom be a person7conte0t balance8 Perhaps it is a balance$ but why8 A rationale for defining wisdom this way is ne er gi en- "n HA @alance Theory of 2isdomI F344A+&)AG$ Sternberg mentions that the importance of balance is noted in philosophical conceptions of wisdom$ especially #hinese- @ut a general reference is not epistemological BustificationThe second difficulty concerns what is meant by Ha common good-I 2hat are the standards for determining a common good8 and if ad hoc agreement of all rele ant sta6eholders is to be the standard Fwhich is problematic but defensibleG$ this should be made e0plicit- The only guidance Sternberg gi es is to state Hone see6s a common good$ realizing that this common good may be better for some than for othersI Fp- &))G- He mentions Fp- &='G the superiority of decisions that ha e a more inclusi e accountability to rele ant sta6eholders- He declines to discuss what is meant by good$ Hbelie ing such questions to be better dealt with by moral philosophy and religion-I @ut if he has nothing to say about it$ why ma6e Ha common goodI the goal of wisdom8 Again and again we see statements such as H2isdom see6s out a good through a balancing of interestsI Fp- &)4GThen Sternberg says he is not going to discuss what he means by good$ because that is the pro ince of moral philosophers or theologians- He does not say why wisdom see6s a good through balancing interests- "t is hard to see where this theory gets any traction- 2e

(3?

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

end up with the same lac6 of epistemological Bustification that plagues the philosophers who discuss wisdomA common good is often contrasted with concern for one:s own good$ or that of a narrow group Fe-g-$ p- &&)G$ and in his tal6 at the Positi e Psychology >etwor6 F(''(bG$ Sternberg seems to indicate that the HcommonI in common good is up to the indi idual to define+ H"t could be your uni ersity$ it could be your community$ it could be your family$ it could be your society$ it could be <od$ whate er$ but it:s something that goes beyond Bust indi iduals as indi iduals-I ;ater$ Sternberg F(''&a+&45G writes that aiming for a common good Hmeans that one e0tends one:s field of ision beyond oneself$ one:s immediate family$ or the particular groups with which one identifies-I This lea es many questions- Are there circumstances that ma6e it appropriate$ or wise$ to limit the circle8 Since Sternberg often uses the e0ample of Hitler$ Stalin$ or Eilose ic$ among othersPare there particular requirements for those whose decisions affect an entire nation$ or e en the globe$ that differ from the considerations in regard to a common good that pri ate indi iduals need to as68 "f so$ what are the balances8 "n pointing out that Hthis common good may be better for some than for othersI Fp- &))G$ he says no more about this critical pointA third difficulty is the relation that alues ha e to wisdom in this model- "n spea6ing of alues$ Sternberg F344A+&)=G again e0presses diffidence+ H" do not belie e it is the mission of psychology$ as a discipline$ to specify what the common good is or what alues should be brought to bear in what proportion toward its attainment- Such specifications are perhaps more the Bob of religion of moral philosophyI- He does note a similarity between this theory and the two highest stages of moral de elopment as concei ed by ,ohlberg$ although wisdom includes more than moral reasoning- He writes (3)

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

that HPeople ha e different alues mediating their utilization of tacit 6nowledge in the balancing of interests and responsesI Fp- &)5G- "t would be worth e0ploring whether the alues of wise people tend to be similar or e en the same- Sternberg F(''&+3)5G obser es that Hthere seem to be certain core alues that are common to the world:s great ethical systems and religions-I @ut the relation of alues and wisdom seems to be more integral than what is suggested by the @alance Theory$ in which the goal is a common good- 2ith the pro iso that there Hseem to be certain core alues that are commonI$ alues are considered to be idiosyncratic$ as HPeople ha e different alues mediating their utilization of intelligence and creati ity in the balancing of interests and responsesI to produce a wise outcome Fp- 3)=G- ;ater$ Sternberg F(''?d+3==75G$ he writes 2hat constitutes appropriate balancing of interests$ an appropriate response to the en ironment$ and e en the common good hinges on aluesCalues$ therefore$ are an integral part of wise thin6ing- The question arises as to Mwhose alues8: Although different maBor religions and other widely accepted systems of alues may differ in details$ they seem to ha e in common certain uni ersal alues- - - The question of Mwhose alues$: though$ can become a red herring- 2hen world leaders such as Stalin or Hitler or Eilose ic act in ways that directly contradict these alues$ only the most cynical indi idual could belie e they are doing so in the ser ice of the common goodTo posit Ha common goodI as the goal of wise action is to ta6e a position in regard to alues$ a position that seems to be in basic conflict with liberal societies such as the !nited States$ which is e0plicitly formed to allow indi iduals to pursue their own particular notions of happiness- DuprW F344&+5'3G writes that Hthe liberal idea of rights$ dispensing with any definition of the common good$ pro ides the 6ind of unembarrassed freedom needed for indi iduals with di ergent and often incompatible goals to pursue their sundry interests-I "n response to a paper presented at the #ommonweal #olloquium$ Eansbridge F('''G mentions Htraditional theories that simply asserted that Menlightened self7interest: is congruent with the public goodI$ for e0ample those of Aquinas$ Hume (3=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

and Tocque ille- She goes on to describe ways and situations in which the common good can still be achie ed$ for e0ample through incenti es that are not self7interestedSternberg seems to be aware of the need for a fuller treatment of alues in his theory- "n F(''3a+(&(7&$ (&5G$ he appears to be struggling with this question$ without ma6ing much progress9 and F(''&aG offers nothing new- This is not an issue that can be resol ed in a day$ and Sternberg:s careful use of language shows the 6ind of delicacy needed in the underta6ing- "n his tal6 H2isdom$ Schooling$ and SocietyI F(''(bG Sternberg says$ concerning his middle7school curriculum for helping students to thin6 wisely$ that it attempts to gi e students a framewor6 in which to de elop their alues+ Hseeing things from others: perspecti es as well as one:s own$ and thin6ing not Bust about one:s interests but also about a common good-I Since Sternberg F344A+&)5G writes that different people may gi e different importance to different elements that are balanced$ HbalanceI should perhaps be understood primarily in the sense of HweighingI$ or Hta6ing into account-I #oncerning the basis for the @alance Theory$ Sternberg F344A+&)'G writes that HEy earlier theory is incorporated into the balance theory as specifying antecedent sources of de elopmental and indi idual differencesI$ and ob iously Sternberg:s e0tensi e research into intelligence and creati ity also contributed- "n H2"#S+ A Eodel of ;eadership in %rganizationsI F(''&a+3)'G$ he states that the balance theory of wisdom e0pands on other theories that emphasize different types of integration or balance for wisdom$ citing three of the articles from the olume of which he was editor in 344'$ as well as four articles by the EP" group- "t differs from these in the particular 6inds of balance it identifies- "n H2ords to the 2ise About 2isdom8I F(''&c+3&3G$ Sternberg says H%ur wor6 on wisdom is relati ely recent FSternberg$ 344A$ (''(aG and is ery much Mwor67in7 (35

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

progress:9 we are currently de eloping and alidating arious assessments of wisdom-I They ha e de ised twenty7four problems for assessing participants: wisdom by presenting them with fictional scenarios describing difficult situations FSternberg$ (''&a+3)4G$ as does the @altes group$ and ,ohlberg before them- Sternberg does not indicate how scoring will be done$ but in H2"#S+ A Eodel of ;eadership in %rganizationsI F(''&aG states that they are currently assessing alidity$ and in describing the middle school7le el 2isdom7Related #urriculum in F(''3a+(?3G H2hy Schools Should Teach *or 2isdom+ The @alance Theory of 2isdom in /ducational SettingsI Fas well as (''&a+3537(G$ writes that students: responses to similar fictional difficult situations will be rated on a 57point ;i6ert scale for their quality in regard to se en criteria- A comparison of this with the scoring criteria used by the @altes group$ as described$ among other places$ in @altes & Smith F344'+4473'?G$ is instructi e-( To an obBection that his concept of wisdom His o erloaded and heterogeneousI$ Sternberg F(''?b+333G replied HThe definition of wisdom posed in 2"#S FSternberg (''&aG contains what " belie e to be the essential elements$ nothing more$ nothing less-I

Ardelt:s Three Dimensional Eodel Eoni6a Ardelt:s F('''$ (''?G &7dimensional model of wisdom is based on the research of #layton & @irren 34A' Fshe also mentions ,ramer F344'G on one occasion$ and on another He0plicit wisdom theories from the /astern wisdom traditionsIG- Ardelt
(

Sternberg:s se en criteria are 3- Demonstration of attempt to reach a common good$ (- @alancing of intrapersonal$ interpersonal$ and e0trapersonal interests$ &- Ta6ing into account both short7 and long7term factors$ ?- Dustification for adaptation to$ shaping of$ and selection of en ironments$ )- Eindful use of alues$ =- % erall quality FwisdomG of process of solution$ 5- % erall quality FwisdomG of the solution itselfThe @altes group:s fi e criteria are 3- Rich factual 6nowledge$ (- Rich procedural 6nowledge$ &;ifespan conte0tualism$ ?- Relati ism FH6nowledge about differences in indi idual and cultural goals$ alues$ and prioritiesI$ )- !ncertainty FH6nowledge about the relati e indeterminacy and unpredictability of life-IG

(3A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

F(''&+(55G defines wisdom as a personality characteristic$ Han integration of cogniti e$ reflecti e$ and affecti e dimensions-I She mentions that this has the ad antage of parsimoniousness$ and that it Hseems to be compatible with most of the definitions found in the ancient and contemporary wisdom literatureI FArdelt$ (''?+(5?G- Such a casual approach to a definition may be adequate for some purposes9 for the construct of wisdom to become truly useful as a uni ersal standard or model for impro ing the quality of decisions or as a path to the good life$ it probably needs to be more rigorously based2isdom 6nowledge His timeless and independent of scientific ad ancements or political and historical fluctuations because it pro ides uni ersal answers to uni ersal questions that concern the basic predicaments of the human conditionI FArdelt ('''a+554G- >onetheless$ an important qualification seems to be to recognize that human understanding of e0istence may be rudimentary still$ and a glimpse of the history of thought regarding wisdom does show fluctuations and e olution- 2e are not li6ely to claim to be wiser than Socrates$ Plato$ or Aristotle$ and yet there are some statements about wisdom made by each that are unli6ely to meet with our agreement- "t is unli6ely that there will be widespread agreement today that Hwisdom is re erenceI$ sapientia pietas FAugustine$ Enchiridion$ 3-(G$ although that iew held for about a thousand years in the 2est- >ot all masters agree about what wisdom is- 2hile writing that Hwisdom7 related 6nowledge is timelessI$ Ardelt:s own research on wisdom begins with /ri6son F34=&G$ and is pretty much confined to the psychological literature e0cept for ,e6es F34A&$ 344)G@y basing her definition of wisdom on #layton:s wor6$ a limited understanding of wisdom results$ in addition to the limitations pro ided by the selection and measurement of the indicators- She writes that HReflecti e thin6ing and a diminished ego7centeredness (34

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

lead to a deeper comprehension of the contradictions$ imperfections$ and negati e aspects of human nature$ a process that is li6ely to ma6e a person more caring$ empathic$ and compassionate toward othersI F3445+P3=G- "t seems Bust as li6ely that it wor6s the other way around$ that the starting point is caring and empathy$ or that there is a sort of spiral progression- Eaybe some people$ at least$ begin with caring- Then awareness of great and needless suffering leads to more reflection$ to a search for understanding and solace from the great moral teachers$ and then to increased caring and questioning- This leads to recognition of the limits of one:s ability to do good and pre ent suffering$ e en for oneselfArdelt:s F3445+P3=G understanding of wisdom is narrow- HThe question for wisdom$ howe er$I she writes$ His ne er completed because to be totally liberated from one:s subBecti ity and proBections is an ideal state that is seldom reached- The criterion for wisdom$ therefore$ is how close people come to this ideal stateI- / en if one were as liberated as possible from subBecti ity and proBections$ / would still need a great store of e0perience and 6nowledge$ and higher7order mental functioning$ to be able to ma6e the best choice- Such e0pertise seems to ha e no place e en in her construal of the cogniti e component of wisdom$ as she writes F('''+&=3G that this component Hrefers to the ability to see the truth$ that is$ to percei e reality as it is and not as one wants it to be-I This narrowness is still in e idence in (''?$ when she writes H" propose that the term Mwisdom: should be reser ed for the wisdom of peopleI F(''?+(='G- This appears to be a case of Taranto:s F34A4+3'G Ha theorist espousing wisdom of one 6ind$ while ignoring other types-I Restricting use of the term HwisdomI to people is not$ of course$ how Socrates or Aristotle thought of wisdom$ and it is probably too late now to limit the application of the (('

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

term- And there is no need to do so- "t is useful to spea6 of the wisdom of particular acts$ and here is where the @erlin model offers an ad antage- "n proposing this restriction on the use of the term$ Ardelt F(''?+()4G is arguing against the EP" group:s claim that indi iduals are Hwea6 carriersI of wisdom$ and that wisdom can most fully be found in written materials- She does not bring up the case whether an action can be termed wise or not$ and so she ma6es her case more inclusi e than is necessary$ lea ing no room in which one can spea6 of the wisdom of an actionArdelt writes F('''a+555G that Hwisdom7related 6nowledge searches for answers to the meaning and purpose of life and the human situation in particular-I "t might be more accurate to say that wisdom7related 6nowledge Hsearches for answers to the nature of e0istence and its significance for humans-I Ardelt notes F3445+P()G that Hwe cannot be completely sure at this point that a combination of cogniti e$ reflecti e$ and affecti e qualities is indeed a measure of wisdom-I The idea that wisdom can be assessed indirectly$ through assessing its cogniti e$ affecti e$ and reflecti e components$ assumes that these components are a reasonable indicator of wisdom-

Phenomenological study At the conclusion of their quantitati e study$ Ta6ahashi & % erton F(''(+(5=G$ write that HDesigning a qualitati e measure with questions from real7life e ents of research participants - - - is a iable option-I "n their phenomenological study$ Eontgomery$ @arber$ & Ec,ee F(''(G mention the role of phenomenological research as a chec6 on empirical studies$ and as being chec6ed by them- Phenomenological research might also ser e as a source for deeper analysis of the implications and ((3

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

significance of the participants: e0perience- The authors describe phenomenological research as allowing the phenomena under consideration to spea6 for itself$ the researcher being careful to a oid imposing hir preconceptions on the e0perience$ HMpatiently dwelling: on what has been said$ sometimes magnifying detailsI Fp- 3?'G$ attempting to capture the essence$ which$ it is belie ed$ can be communicated"t is difficult to 6now how generally alid are the thoughts of the participants in a phenomenological study- "n quantitati e research$ if you gi e people a certain number of adBecti es to rate on a ;i6ert7type scale$ you can report that the adBecti es were rated in such7and7such an order$ and which adBecti es were most associated with wisdom- @ut in such as study as Eontgomery et al- F(''(G$ the researcherFsG need to interpret the material- The same is true for the quantified adBecti es+ the significance needs to be interpreted9 but at least on the surface$ things are much more cut and dried- And so " felt dissatisfied upon finishing Eontgomery et al- F(''(G$ wanting more and deeper analysis from the researchers- Eore of that HMpatiently dwelling: on what has been saidI$ which$ unfortunately$ they did not share- Euch of their rather brief report consists of unreflected7 on e0cerpts from the participantsSe eral of the fi e essential elements of wisdom that Eontgomery et al- F(''(G identified seem to admit of$ if not require$ further clarification$ indicating a difficulty with phenomenological research$ but not only of this type of method+ the same reser ation can be made of #layton & @irren:s F34A'G and Holliday & #handler:s F34A=G categories- The point Eontgomery et al- F(''(G ma6e regarding some of their findings$ which do not seem to ha e been reported in earlier research Fi-e-$ the gradual re ealing of the wisdom of an action$ their respondents: association of wisdom with close relationships$ and the confronting of mista6es as aspects of wisdomG$ is an indicator of the strengths of (((

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

phenomenological research- At the same time$ their own description of the H<uidanceI dimension of wisdom that they found is not clear- 2hat is discussed in the section on guidance seems little related to guidance@luc6 and <lZc6 F(''?+)?)G state that qualitati e research on wisdom is as important as quantitati e$ and their own studies ha e e0amined the wisdom e ents that participants identify as ha ing occurred in their own li es- ;e itt:s F3444G phenomenological study of Tibetan mon6s is$ oddly$ the least personal of the thirty7three studies- There were few references made to personal e0periences or personal iews9 rather wisdom$ @uddhist study$ and learning$ were discussed in general-

"mplicit theories Sternberg F34A)+=()$ and elsewhereG states that implicit theories are useful as a preliminary aid to de eloping an e0plicit theory$ and as helping to correct e0plicit theories- Holliday & #handler F34A=+&=G propose that Hpeople:s informal conceptions may pro e to be a particularly important source of information for de eloping a comprehensi e psychological theory of wisdom-I To call the notions that a erage people ha e regarding wisdom HtheoriesI seems a bit grandiose- >one of the studies of implicit notions ha e tal6ed with people to determine in detail what their understanding of wisdom is$ on what it is based$ and what part it plays in their day to day li es- >one of the respondents ha e been people who ha e spent years in the pursuit of wisdom and who 6now the path$ the struggles and pitfalls$ and can describe the insights into themsel es and others that one gains from iewing e0istence from the perspecti e of wisdom- These studies are not$ ultimately$ about wisdom$ but about the opinions people ha e of wisdom- They may be important ((&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

preliminaries to research into wisdom$ and they do help us get Ha lay of the landI$ as Sternberg F34A)+=(?G says- "f it is meant to imply an essential similarity between the opinions a erage people hold about wisdom and those held by those who ha e specialized in its study$ it is confusing the issue to say that H/0plicit theories deri e$ in large part$ from implicit theories of the scientists formulating the e0plicit theoriesI FSternberg 344'+3?&G- Such e0plicit theories are e0pected to ha e been corrected and de eloped through much study and thought$ and subBected to rules of logic and critical thin6ing- The obBection to use of common opinions as much more than a chec6 on theories$ or as demographic opinion sur eys$ is not based on the li6elihood of common opinions and He0pertI opinions both starting from an inner sense$ but on what is done or not done with the original intuition- "t is true$ as ,e6es writes F344)+3&G$ that a theoretical definition that contradicts popular beliefs must pro ide H ery strong argumentsI for doing so9 but his caution only means that popular conceptions act as a starting point and chec6 on theoretical speculation- To base a theory of wisdom on popular opinions$ other than as a temporary e0pedient$ is to base the theory on superficial and uninformed ideasSuch a theory cannot help but be incomplete and misleadingSmith & @altes F344'+?4)G write that H2e postulate that the 6nowledge system associated with wisdom is represented as a latent construct on a societal le el-I @ut how much time do people gi e to thin6ing about wisdom or about people who are wise8 "f they ne er gi e any thought to this$ and all their notions are pic6ed up in passing$ what is gained by presenting them with the term and as6ing them to describe it8 "t is ery li6e a forced choice situation and doesn:t tell us what wisdom actually means to the respondent%rwoll & Perlmutter F344'+35'seq"G report a study in which participants were as6ed to name actual people they consider wise$ an approach li6ely to yield useful information ((?

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

complementary to studies of implicit theories that as6 about wisdom in the abstract Fe-g-$ #layton & @irren$ 34A'9 Sternberg$ 34A)9 and Holliday & #handler 34A=G- The questions about the nominees were so general as to be of limited use Ftheir age$ gender$ and educational bac6groundG$ and their simplicity is in strong contrast to the sophisticated theorizing of the rest of their article- This may be an indication of the difficulty of planning and carrying out empirical research on wisdomThe study of implicit theories of wisdom has e ol ed o er the years$ but as they are still being used it should be helpful to consider the thirteen studies of implicit wisdom together$ to see what was being done in them$ and what has been learned- Together they form a genre- %ther than the wisdom7as7e0pertise approach of the EP" group$ this was the only approach " am aware of that was ta6en until 3445$ when Ardelt$ and 2in6 & Helson$ published the results of their research"n recommending the study of implicit theories$ Oang F(''3+==?G writes that H!nderstanding how conceptions of wisdom are e0pressed through daily communication and social interactions may constitute the 6ey to understanding the concept of wisdom-I Although it depends on what we are attempting to understand regarding wisdom$ this statement is probably incorrect- #onsider wisdom at its most general manifestation$ as 6nowledge of how to lead a good life$ the ability to ma6e sound Budgment Fand actually doing soG- All people are li6ely to alue this$ at least at some critical moments- Oet most of us$ most of the time$ alue things that are more immediate and more tangible- *ew ha e spent enough time studying and pursuing wisdom to be able to understand what is in ol ed with any degree of adequacy- The concept arises through the e0periences of the many$ but the e0perts are few- "t is to them that we can most profitably loo6 for 6nowledge about wisdom and its practice(()

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

%ne question in regard to all such studies is the reliability of randomly7chosen people to contribute much to the understanding of wisdom- Sternberg raised this question in his 34A) article and attempted to pro ide an answer by administering tests of social and of cogniti e intelligence to thirty adults$ then as6ing them to fill out the second questionnaire from the first study$ rating the beha iors on a characteristic7uncharacteristic scalePbut as the beha iors applied to themsel es- "t was found that the intelligence beha iors correlated with scores on tests of cogniti e intelligence$ and wisdom beha iors correlated with scores regarding social intelligence$ showing that the approach has Hat least some e0ternal alidityI- The approach of basing a definition on the opinions people ha e of wisdom$ howe er$ does point to an important consideration+ for a concept with such deep cultural meanings$ and such a long history$ a definition that will be adequate for ma6ing wisdom a goal for human beha ior that can be used perhaps uni ersally$ cannot be based on the ideas of any single person For group$ for that matterG- The inducti e approach used by researchers who gather the implicit conceptions people ha e of wisdom can possibly be used in a modified way$ by gathering the opinions of people who ha e concerned themsel es seriously with the question of what wisdom is$ o er the centuries$ and in all cultures- This is only the beginning of the process$ howe er$ as a sensiti e understanding will be needed about what their ideas actually meant in the conte0t of their culture and timeAlthough they state that their procedure Hmay not be the ideal method for studying implicit theoriesI Fp- ??G$ Denney$ Dew$ & ,roupa:s F344)G study pro ides insight into these questions Fi-e-$ going beyond forced choiceG$ as participants were as6ed to identify their relation to the persons they nominated as most wise and as most interpersonally ((=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

wise- There was a significant tendency to identify the same person as both$ and for both categories of wisdom$ o er half of all participants nominated a spouse or parentFActually only ?A-?[ of the males nominated spouse$ father or mother as wisest-G The specific areas of the wisdom of the wisest person 6nown to them also gi es some idea of what is in people:s minds when they are as6ed about wisdom- "f a female was nominated$ by either a male or a female$ almost half the time it was for her interpersonal s6ills- "f a male was nominated$ in slightly o er one quarter of the cases it was for interpersonal s6ills- "f a male was nominated by either a male or female$ a little o er one third of the time it was for Hspecific s6illsI$ such as education$ business$ spirituality$ politics$ or mechanical things- Slightly o er one7fifth of the female nominees were selected for these reasons- The other maBor category$ for about one7fifth of the nominees by either males or females$ was HgeneralI$ referring to Hlife$ world issues$ all areas$ e erythingI Fp- ?(G"n #layton:s study F#layton & @irren$ 34A'G$ with only 3) descriptors$ all of them identified beforehand with wisdom$ might it not ha e been possible to arrange them in the three groupings Fcogniti e$ affecti e$ reflecti eG without doing any test8 At any rate$ the alue of this first empirical study of wisdom lies in its suggesti eness"n estigations of the notions people hold of concepts such as intelligence$ creati ity$ and wisdom$ Sternberg F34A)G writes$ are useful for the subsequent de elopment of e0plicit theories- They also help us to understand what people actually mean by these terms$ and to ascertain how close e0plicit theories are to the ideas people hold9 and they can identify aspects of the concept that are not being included in e0plicit theories- HThus$ the study of implicit theories Ji-e-$ the notions people hold in regard to the conceptK is not

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merely an easy substitute for the formation and study of e0plicit theories of psychological constructsI Fp- =()GThe series of e0periments in Sternberg F34A)G seems rather ingenious- 2e identify aG 2hat a erage educated people thin6 of as wisebG How a person rates hirself in regard to the characteristics identified in aGcG How responses in @ score in regard to the prototypical wise person from aG FHrIGdG How HrI correlates with scores on tests of social intelligenceeG As HrI correlates well with this$ Hthe wisdom scale seems to come closest to measuring s6ills that are traditionally measured by tests of social intelligence For social competenceGI This tells us aG+ what a erage people thin6 wisdom is$ and bG+ how people:s self7 ratings in regard to aG- correlate with their scores on tests of social intelligence- "t turns out that social intelligence correlates fairly well with wisdom- This is not une0pected$ it is generally in line with statements by philosophers and religious writers on wisdom- #an we say that now$ at last$ we ha e empirical e idence for this correlation8 Eaybe$ although Staudinger$ ;opez$ & @altes F3445+3(3'G found little correlation of wisdom7 related performance with social intelligence+ H"t was surprising to us that neither of the two social intelligence measures emerged as a strong predictor of wisdom7related performance-I Sternberg F34A)+=()G states that the results of implicit studies can be helpful in de eloping an e0plicit theory of wisdom- The usefulness of relying entirely on the notions a erage people ha e of wisdom for de eloping a theory of wisdom seems questionable$ but there seems no reason to ta6e a purist or elitist attitude- "f we can get results that are useful for helping people li e better li es from studies that are a bit rough$ ((A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

that:s fine- 2e can refine the research later+ the crucial step is to get started- The doubt arises from the fact that wisdom is profound and a rare quality- How completely$ how adequately$ can a erage people inform us about it8 2isdom is a term that is fairly commonly used9 if we as6 a person what he or she considers it to mean$ / can probably pro ide a rough idea- Then we can determine how closely people match the prototype that emerges- @y studying in depth those who approach the prototype$ we could learn something about the e0periences and attitudes that helped ma6e them wise$ and identify the traits such people e0press$ their beliefs and perspecti es$ alues and decision7ma6ing strategies- These real7life embodiments of the characteristics identified with wisdom in the abstract$ could help us identify the person characterics and the e0ternal goals towards which wisdom aims$ and help us figure out how to help others become wise- This is to wor6 from the opposite direction than suggested by Ec,ee & @arber F3444+3?473)'G$ who described Ha dialectic between a7priori and empirical definitionsI$ in which an e0plicit theory is first put forth and then tested and re isedThe study that Holliday & #handler F34A=G reported is ery similar to Sternberg:s F34A)G Prestudy and /0periments 3 and (- Sternberg found three dimensions to account for A5 percent of the ariance in the data$ and two polar interpretations for each- Holliday & #handler found fi e general factors of wisdom$ accounting for ?3 percent of the ariance- These are+ e0ceptional understanding$ Budgment and communication s6ills$ general competencies$ interpersonal s6ills$ and social unobtrusi eness- These are somewhat similar$ but what does it mean that these only accounted for ?3[ of the ariance$ and Sternberg:s accounted for A5[ of the ariance8 "t is frustrating that none of the researchers who ha e in estigated a erage people:s conceptions of wisdom ha e compared them with the characteristics that philosophers ((4

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

ha e identified as comprising wisdom- @ut then$ so far as " 6now$ none of the philosophers ha e paid attention to the studies coming from psychology$ e0cept for Aleida Assmann F344?G$ and ,e6es: F344)G dismissi e noteAs part of their first study$ Dason$ et al- F(''3G as6ed ?& people to name the wisest li ing person they 6new$ whether personally or not$ and to gi e an e0ample of the person:s wisdom and the qualities that made hir wise- Ardelt adopted a ery similar procedure in the test of her instrument for measuring wisdom$ in which participants were as6ed to nominate a person they considered to be wise$ e0plain why they considered hir to be wise$ and identify the specific characteristics that made hir wise in their opinionArdelt F(''&+&'&G reports that HAA-([ mentioned cogniti e$ reflecti e$ andTor affecti e personality qualities- - - and 33-A[ named all three dimensions-I Dason$ et al- F(''3+)4'G found dri eTtenacityTleadership$ and insightTspirituality to be the most frequently mentioned- About a third mentioned Hbeing smartI and Hbeing lo ing-I ReliableTpractical were also frequently mentioned$ and creati eTcurious$ being open$ light7hearted$ and Ha ariety of other interpersonal s6illsI were also mentionedOang F(''3+=5=G obser es that H/ducation seems to play an important role in Taiwanese #hinese conceptions of wisdomI$ that is$ that conceptions of wisdom ary considerably according to the education of the respondent- This seems to suggest that a person who is actually wise would ha e a different understanding of what wisdom is than an a erage person- Oang does not ma6e this connection$ but does pro ide an insight by pointing to the differences in response- FThis is not to suggest a connection between wisdom and education$ but to draw attention to the differences in conceptions held by different segments of the population-G Although she cites se eral #hinese classics going

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

bac6 to #onfucius$ the citations regarding 2estern wisdom begin with /ri6son$ and the only philosopher considered is ,e6es F34A&GStudying people:s concepts$ Himplicit theoriesI of wisdom is incomplete until it is 6nown what place the concept has in their li es- "f you as6 me what " thin6 of as wise beha ior$ " can no doubt tell you- @ut it is of crucial importance also to 6now whether " ha e e er in my life gi en a moment:s thought to wisdom$ or if " ha e ne er thought about it and now am parroting information from other sources- The need for this bit of information has not been mentioned by any of the researchers$ and the question has ne er been as6ed of the participants in this type of research-

Carious 2in6 & Helson F3445+33G state H2e belie e that the abo e findings pro ide support for the claim that both the P2S JPractical 2isdom ScaleK and the T2R JRatings of Transcendent 2isdomK are measures of wisdom-I Oet what ha e we learned about wisdom8 Transcendental wisdom has been operationalized by them as Hfreedom from narrow self7concern$ recognition of the limits and conte0tual nature of 6nowledge$ and philosophical or spiritual insightsI$ along with communication s6ills adequate for articulating one:s e0perience of wisdom- Practical wisdom is operationalized as a person:s response to a list of three hundred adBecti es- "f a person selects as self7 descripti e those adBecti es that ha e been Budged to indicate wisdom Fones that describe a person:s Hcogniti e appraisal that is clear$ open$ comple0$ insightful$ reality7oriented$ bene olent$ and not distorted by bias or impulsi ityI Fp- &G$ he or she meets the criterion for practical wisdom-

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Ta6ahashi & % erton F(''(+(53G ac6nowledge their use of Hrelati ely simple protocolsI which at least ser e the purpose of pro iding Hfor the first time a con enient a enue to e0plore the e0tent to which cultural conte0t is related to the e0pression of wisdom-I The construct alidity of this study is questionable$ as it did not assess wisdom directly$ but as indicated through measures of intelligence$ empathy$ emotional regulation$ self7actualization$ and life satisfaction- A definition of wisdom is assumed$ and its presence measured through standard psychological tests$ despite their statement that Hthe present study demonstrates that both the analytic dimension and the synthetic dimension of wisdom are important in understanding the functioning of wisdom in late adulthoodI Fp- (5)G,unzmann & @altes F(''&+333?G note their finding of wisdom7related 6nowledge as correlating negati ely with hedonic alues as Himportant to wisdom theory-I @ut again$ what new ha e we learned about wisdom8 A question " ha e in regard to Dason$ et al- F(''3G is$ if the purpose is to measure the perception of wisdom that people ha e FH- - - this is a test of people:s perception of what wisdom is- - -I$ p- )43G$ why would you restrict the range of possible responses to a )7 point scale Ffrom HdefinitelyI to Hnot at allIG rating of &A one word or ery brief descriptors8 Twenty7three items are reprinted in an Appendi0$ and include Animation$ Harmony$ Positi e self7esteem and self lo e$ %penness$ <ratitude and appreciation- *or some items there are brief e0planations or synonyms- The labels gi en to the fi e general categories of wisdom characteristics they identified can be a bit misleading- "ncluded in Harmony$ for e0ample$ is <ood Budgment$ %penness$ #apacity to cope with uncertainty$ and Sees meaning and purpose in life- How high a le el of wisdom can such tests identify8 and How full and subtle a picture of wisdom can they pro ide8 The construct (&(

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

alidity of this study is questionable+ (& of the &A items on the *CS are gi en here- How do we 6now that these &A items actually measure wisdom8 %nly because responses on the *CS align with the information pro ided by the respondents to Study 3Still$ there is no reason to consider this not to be a good Hpreliminary studyI Fp)4=G$ as the authors describe it- Such measures might e entually be helpful in identifying wisdom- To do so is not an easy tas6- The authors discuss se eral of the recent measures of spirituality$ another construct that can ha e ery practical applications Fe-g-$ for physical and mental health$ resilienceG- 2isdom no doubt has effects in a person:s life that are Bust as important and as measurable as those of spirituality"n his discussion of future steps to be ta6en in regard to impro ing his Self7 Assessed 2isdom Scale FSA2SG$ 2ebster F(''&G mentions gi ing the test to people nominated as wise- He might also inter iew people who score highly to learn more about them and about the quality of their wisdom@luc6 and <lZc6 F(''?G wondered whether the participants in their study were wise$ e en though they were able to respond to a request for situations in which they had acted wisely$ gi ing responses that matched criteria for wisdom as described by other researchers- They mentioned the ad antage of inter iews in comparison with Hforced responses to indi idual questionsI Fp- ))3G- @ut to be as6ed to pro ide an e0ample of a wise action is something of a forced response$ e en if it does match descriptions of wisdom- They used the term He0perienced wisdomI to emphasize Hthat indi iduals recall the e ent as a time when they e0perienced being wiseI Fp- )=?G$ but there is no e idence that the participants e er thought of the e ent as HwiseI before being as6ed to supply wise e ents from their li es- "t would be important to 6now what role the concept of wisdom has played in their li es$ their goals and their thoughts- This would ma6e a (&&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

difference if a goal is to help ma6e people wiser- %therwise$ if the participants had ne er thought in terms of wisdom before being as6ed as part of this study$ what is the point of this research in regard to wisdom8 Are the respondents tal6ing about good decisions or wise decisions8 The authors are interested in the relation to the rest of the participants: li es of e ents identified by them as calling for a wise response- @ut this is not the same as inquiring what role and what alue wisdom per se has in their li es- They may ne er ha e thought of the e ent as HwiseI until as6ed by a researcher to recall a time in their li es when they acted wiselyDenney$ Dew$ & ,roupa:s F344)+?)G comparison of the categories of wisdom found in their study with those resulting from the studies of #layton & @irren F34A'G$ Sternberg F34A)G$ and Holliday & #handler F34A=G is of doubtful persuasi eness for demonstrating the similarity they claim- *ew respondents in Denney et al- ascribed wisdom to their nominees in cogniti e or personalTemotionalTmoral areas Fabout 3([G$ which nonetheless do yeoman:s wor6 in being used to demonstrate correspondence with se eral dimensions identified by the others- And the large number of ascriptions of wisdom in Denney et al- to Hspecific s6illsI and HgeneralI would ha e to be discriminated into categories more correspondent to those used by earlier researchers- "n their well7 designed Table C"""$ these last two dimensions$ in which o er half of their nominees were Budged to be wise$ had no correspondent in any of the other studies- They suggest causes for the lac6 of a correspondence to their Hspecific s6illsI dimensionA general question in regard to the research is$ 2ith so few subBects$ how alid can fine distinctions such as are sometimes made be8 *or e0ample$ those of the EP" group regarding findings of higher scores for specific criteria$ or regarding relati e homogeneity across criteria for particular age groups- Staudinger F34A4+3)3G is cautious in drawing (&?

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

conclusions$ but while it is true that her study Hseems to support the meaningfulness of the theoretical distinction between the more general and the more specific wisdom7 related scalesI Fthat is de elopment of general e0pertise precedes that of e0pertise in the particular specialty of wisdomG$ how conclusi e$ actually$ is this finding$ or any such conclusion from a study of fifty$ a hundred$ or two hundred people8 "n the case of the EP" group$ the true relation between aG their criteria for assessing wisdom and bG wisdom itself remains inconclusi e- And they are the most careful theorists"n assessing wisdom$ the sort of life tas6 for which wisdom is applied needs to be specified+ the wisdom of an old person who has come to terms with life and mortality is different from that of a statesman responsible for the well7being and the future of a large political unit$ or from that of a person ad ising another in regard to a difficult life decision- There may be particular attitudes or questions or things to loo6 for that are similar in all different tas6s$ but this has not been established to date;e itt:s F3444G study presented a formidable challenge+ inter iewing people from another culture$ most of whom do not spea6 the researcher:s language$ about something as subtle and comple0 as wisdom- The responses seem to be a recounting of @uddhist doctrine- The preformed categories seem problematic$ and ;e itt does not say why she relied on these- Possibly it pro ided a structure for the inter iews$ which were semi7 structured rather than unstructured as in traditional grounded theoryThere seems a bit of narrowness in the centrality placed on one:s own life as the sphere of wisdom in /ri6son- Hoare F(''(+34&G quotes the statement of his de eloping sense that H" am what sur i es of meI- This is far from e0perience of the unus mundus FDung 3455+)&&7)?&G where the indi idual drops off the sense of personal e0istence to merge in the %ne(&)

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

The differences between the /astern and 2estern students in the study by Ta6ahashi & @ordia F('''G are stri6ing+ of the 5 adBecti es$ for the 2esterners wisdom is closest to 6nowledgeable$ and farthest from discreet9 for the /asterners wisdom was most closely associated with discreet- This is perhaps a good entry point to understanding cultural differences$ and inquiry into what this means in more detail should be ery useful- The adBecti e HdiscreetI con eys a combination of intellectual and emotional understanding$ caring$ and social tact9 H6nowledgeableI recalls the Stoic definition of wisdom as rerum humanarum et di0inarum scientia- @ut it would be useful to 6now how the participants understood these terms-

B. INTEGRATION OF METAPHYSICAL AND PRACTICAL WISDOM "t was hypothesized that it is una oidable$ and necessary$ for any serious inquiry into wisdom to consider metaphysical or di ine wisdom and integrate this with wisdom as dealing with secular affairs- The hypothesis does not recei e much support from the research+ the studies of implicit theories do not pro ide much e idence that a erage people connect wisdom and religion or e en wisdom and spiritualityThe diminishing belief in cosmic Bustice$ or reliance on a di ine guarantor of wisdom and Bustice$ may be important in allowing a scientific approach to wisdom to come forth Fsee ,e6es 344)+($ 3A&$ et alibiG- Abandoning trust in a di ine Bustice is an important step along the way toward assuming human responsibility for BusticeTheoretical and practical wisdom are distinguishable$ but not separable+ the standards for decision ma6ing in regard to practical affairs depend$ as <arrett F344=G points out$ on one:s basic orientation toward e0istence$ metaphysical and epistemological assumptions- And as problematic as practical wisdom is$ theoretical is moreso- Dustus (&=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

;ipsius$ the si0teenth century founder of >eostoicism$ Hasserts that the main characteristic of the wise man is that Mhe 6nows in a sense all the instances that fall under the uni ersal: FManuductionis ad Stoicam Philosophiam ""-AGI FPapy (''?G- The Stoic concept$ placing wisdom beyond the reach of all$ was relati ely harmless- The #hristian di ision$ ta6ing wisdom away from human reason and placing it with <od$ to bestow as His grace$ remains a powerful force that cannot be ignoredThe uncompromising challenge of the apostle Paul in 3 #orinthians (+('7() has been quoted+ #hrist is Hthe wisdom of <odI and <od has Hturned to foolishness the Mwisdom: of this world-I This iew left little room for worldly wisdom$ and through Augustine Fe-g-$ Enchiridion &e 5ide, Spe Et ,aritatePThe #andboo% of 5aith, #ope, and ,harit Pstates at the beginning$ HVuod hominis sapientia pietas$ id est Dei cultusIPHPiety$ that is$ the re erence of <od$ is wisdom for humansIG$ this iew dominated in /urope until the Renaissance$ despite Aquinas: admission of a metaphysical wisdom through human efforts to accompany the di ine gift of wisdom through piety!ntil the /nlightenment$ that is$ until wisdom became of marginal interest for philosophy$ wisdom and the di ine had a four thousand year shared history- The connection is inescapable$ although not necessarily e0clusi e+ there is a history of separate e0istence of secular wisdom and metaphysical or religious wisdom also- The e0tent to which empirical psychology can successfully ignore the connection remains to be seen- "n this connection$ #hristianity is only a specific instance+ wisdom ultimately depends on one:s understanding of the nature of reality$ and we appear to be a long way from a definiti e answer to the question whether the uni erse e0ists with or without a di ine creator- As long as the question remains open$ wisdom is not entirely separable from religious e0planations- "f religion were actually a permanently waning$ permanently (&5

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

enfeebled force$ this point would be of little importance- @ut such is not the case$ and it might be imprudent for those concerned with wisdom to be unprepared for neo7Pauline challenges$ not to mention Hthe blac6 tide of - - - occultismI such as *reud FDung$ 34=&+3)(G warned against3#or 3+('7() is a locus classicus for reser ing wisdom$ in principle$ with <od$ and with a particular religion at that- The hostility toward human efforts unaided by submission to doctrine needs to be noted$ but the argument for declaring the human desire for 6nowledge and understanding futile and e en prideful$ and that wisdom resides solely with <od$ goes bac6 to Plato FPhaedrus (5AD9 S mposium ('&/7('?#9 Apolog (&A7@$ cited in Rice$ 34)A+=G and Aristotle:s distinction between sophia as true conception of the first principles of e0istence and that which follows from them$ and a subordinate phronesis as wise deliberation about human affairs$ Ha truthful rational characteristic concerned with action in the things good for human beingsI FNE 33?'b('7 ((G- ;eisegang F345(+3'((G notes that HThe later theologians can$ with good reason$ redisco er their wisdom as gn1sis t1n thei1n F6nowledge of the di ineG or simply gn1sis theou F6nowledge of <odG in Plato-I Perhaps to this day wisdom has not found a solid nonreligious identity- The fact that sophia has found its way into so many /nglish words$ while phronesis has no /nglish borrowing Fas *ly bBerg$ (''3+&7?$ points outG is perhaps an indication of the attitude of our culture$ e en among intellectuals- Tshiamalenga7>tumba F%elmZller 34A4+&((G remar6s that the idea of a wisdom that is di ine and out of reach of humans is Hcompletely alien to us AfricansI$ and Arlin F344'G points out that wisdom is also and importantly the art of finding problems as well as of finding answers-

(&A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

As a metaphor$ to see wisdom as a gift$ an intuition$ can not be obBectionable2here does any brea6through insight into a difficult problem come from8 The danger with Paul:s conception was not the metaphor$ but the whole thrust of thought that mo ed e erything of alue to hea en$ lea ing human affairs$ and wisdom in guiding human affairs$ e acuated of importance$ or rather disdained- This assertion of the relati e unimportance of the actual world is similar to Plato:s abstraction of the realm of "deas and the notion that thought proceeds obBecti ely$ independent of the thin6er$ which has been called Hthe most profound mista6e in human historyI FRichard <regory$ quoted in ;abou ie7Cief 344'+=3GA complicating factor is that wisdom cannot be separated from one:s understanding of the nature of e0istence$ and insight counts here- 2hile Stern F3445+(=?G$ writes that part of the current interest in phronesis is Hits apparent independence with respect to theoretical foundationsI$ decisions regarding human affairs often tend to be made in accordance with ultimate alues2isdom Fper ,e6es 34A&+(5AG interprets the facts supplied by the basic assumptions He ery sane$ normal$ and mature human being ma6esI- *or e0ample$ that " ha e a body$ that other beings e0ist$ that " percei e the world through my senses- ,arl Daspers F34)?G wrote of 7ren6situationen$ or Hultimate situations$I in a similar way$ and to consider them together might be useful- As Daspers: translator describes it$ Hthe ultimate situations are the inescapable realities in relation to which alone human life can be made genuinely meaningful- !ltimate situations cannot be changed or surmounted9 they can only be ac6nowledgedI FDaspers 34)?+('G- Pascual7;eone F('''+(?5G considers these Hlimit situationsI Fas he translates the termG as o erwhelming$ una oidable$ apparently irresol able life e ents or circumstances- #onfronting these with awareness (&4

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

and resol e can lead to Hremar6able growth in the self- - - - the natural mergence of a transcendental self$ if they do not destroy the person first-I ,e6es is tal6ing about our e0istential condition$ which is more inclusi e than the 7ren6situationen$ and often e0perienced unconsciously and simply as Reality$ although a person could stop and thin6$ for e0ample$ HHow amazing that anything e0ists- - -I or H" really am going to die$I and go from there to draw the conclusions that e entuate in wisdom- The reason for considering basic assumptions and 7ren6situationen together is that both are uni ersally e0perienced$ and both can be used for de eloping wisdom- And through focus on such ultimate basic e0perience wisdom may be seen as independent from supernatural infusion$ while at the same time no claim is set forth that a brea6through$ in Nen @uddhist terms %ensho$ Hseeing the natureI$ has completely naturalistic pro enance- 2isdom comes from honest conscious encounter with the basic assumptions or limit situations$ not from focusing on di ine inter ention with all the doctrine and commitment to an entire world iew in ol ed- FSee the discussion of Augustine in Rice$ 34)A+?73&$ in regard to wisdom:s necessar lin6 to di ine inter ention9 and Eaerc6er$ @_hmig$ & Staudinger$ 344A$ for more discussion of 7ren6situationen in relation to wisdom-G / erybody$ ,e6es says$ has descripti e 6nowledge of these commonplaces$ but not e erybody has interpreti e 6nowledge of their significance- *or that$ 6nowledge of priorities and depth is needed- Oet wisdom cannot simply be an understanding of the significance of the basic assumptions+ it must include a ision of the possibilities$ and in a later wor6$ ,e6es F344)+3'=733(G discusses this under the rubric moral imagination- "n their account$ ;ehrer & Smith F344=G do not say that the wise person understands the significance of e ents$ but rather / understands what is worth belie ing$ what has alueEc,ee & @arber F3444G$ propose a definition of wisdom as Hseeing through illusionsI(?'

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

This echoes the words of the philosopher Pierre Hadot$ as quoted by Achenbaum F(''?+&'3G+ H2isdom is nothing more than the ision of things as they are$ the ision of the cosmos as it is in the light of reason-I A thread that binds all different 6inds of wisdom together Fguidance of human affairs$ and di ine$ for e0ampleG$ and the 6ey but une0pressed element in definitions such as @irren & *isher:s F344'G$ Taranto:s F34A4G$ and Sternberg:s F344'G$ is the ability to see through illusion- Dudgment is considered a central aspect of wisdom and$ Ec,ee & @arber point out$ it is a form of seeing through illusion"t is in regard to questions of meaning that modern empiric science has been most disappointing- The disappointment does not come from its failure to pro ide what it was not meant to pro ide$ but in its claims that meaning is an illegitimate subBect for concern*or e0ample$ Eauritz Schlic6 F34&(G wrote that HThe definition of the circumstances under which a statement is true is perfectly e(ui0alent to the definition of its meaning-I Statements regarding metaphysics are held to be meaningless under this principle and thus not a matter of philosophical discussion- HAlso the traditional philosophy is indeed meaningless$ and the only role of philosophy is the clarification of the meaning of statementsI FEurzi (''3GThe question H2hy is there anything rather than nothing8I e0pressing an ine itable curiosity$ is entirely different from the question H2hy do we e0ist8I e0pressing an assumption that there is a particular purpose$ a position which nowadays$ as we re iew the history of such assertions$ is considered to lac6 epistemological Bustification- Oet if the first question is a legitimate one to as6$ it brings with it other questions about the significance of there being anything rather than nothing- "t has been dissatisfaction with the nihilistic implications of meaninglessness in scientistic empiricism that has (?3

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

contributed to the late appearance of wisdom as a possible solution for many of the modern ills caused by poor priorities in public policy and morality$ for which empiricism is often held in part responsiblePsychologists ha e$ in the main$ ignored the di ine$ religious aspect of wisdom$ and it is hard to see empirical science doing otherwise- Recent interest in spirituality and positi e psychology has helped open a way to such concerns- All three share an interest in well7being$ and @altes and Staudinger at least ha e been important contributors to positi e psychology- Staudinger was co7editor of one of the earliest boo6length presentations of positi e psychology FAspinwall & Staudinger (''&G$ and @altes & Staudinger F('''G contributed to the issue of American Ps chologist that introduced positi e psychology$ for e0ample"n the first presentation of their model of wisdom FSmith$ Di0on$ & @altes 34A4+&33G$ the EP" group s6irted the metaphysical7practical wisdom issue$ writing that H% erall$ we iew wisdom as a cogniti e e0pertise- - - - %f course$ wisdom could also be studied from a philosophical$ moral$ or religious domain- %ur focus is on wisdom7related 6nowledge in the domain of fundamental life pragmatics-I These pragmatics concern life management$ life planning$ and life re iew- They do not ha e anything to do with a larger life7orientation in ol ing the meaning of life$ although by 344' @altes & Smith Fp- A5G wrote of the fundamental pragmatics of life as in ol ing 6nowledge and Budgment Fcf- the statement from #onley$ (''&+5A? in the New ,atholic Enc clopedia$ that wisdom Hmay be gi en speculati e or practical emphasis or e en special religious alue$ but it always implies a type of 6nowing and usually a capacity to Budge-IG The fundamental pragmatics of life includes H6nowledge about important matters of life, their interpretation and managementI F@altes & Smith 344'+4=G- Again they a oid any mention of religion$ but (?(

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

of course gi en humanity:s history regarding the interpretation of the important matters of life$ religion is not far in the bac6ground"n considering this dilemma for wisdom studies$ " do not ha e a solution to offerThe point " am suggesting is that there can be no serious treatment of wisdom that does not engage religious concerns- "t seems to me this can be done at a le el that does not get in ol ed in disputes such as sociobiology or religious dogmatism$ perhaps at a meta le el of specifying processes by which questions are ta6en up- Paul:s challenge$ and claims that humans can only reach wisdom through <od$ are$ gi en the current le el of the species: moral$ cogniti e$ and religious de elopment$ irrefutable- A long7term solution may depend on attainment by large numbers of people of the higher stages of ,ohlberg:s F34A3G moral de elopment or *owler:s F344)G stages of faith>ot all questions$ not e en those calling for wisdom$ require that one resol e e0istential questions prior to attempting their resolution- Oet$ if wisdom is to deal with important and difficult matters of life$ including its meaning$ it must be able to approach such matters through an understanding of the human need for meaning and human propensities to belief$ and be able to discuss from a position of sympathetic e0perience such profound con ictions as Paul puts forth so bluntly- 2isdom researchers ha e not dismissed religious concerns$ as empiric$ positi istic science has done with such superficial success- Oet they ha e not yet$ e0cept perhaps for Dung$ unfolded the entire mapA loo6 at the ele en theories$ or iews of wisdom$ outlined in Part (D of this dissertation$ shows that none are inimical to an integration including religious perspecti es- Achenbaum and %rwoll:s F3443G model was de eloped from an analysis of the @oo6 of Dob- ,ramer:s organicist model is holistic and integrati e$ and it includes (?&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Hspiritual introspectionI as one of the fi e functions of wisdom- Spiritual introspection does not seem to equal H#hrist+ the power of <od and the wisdom of <odI howe er$ or e en Hconcern with primary causesI FAristotle$ Metaph sics "-3G- Sternberg F344A+&)?G is a bit more cautiousPthe balance of e0trapersonal interests includes such things as Hone:s city or country or en ironment or e en <odI9 and ,ohut seems to ha e a more worldly interest in the dynamics of the psyche F" may be mista6enG- @ut a broad range of approaches$ religious and atheistic$ is preferable- 2hile Ardelt:s model defines wisdom as composed of cogniti e$ affecti e$ and reflecti e dimensions$ she has a noticeably spiritual approach$ writing for e0ample that Hthe quest for wisdom7related 6nowledge is spiritualI F(''3a+555G and occasionally citing Desus or @uddha as e0amples- Pascual7 ;eone F('''G writes of wisdom in relation to transcendental meditation and Cedic teaching$ attempting to pro ide the attentional mechanism by which de elopment of post7 formal thin6ing can lead to Hhigher stages of consciousnessPspiritual enlightenment$ wisdom$ graceful life and agingI Fp- (?3G"n one of his most recent writings$ @altes F(''?G ma6es a sympathetic attempt to integrate religion7based and secular wisdom- He notes that modern iews consider religion predominantly Houtcomes of human rather than di ine acti ityI Fp- 3&3G$ and at the same time$ they recognize that there are forms of legitimate 6nowledge beyond positi ism- @altes F(''?+3&(G calls for a transdisciplinary approach to wisdom in the recognition that Hin our search for the meaning and conduct of life$ we humans drin6 from many fountains$ and some are more scientific than others-I 2hat one means by HscienceI can be debated$ but the point is acceptable2hile empirical scientists ha e approached the study of spirituality and religiousness with an open attitude$ wisdom and religion ha e a special relationship such (??

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

that wisdom has been entirely co7opted by religion for long periods+ in the first fifteen hundred years of the #hristian era in /urope$ for e0ampleReligion can entirely subsume wisdom9 wisdom cannot completely separate itself from religion or questions of ultimate meaning$ so long as what is wise is connected with Budgments regarding what is best for men and women- As long as a recrudescence of religious fer or cannot be declared impossible$ and as long as people ha e a tendency to odium religiosum$ it would seem that those with an interest in maintaining wisdom:s independence from dogmatic religion need to be prepared to meet challenges such as Paul:sEore generally$ the relation of wisdom to e0istential questions would seem to be an issue that requires clarifying$ if not resol ing- Research into understanding Hfirst principlesI has not been mentioned by psychological researchers- Those philosophers and theologians who proposed this possibility$ calling it wisdom$ did so perhaps because their own understanding of the cosmos was that it is far more limited than we now 6now itOet this understanding of wisdom held for a long time$ at least for two thousand years from Plato to Descartes: Principles of Philosoph $ in the *rench edition Preface to which he wrote by wisdom is to be understood not merely prudence in the management of affairs$ but a perfect 6nowledge of all that man can 6now$ as well for the conduct of his life as for the preser ation of his health and the disco ery of all the arts$ and that 6nowledge to subser e these ends must necessarily be deduced from first causes-

C. POSSIBLE GENDER DIFFERENCES IN UNDERSTANDING OF WISDOM 2hile the EP" group has made studies of the influence of age$ profession$ and intelligence7personality on wisdom$ they ha e not performed any studies of gender (?)

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

differences- "f in fact the EP" group has found no gender differences regarding wisdom$ this finding has not been stated fully$ and their research has not pro ided a conclusi e answer to the question of gender differences regarding le els or quality of wisdom$ and the EP" group has not ta6en up the question of possible differences between genders regarding what wisdom is- As has been stated many times$ and ne er contradicted$ wisdom is a matter of interpretation- "t is not something whose identity can be fi0ed with the certainty of physical phenomena- 2hat is wise at one time$ in one society$ in one situation$ from one point of iew$ may be considered less wise in different times$ societies$ situations$ perspecti es- "t cannot be an a priori conclusion that there are no gender differences regarding wisdom$ either in its definition or its attainmentPasupathi$ Staudinger$ & @altes F(''3+&)&G state that HThere are no gender differences in wisdom7related 6nowledge and Budgment among adults F@altes et al-$ 344(9 @altes & Staudinger$ ('''G-I The first article referred to$ @altes$ Smith$ & Staudinger is a ?) page article$ so a more specific reference would ha e been helpfu Falso the boo6 " found carries a 3443 copyrightG- <ender differences are mentioned as a topic of lifespan de elopmental theory on @altes et al- F344( J3443K+3(5G- Discussing the research of the EP" group which$ the @altes et al- state Fp- 3&5G$ His still in its infancyI$ the main results are said to be aG findings of few Htruly Mwise: responsesI$ bG that old people perform at le els comparable to younger people$ and cG that age when combined with facilitati e life e0periences$ seems to result in higher le el performance- Howe er$ there is no mention of gender in this section$ nor in the rest of the article- / en if research to that date had found no gender differences$ the fact that the authors at that time considered that their research was Hin its infancyI recommends against closing the boo6s on this question and against considering any of the findings conclusi e- @altes & Staudinger F('''+3(573&3G (?=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

summarize Hsome of the main findingsI of the EP" group- <ender is not mentioned in this section$ nor does it seem to be mentioned anywhere in the article,unzmann & @altes F(''&a+333'$ 333&$333?G found that their results remained Hbasically unchangedI in all areas after controlling for gender$ but this is not a finding that there are no gender differences regarding wisdomThe concern with gender differences regarding wisdom is in part a question of different le els of wisdom$ but it is more about possible different understandings of what wisdom is- Thus$ whether men and women perform equally on the EP" group:s tas6s is not the main issue$ but whether wisdom means the same thing to men and women- The EP" group is largely composed of female psychologists$ but that fact does not settle the question eitherAlmost without e0ception$ researchers ha e found no significant gender differences in regard to assessed wisdom$ but there are some indications that women and men ha e different ideas about what wisdom is- An e en more weighty reason for opening this question is recognition of the fact that for o er four thousand years$ until the twentieth century$ female writers on wisdom are not to be found- Among the current generation of researchers$ both psychological and philosophical$ women form a sizable perhaps preponderant portion$ and it is unli6ely that wisdom is of no interest to women- The fact that the classic models ha e without e0ception been set forth by males$ and comments on them ha e been without e0ception by males$ is prima facie e idence that female ideas of wisdom deser e to be carefully sought out- Eaybe there is no difference between wisdom as understood by males and females generically- At this time " do not 6now$ nor does anybody else-

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

D. THE STUDY OF EXEMPLARS A few years before the empirical study of wisdom began$ Abraham Easlow$ in The 5arther )eaches of #uman Nature F3453+4G wrote+ "t has been my e0perience through a long line of e0ploratory in estigations going bac6 to the thirties that the healthiest people For the most creati e$ or the strongest$ or the wisest$ or the saintliestG can be used as biological assays$ or perhaps " could say$ as ad anced scouts$ or more sensiti e percei ers$ to tell us less sensiti e ones what it is that we alue%rwoll & Perlmutter F344'+3=)73=5G discuss research methods for wisdom$ proposing a method for studying personality and cogniti e components of wisdom together- HThe main premise of this approach is that wisdom can be better understood by the intensi e study of people belie ed to be wiseI Fp- 3=)G- #ollins F34=(+3&373&&G recommends using ordinary language analysis and phenomenological description for in estigating the traits of wise persons$ and the relation between aspects of wisdom and plenary$ unqualified forms of wisdom such as moral or metaphysical wisdom$ see6ing perhaps to identify the common core- %r recall Aristotle:s ad ice+ HTo grasp what practical wisdom is we should first study the sort of people we call practically wiseI FNE 33?'a()G- This approach has not been followed by empirical research to date- ;e itt:s F3444G study of monastic @uddhist students using grounded theory$ and Eontgomery$ @arber$ & Ec,ee:s F(''(G phenomenological study of si0 older adults with a bac6ground that H@altes and Staudinger J344&K found to be Mwisdom facilitati e:I come closest to the study of people who are actually wiseThe research to date has focused on randomly7chosen people:s ideas of wisdom$ and not a single study has been done of wise people- Since wisdom is generally agreed to refer to a ery high le el of cogniti e$ reflecti e$ and affecti e functioning$ to ta6e the

(?A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

descriptions of e en well educated a erage people as decisi e is bound to pro ide a ery limited picture$ li6e using an a erage person:s description of geniusThe study by Paulhus et al- F(''(G$ H!se of /0emplar Sur eys to Re eal "mplicit Types of "ntelligenceI presents an e0ample of researchers stumbling o er the more aluable$ unas6ed question in order to repeat a limited$ but orthodo0 approach- A list of )' e0emplars of intelligence were presented to one group of 3' Budges to rate them on their fame$ problem7sol ing ability$ erbal ability$ and social competence- Another set of 3' Budges rated fi e 6inds of e0emplary intelligence Fscientific$ artistic$ entrepreneurial$ communicator$ moralG for each of the )'- The statistical methods used to analyze the data are sophisticated and impressi e- @ut the entire proBect is of dubious alue- The researchers should ha e been tal6ing with the e0emplarsD- Allen @oone F345=G tells of ta6ing care of the <erman shepherd filmstar Strongheart and realizing that Strongheart was more intelligent than he had assumed dogs could be$ and communicating in a way @oone was unable to decipher- The perple0ed dog7sitter isited a person he 6new to ha e a special understanding of nonhuman animals FEoha e DanG$ and as6ed him how he could learn what the dog was trying get across2hen @oone finished tal6ing$ they sat in silence a long time$ until the other finally responded$ H":m trying to figure out why you:re tal6ing to me- "f you want to understand the dog$ you ha e to tal6 with him-I "f we want to understand wise people$ we ha e to tal6 with themThe particular alue of studying e0emplars carefully is that they can show us the way to wisdom- /0emplars of intelligence cannot show us the way to intelligence Fat least not Hfluid intelligenceI$ although some things can be learned from themG$ but wisdom is a perspecti e$ and a method of processing e0perience$ that can be learned$ (?4

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

e en if not mastered$ by all- 2isdom is to a large e0tent acquired deliberately and through reflection$ and so people who are wise can be e0pected to be capable of articulating the nature of their wisdom- *urthermore$ wisdom is much more associated with li ing a good life$ whereas intelligence has little relation to a good life FSternberg (''&+3='73=&G- 2e would not want to 6now the results of their wisdom so much as to understand the process by which they arri e at the resultsStudy of e0emplars need not be restricted to indi iduals who are physically present*or some purposes$ such as general theoretical wor6$ and the in estigation of wisdom in public affairs$ documentary e idence might be preferable- @etween 34)( and 34=)$ the American tele ision networ6 >@# broadcast a program of inter iews with distinguished people$ titled Wisdom from 34)5 to 34=)$ and before that$ ,on0ersations with Elder Wise Men or ,on0ersations with &istinguished Persons F2isdom #ollection ('')G- "f still e0tant$ these films may pro ide a aluable resource for the study of wisdom%rwoll & Perlmutter F344'+3=5G distinguish a Hpersonalogical approachI from the He0emplar approach$I and refer to se eral e0amples of this method Hin which indi idual li es form the basic unit of in estigation-I #linical assessments$ psychobiography$ personal narrati e$ and personal documents ha e been utilized in such studies$ which can also compare idiographic data with nomothetic principles- Theygi e references for other areas that ha e used this approach$ such as creati ity$ and studies of people with e0ception psychological adBustment or ego de elopment- They ma6e suggestions for the underta6ing of such studies$ and consider some potential difficulties F344'+3==73=5GHow are e0emplars to be nominated8 The fact that considerable consensus regarding people:s concept of wisdom has been found lends support to the idea that trustworthy nominators can be found$ and the use of multiple nominators would pro ide further ()'

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

trustworthiness to the nominations- Results of the study of the nominees could be compared with results of prior research and philosophical concepts- >ominees could perhaps suggest others whom they considered to be wise+ the Hse en sages methodI of nomination- FRecall that the tripod inscribed HTo the wisestI$ found by the Eilesians$ was first presented to Thales$ who declined and recommended @ias$ who demurred and recommended- - -G Such an approach offers at least one maBor ad antage o er construct formation based on the notions of wisdom that people from the general population ha e- That is$ you are e0amining the thing itself$ not the idea that someone$ who probably has not gi en the matter much thought$ has of the thing- As %rwoll & Perlmutter write F344'+35?G Hto really 6now what wise people are li6e$ it is important to actually study them-I Eoha e Dan couldn:t ha e said it better"n Some &o ,are9 ,ontemporar -i0es of Moral ,ommitment$ Anne #olby and 2illiam Damon F344(G describe the criteria they de eloped for selecting moral e0emplars$ and an inter iew method of Hassisted autobiographyI for their case studiesThey cite Alasdair Eac"ntyre:s F34A'G After *irtue in describing this$ though without page reference- After a brief$ four sentence introduction$ inter iewees were as6ed to respond freely to fourteen questions$ with followup questions and comments from the inter iewer being made as necessary- They also pro ide their rationale for this approach Fpp- &(37(G"n discussing three ways to measure practical intelligence$ 2agner F34A=+&5&G$ describes using an e0pert7group to pro ide standards- Perhaps if a hundred people were identified with a fairly unanimous consensus as being wise$ these people could e0press their ideas about what wisdom is- This approach has not been tried$ as far as " 6now- As ()3

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

wisdom is so uncommon$ the e0pert7group for pro iding standards would be a select one"t might be well to identify$ say one hundred$ or fi e hundred$ possible instances$ perhaps historical$ and then see6 the themes they share$ or particularly stri6ing or particularly rare characteristicsPerhaps some of the tests$ such as 2in6 & Helson:s F3445G Practical 2isdom Scale$ Ardelt:s F(''&G Three7Dimensional 2isdom Scale$ and others$ might be useful tools for identifying candidates for further study- The EP":s response7to7difficult7 hypothetical7situations measure requires rating that is too e0pensi e and time7consuming to be used for large numbers of people$ at present- Perhaps there are ways for such questions and discussion of them to be introduced into school and other settingsThe Himplicit theories approachI can also be used for the study of e0plicit theoriesThe ideas of philosophers and others who ha e gi en careful thought to wisdom can be can assed with the same care that the opinions of a erage people are$ and to a certain e0tent in the same way- /0plicit philosophic theories to be gleaned for their usefulness to empiric research- *ly bBerg:s F(''3+==G recommendation of case study$ which Hmay be useful in the preliminary stages of an in estigation since it pro ides hypotheses which may be tested systematically with a larger number of casesI$ can be added in support of the proposed study of e0emplars"n writing about the study of common opinions of wisdom$ Oang F(''3+==?G says that H!nderstanding how conceptions of wisdom are e0pressed through daily communication and social interactions may constitute the 6ey to understanding the concept of wisdom-I She seems to mean that the understanding of a erage people:s conceptions are the 6ey$ but if so$ the proposition is debatable+ why should a erage people:s e0pressions of wisdom be of 6ey alue$ compared with the conceptions of ()(

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

wisdom e0pressed by wise people8 !nderstanding wisdom through in estigating its manifestation in daily beha ior is a different thing$ but still the 6ey might be to study wisdom as it is manifested by wise people rather than as it is manifested by the rest of us%ne of the psychologist theorists of wisdom$ /ri6 /ri6son$ de oted much time to the study of eminent people- Oet none of those he studied completely embodied complete maturity as he defined it$ as Hoare F(''(+345G notes- 2hile /ri6son held St- *rancis$ #harles Darwin$ Thomas Defferson$ and Abraham ;incoln in higher regard than the others he studied$ Hoare writes that Hhe had studied not one of those men:s adult li es in depthI$ and if he had$ he would ha e found flaws equal to those found in <andhi$ ;uther$ and *reud-

"n short$ Easlow F3453G$ and %rwoll & Perlmutter F344'G ha e both e0pressed the iew that we ha e to study wise people themsel es if we want to understand their wisdom- To date there ha e been no studies of e0emplars- %rwoll & Perlmutter F344'G ha e gi en some guidance for carrying out such study$ and #olby & Damon:s F344(G study of e0emplars of moral commitment includes the method they used for selecting e0emplars and conducting case studies through Hassisted autobiographiesI$ to allow the people being studied to articulate their own perspecti e and e0periences-

E. SUMMARY About a decade and a7half after the first empirical research on wisdom$ Robert DSternberg F344'+i0G e0pressed the opinion that research on wisdom had progressed to the second of the four o erlapping periods through which fields of 6nowledge characteristically pass- That is$ the period of early energetic de elopment with an ()&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

abundance of proposed paradigms- "n the third period$ one or a few paradigms ha e become dominant and research is underta6en to e0tend these- Another decade and a7half has passed since these words of Sternberg:s$ and while empirical research into wisdom is on the increase$ we seem as far from the third stage now as in 344'- There is still no consensus on a definition$ though much useful in estigation into and discussion of the elements of a definition has gone on- Eore assessment measures of wisdom ha e been de eloped F2in6 & Helson$ 34459 Ardelt$ (''&9 2ebster$ (''&G to test new e0plicit theories- "n 344'$ there was only one e0plicit theory that had been tested- >ew approaches ha e been put forth$ such as %ser$ Schen6er$ & Spychiger F3444GThere is still little transdisciplinarity in the study of wisdom and e en little utilization of insights from disciplines outside the researcher:s discipline- "n the articles in the recently published #andboo% of Wisdom FSternberg$ ('')G$ there is little from philosophy or religious studies that has been integrated into the psychological approachesStudies of common opinions about wisdom still comprise a maBor element in the research$ almost half the studies published since ('''All of the approaches that ha e been ta6en can be strongly criticized- Se eral of them are considered promising$ and require further research for alidation and impro ement- The fact that empirical science has ta6en an interest in wisdom at all$ and has found ways to study it$ gi es hope for an e entual positi e resolution to the current quandary regarding meaning in life$ and alues in a postmodern$ pluralistic global society Pand hope for impro ed quality of life for the new phenomenon of large numbers of physically$ mentally$ and financially healthy old people-

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

7 Conc(usion

*ollowing >icholas Ea0well:s call for academic inquiry to see6 that which pro ides Hthe best hope of helping us progressi ely to resol e our most urgent problems of li ingI F34A?+(G$ the purpose of this dissertation is to help our species become truly #omo sapiens$ the human who is wise- >ow that the research questions ha e been raised and the data presented and discussed$ in this concluding section " will summarize the results and discuss the meaning of this study and of the research on wisdom it has e0amined for the e entual achie ement of a wiser world-

Regarding the first question$ 2hat has the psychological study of the past twenty7fi e years learned about wisdom and its ontogenesis8 Perhaps the most important contribution to date has been to find a way to begin the empirical study of wisdom$ reintroducing wisdom into the world of contemporary scholarship- 2isdom has been operationalized in se eral different ways- "t appears that wisdom is a unique construct$ related to but distinct from cogniti e or social intelligence or any other personality trait2hile much of the research has been directed at defining wisdom$ the question has not been resol ed- A number of testable theories of wisdom ha e been proposedThat wisdom is an area in which older people may e0cel is a aluable finding$ as earlier models of aging showed unrelie ed physical and mental decline- The finding that wisdom plateaus at around age twenty7fi e$ remaining stable until a person:s eighties$ awaits further specification$ particularly regarding highest le el performance- The ideas of wisdom as an e0pertise$ and as a heuristic by which difficult questions regarding the ())

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

meaning and conduct of life can be approached$ seem rich with possibilities- The heuristic$ or metaheuristic$ has yet to be promulgatedThe greatest predicti e factor for wisdom has been found to be a profession in a field such as clinical psychology or counseling Fsuch as ministerial wor6GPositi e correlations ha e been found between wisdom and life satisfaction$ or particular personality traits such as openness$ social intelligence$ moral reasoningResearchers ha e found$ but ha e only begun to realize$ that wisdom may be enhanced through consulting with others$ or through allowing time for a person to thin6 o er a situation-

Regarding the three proposals made as a partial response to the question$ How should wisdom be studied+

3- "s an e0plicit integration of metaphysicalTreligious and practical wisdom an inescapable necessity for an adequate understanding of wisdom8 At this time$ none of the studies of common opinions indicate that people associate wisdom with an understanding of first principles or consider that wisdom is a quality restricted to$ or to be bestowed by$ <od- 2hen people thin6 of wisdom$ religious associations do not readily occur- The lac6 of a metaphysical dimension has certainly not hampered the research of the EP" groupThis is the most difficult of the three proposals considered in this dissertation- The current world does not ha e a comfortable relationship with questions regarding ultimate meaning or priorities- A way to discuss priorities$ including metaphysical priorities$ remains to be set forth- At some point$ ultimately$ wisdom is in ol ed with a person:s$ or a society:s$ deepest beliefs about reality- 2hen interest in wisdom was flourishing$ until ()=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

around the late se enteenth century$ there were in ariably ontological and epistemological assumptions made that ha e since become highly questionable- 2e are not able to use Plato:s$ Aristotle:s$ or Aquinas:s approach to first principlesPerhaps the wisdom discussed by the psychologists is a denatured$ consumer society type of thing- %r perhaps wisdom needs to be considered at the le el it currently is+ as responses on ;i6ert7type questionnaires$ as demonstration of sensiti e$ 6nowledgeable$ post7formal operations thin6ing when confronted with life plannning$ life7management and life7re iew questions- 2e need to see how the new$ empirical approach will de elop- This is all the more reason in fa or of the answer that is gi en to proposal number & below-

(- "s there need for research into whether wisdom means something different to women than it does to men8 The research shows no difference in the le els of wisdom e inced by males or females- This is irrele ant to the question of whether wisdom means something different to women than it does to men- There is some e idence that women do ha e different notions of what it is to be wise than men do- #onsidering the almost complete lac6 of women:s oices regarding wisdom until the twentieth century$ and the e idence of gender oppression and attitudes towards women from the dominating group$ which may ha e influenced women:s understanding of their own identity$ this question must be considered an essential part of any thorough in estigation into wisdom-

&- "s the study of wise persons a necessity for understanding wisdom and for de eloping a model of wisdom useful for helping people and the choices they ma6e become wiser8 The conclusion from this study must be$ unequi ocally$ that as long as there is no ()5

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

in estigation of people who are actually considered wise$ the study of wisdom will be seriously incomplete- Despite the best empirical studies$ without this phenomenological e idence$ the study of wisdom will remain abstractPeople who are wise may ha e found the HmetaheuristicsI @altes says that a wisdom model may pro ide for resol ing important and difficult questions about the meaning and conduct of life- They may ha e learned to ta6e into account factors that the rest of us are not currently aware of- They may ha e put ultimate questions$ or questions about meaning and significance of e0istence$ into a form that is helpful for our pluralistic world as we struggle with important choices and questions of meaning- 2hat does a wise person loo6 li6e8 How " would li6e to ha e a model$ or se eral models$ to loo6 toward^

-imitations of the stud - The present study does not pro ide a systematic outline of the questions that are in ol ed in a program of scientific research of wisdom- "t lac6s a clear model by which wisdom might be researched- Such a model might ha e pro ided a clearer method through which the questions of wisdom:s scientific study could be framed- "nstead$ " ha e raised the general question and considered three reasonable directions for e0ploration- Ey future research will be dedicated to helping pro ide such a systematic outline and clear model$ being transdisciplinary- A sort of ad hoc approach to researching wisdom seems alid for now$ as we are still at the stage when much of the empiric research is focused on the opinions a erage people ha e of wisdom$ but e entually a more systematic approach will be neededAnother limitation of the present study is that it is incomplete- "t does not include all the materials outside the field of psychology that are important for defining wisdom and determining how it is best to be studied- >or does it integrate adequately those ()A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

sources it does ta6e up- @altes F(''?+3'G proposes that Ha new stage of scholarship on wisdom has been reached- "n this new stage$ wisdom will ha e been lifted from the hands of philosophers$ religious scholars$ and humanists to a new plane of collaboration and transdisciplinary discourse-I %ther than by @altes himself$ " ha e not found e idence of discourse on that plane- This dissertation proceeds only a short distance in this directionA more thorough presentation of the philosophic and theologic tradition is necessary if we are to understand what wisdom actually is for humans$ and what its possibilities areThis will require the reco ery of that tradition- Eany of the 6ey wor6s dealing with wisdom$ such as Pierre #harron:s &e la Sagesse F3='3G ha e not been translated into /nglish for centuries$ or ha e ne er been translated- This historical in estigation will also add to our understanding of what has been considered the ultimate or ideal achie ement for humans%f course$ traditions other than those of the educated male /uropean need to be e0amined- The future of humanity is global and unified$ not separate traditions- This study was limited by its inclusion of only one part of one tradition-

Suggestions for future research- The limitations of this study identified abo e point to important directions for future research- A history of thought regarding wisdom in the 2est and more important$ globally$ is lac6ing and a proBect worth underta6ingTranslations of long7forgotten te0ts could be made$ and published perhaps in a series modeled after the Paulist Press:s ,lassics of Western Spiritualit - *ortunately$ many of these te0ts are becoming easily accessible through the internet/arlier " alluded to >icholas Smith:s F344A+ 00G statement in the )outledge Enc clopedia of Philosoph that$ H<i en its Jwisdom:sK disappearance from our ()4

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

discussions$ none of the claims by the early <ree6s has been sufficiently well scrutinized by philosophers-I And so there is a bac6log of at least a twenty7four centuries of thought by some of the preeminent philosophers and religious minds in the 2est that needs to be carefully and sensiti ely considered$ putting aside religious or philosophic or psychologic ideologies insofar as possible$ in order to as6 questions such as 2hat were the assumptions8 2hat was the basis of the assertions8 And$ 2hat intuitions and elusi e isions$ actually$ were these masters$ li ing in times of limited historical perspecti e and relati ely incomplete psychological understanding$ attempting to comprehend and describe8 The study of e0emplars of wisdom$ one of the proposals put forth in this dissertation$ is ob iously needed and important research to carry out- After many studies of ordinary people responding to ;i6ert7type questioinnaires about wisdom$ studies of people who ha e de oted effort to wisdom is called for+ listening to them and e0amining them2ays for research to be transdisciplinary$ drawing on insights from philosophy$ psychology$ and theologyTspirituality could be wor6ed out- Such transdisciplinarity is often recommended$ but has yet to be implementedd d d

Staudinger & @altes F344?+33?5G write that HThe least de eloped domain of wor6 in the field Jof wisdom studiesK is research and theory on the de elopment of wisdom across the life span-I They mention /ri6son and Dung as of critical importance in this regard- @altes & Staudinger F('''+3(5G write that Hli6e any e0pertise$ the acquisition and refinement of wisdom in ol es an e0tended and intense process of learning$ practice$ as well as the moti ation to stri e toward e0cellence-I To e0pect that such e0pertise will result by (='

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

accident$ or as a side7effect of in ol ement in counseling$ therapeutic practice$ or human7 ser ice wor6$ or through any other constellation of life e0perience$ without the same e0plicit focus$ study and practice as any other e0pertise$ is wishful thin6ing- "t certainly will not be the most effecti e way to de elop wisdomSince global conflicts are unabating$ it might be ad isable for psychologists to Hta6e much more seriously the measurement of wisdom and the formulation of theories and theory7based measures of wisdomI and e en attempts at helping people become wise$ such as has been done for Hguiding people to de elop their intelligenceI FSternberg 344A+&=3G- The results of Sternberg:s F(''3aG efforts teaching wisdom to middle school children ha e not yet been published*ollowing successful operationalization of wisdom$ or wisdom7related performance$ in the late 34A's$ Hthe question arose whether it was possible to modify this performance or$ more specifically$ to increase wisdom7related 6nowledge and BudgmentI$ Staudinger F(''3+3'=(G writes- As of that writing$ she is aware of three such studies+ one is an e0periment in raising the le el of reflecti e Budgment in adolescents$ and two studies by the EP" group+ Staudinger & @altes F344=G$ in which the effects of consultation with another person Feither physically present or in thoughtG on wisdom7 related performance were tested$ and an unpublished study in which highly dogmatic older indi iduals were able to impro e performance on the @erlin wisdom paradigm criterion Calue relati ism by thin6ing about life problems from the perspecti e of different regions of the world- Sternberg:s proBect of teaching wisdom had not been announced at that timeSternberg F(''3a+(&(G e0presses his belief that it is necessary to study and measure wisdom$ and that H"n measuring wisdom$ we need to focus on the processes of thin6ingP (=3

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

the e0tent to which they ta6e into account the common good$ balancing of responses to the en ironment$ balancing of long7 and short7term interests of self$ others$ and institutions-I The processes$ he writes$ are similar to the HmetacomponentsI of thought FSternberg 3445$ 3444G- He writes F(''3a+(&=$ and see (''&a+&4=G that he and his colleagues ha e de ised and are testing the alidity of (? problems for measuring the wisdom of a responseEany researchers ha e mentioned the possibilities of ad ances in human de elopment with great enthusiasm- <- Stanley Hall:s faith in the possibilities of Ha new and higher and more complete humanityI F34((+?(5G has been mentioned- @altes$ Smith$ & Staudinger F3443+3(57AG write that H"t is possible- - - that the present7day cultural construction of human aging is a6in to that of an underde eloped$ relati ely Milliterate: societyI and that contemporary de elopmental scientists may ha e only a slight idea of what the possibilities for de elopment in old age might beThere are many isionaries of a new$ global spirituality- They include psychologists such as #si6szentmihalyi & Rathunde F344'+3&3G who write of a new Huni ersal truthI that may be coming forth$ suggesting that it may be Ha systematic ecological consciousness in which the consequences of e ents and actions are understood to be causally related and to ha e long7term effects for the sur i al of human life and for the en ironment that sustains it-I "n the -arousse &ictionar of 'eliefs and )eligions$ Rosemary <oring F344?+?44G states that Hit appears that a new spirituality which integrates the material$ the humane and the translucentPnature$ humans and <odPis beginning to emerge in the conditions of our time-I The interest of researchers in moral and spiritual de elopment Fe-g-$ #olby & Damon$ 344(9 *owler$ 344)9 <illigan$ 34A(9 ,ohlberg$ 34A3G may be indications of such de elopment(=(

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

/conomist ,enneth @oulding F34=)+3(?G called our time Hthe second great transition in the history of man6ind$I the first being the transition from the Paleolithic era with the de elopment of agriculture and urban ci ilization- He claimed that the Hdeliberate in estment in the human resource is the main 6ey to the transition from ci ilized to postci ilized society-I To ;ewis Eumford F34)=G$ humanity is currently underta6ing its si0th Htransformation$I the first being from prehuman to human- Paul HRay F('''G$ in his and Sherry Anderson:s demographic studies of the surprisingly large numbers of Hcultural creati esI$ people committed to bringing about a healthy planet$ refers to a possible Hwisdom cultureI coming into e0istence"n light of the research it might be concluded that integration of practical and transcendent wisdom is desirable but not necessary$ at least not a pressing concern- The lac6 of the research findings that point to a connection between di ine or metaphysical wisdom and practical wisdom should not be misleading- The renascent interest in wisdom is not separate from the spiritual reformation said to be occurring9 and until the modern loss of interest in wisdom$ a religious$ spiritual$ or metaphysical iew of wisdom was ery much present in the discussion of this Hultimate possible achie ementI FPascual7 ;eone 344'+(?)GThe construct of practical wisdom$ such as that studied by the EP" group$ is able to maintain a secular independence from spirituality- 2isdom might allow a way to a oid clashes of dogma among different religions$ a way of wor6ing toward optimal choices that recognizes the alidity of transcendent interests Feither from con iction or from awareness of the role such interests ha e in the li es of many people and their salubrious influenceG without ha ing to ta6e sides$ or introduce a new spiritual7religious statement for our time- Such a new statement may come$ and it may be that it will spread quic6ly (=&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

and relati ely peacefully$ among Hcultural creati esI and their fellow tra elers- 2isdom will of course still be needed$ and while " ha e discussed the possibility of religion co7 opting wisdom entirely as in the formulations of Sts- Paul and Augustine$ and the need for establishing wisdom:s autonomy$ in fact a secular wisdom has always e0isted and it would be most difficult for religion to subsume wisdom in toto- "t is not mainly as a defense against Pauline 6idnapping that wisdom needs to find its place in a philosophy of e0istence but because$ without it$ we are bac6 to Hthe liberal idea of rights$ dispensing with any definition of the common good- - -I FDuprW 344&+5'3G or any basis for claims of good9 and alue relati ism becomes inescapable- There must be something between relying on supernatural commandments for morality and e erybody doing his or her own thing- Here is where Eac"ntyre$ Aristotle$ and the telos of eudaimonia or flourishing reappear- The spirituality$ or wisdom$ resulting is one that a person chooses rationally$ with reiterated$ dialectical correction from the unconscious%r perhaps not- Possibly wisdom could succeed without any seal of appro al from <od$ or natural law$ or harmonious agreement with the unus mundus- "t might thri e simply as an ongoing discussion regarding what is the best thing to do$ or the wise thing"nstead of a solid anchoring in the Absolute$ a floating buoy on the e er7restless sea of human perspecti es- That is$ a person$ or a community$ recognizes HwisdomI as a placeholder for Hthe best possible choiceI$ whate er that may be- And the person or group loo6s to that standard$ belie ing that there is no higher- Particular decisions made according to it will certainly change with time- After all$ we ha e formed rough consensus agreement that #omo sapiens is still immature mentally and spiritually$ still prone to dreadful error and e il- Perhaps we always will be so prone$ but right now we certainly are- *urthermore there are strong disagreements about basic alues and religious (=?

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

truths that easily lead to odium religiosum$ horror tales of which history regales us in plenty- 2e recognize there is a strong tendency toward these hatreds$ and toward abuses of power$ and build in chec6s against them- - - %ne can see how this might be de eloped<oring:s F344?G Hnew spiritualityI will of necessity ha e particular content that will e entually become outmoded and need to be replaced by a newer spirituality$ whereas by going to Hthe best possible choiceI right from the beginning$ recognizing that our understanding of what this is will change in different places and times$ we ha e a standard by which to negotiate all differences$ for e0ample disagreements between Paul and the Dews and <ree6s%riginally$ in Shuruppa6:s time$ wisdom appears to ha e been a straightforward pattern for successful coping in a relati ely static agricultural society- "t became identified with <od or the way of nature- *or the <ree6s it was lin6ed with the <ood$ and parsed into aG 6nowledge of first principles and what follows from them$ and bG the best decision possible- Soon thereafter it was made an icon of perfection$ and then by the #hristians ta6en away from proud humans and gi en to <od Fpersonified in #hristG and sapientia turned into pietas- *ifteen hundred years later$ it struggled to free itself as purely moral Budgment and before you 6now it$ the /nlightenment made it disappear-& The scientistic$ rational grip of the /nlightenment soon wea6ened$ and wisdom is reborn into an empirical household where it now passes its tender years- >ow it has the opportunity to a oid the errors of its past- - - not that they were mista6es in their time$ mind you$ but there was a lac6 of historical awareness$ a nai ete that mistoo6 truth7in7 conte0t for ultimate7truth- @ut now+

&

Perhaps the strong emphasis on wisdom by Easons$ Rosicrucians$ and other followers of esotericTpersonal transformation paths was responsible in part for the abandonment of wisdom by the new empiric$ obBecti e science- This possibility has not been raised$ to my 6nowledge-

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Recently$ psychologists ha e e0plored the so7called higher cogniti e functions+ problem7sol ing$ problem7finding$ planning$ reflecting$ creati ity$ deeper understanding- And they ha e also called attention to the emerging capacity to thin6 about one:s own mindPto reflect on one:s own memory Fmetamnemonic capacitiesG$ one:s own thin6ing Fmetacogniti e capacitiesG$ and e en one:s own representations Fmetarepresentational capacitiesG- g Thin6ing e0plicitly about one:s own mind$ about one:s own thin6ing$ may be a relati ely new phenomenon$ e0cept among philosophers- F<ardner 3444+5?G FAnd ":m not too sure that many philosophers grasped this ability for reflecting on and relati izing the productions of their own mind-G A rather new metacogniti e ability on the part of humans enables wisdom to step forth as an ideal standard without leading to belief in a separate realm of ideal reality independent of the thin6er- 2e don:t need to fall for that one again- 2isdom can float as a cipher for Hthe best possible choiceI in e0plicit recognition that what is best for you is not necessarily best for me$ and what our society thin6s of as best may not be best for another society$ and it is more or less guaranteed that it will not always be best for our society- HThe flower faded and the grass withered$ but the word of the ;ord remains fore erI FIsaiah ?'+AG- @ut remains as metalogos-

To return to the abo ementioned enthusiastic isions of human possibilities- @altes$ Smith$ & Staudinger F3443+3(AG write that Hwhat we$ as today:s scientists$ obser e as Mthe: nature of aging may be but a wea6 image of what could be true for old age if societal conditions were different-I The same writers FStaudinger$ Smith$ & @altes 344(+(A'G suggest that using life re iew scenarios may be a way for helping people de elop 6nowledge about life and Hacquisition of wisdom7related 6nowledge about others and oneself-I Eembers of the EP" group ha e also repeatedly stressed that contemporary society does not offer optimal opportunities for full de elopment of older people- Smith$ Staudinger$ & @altes F344?+443G$ for e0ample$ write that Hat least in contemporary (==

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

western societies$ a cultural setting that supports and accepts optimal functioning in old age has yet to e ol e-I Staudinger F3444+=?(G obser es that$ although in the studies of the EP" group wisdom has not been found to increase after around the age of twenty7fi e$ Hit may still be possible that under certain conditions higher age not only contributes to the attainment of wisdom but is also necessary for it-I *rom the early days of their wisdom research Fe-g-$ @altes & Smith 344'G$ the EP" group has speculated on the conditions facilitati e of wisdom de elopment- #ertain professions$ certain life e0periences$ might be particularly facilitati e$ but only if they are reflected on and 6ept in memory- Eentors may be of great importance$ a different group of researchers$ Eontgomery$ @arber$ & Ec,ee F(''(G$ proposeStaudinger & @altes F344=G point out that their paradigm of wisdom Hoffers entirely concrete$ operationalizable criteria$ that permit the planning and e aluation of inter entions that are directed toward the de elopment of competence in general life situationsI Fauf den Ausbau allgemeiner -ebensgestaltungs%ompeten6en gerichtet sindGThis is of lasting importance- Some researchers F;yster$ as reported in ,ramer$ ('''9 or Helson & Sri asta a$ (''(G ha e ta6en up the EP" group:s method for assessing wisdom$ as6ing participants to respond to hypothetical difficult situations- Such assessment is much more time7consuming and e0pensi e to score than a questionnaire such as Ardelt:s F(''&G &D72S which has &4 statements to respond to on a fi e7point strongly agreeTstrongly disagree scale- @oth measures ha e some ad antages and some limitations- "t is the operationalizing in itself that may be most important$ as if empiric researchers ha e at last gotten a grip on wisdom$ howe er feeble$ and can search for ways now to measure it better- 2e ha e a way to ma6e wisdom isible to empirical science-

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

2isdom is famous for being difficult of attainment- Spinoza:s conclusion to the Ethics, that the road to wisdom is ery hard$ H@ut all things e0cellent are as difficult as they are rareI is a chec6 to too light7hearted optimism regarding efforts to culti ate wisdom in the general populace- " do not see a preferable alternati e- "n a democratic age$ the challenge to the citizen is to rule hirself capably and to ta6e responsibility for the go ernment of the community- 2e ha e waited a long time for wisdom to return- "t has a still7tenuous e0istence$ and one ho ers an0iously around to try to assist its sur i al- @ut it always seems to turn out that larger forces are in play in such instances+ when the time is right$ the teacher appears- The learning of wisdom seems an almost superhuman attainment$ as the learning of language or of wal6ing upright might ha e seemed to our ancestors if they were capable of isualizing that step- #an #omo sapiens become wise8 Staudinger F34A4+3=?G describes a simple program for the de elopment of wisdom$ beginning with the acquisition of 6nowledge of the Hfundamental life pragmaticsI and reflecting on them- %ne learns about the difficult and basic life situations$ the beha ior patterns of others and what happens in interrelations- A person meanwhile is learning about hirself+ strengths and wea6nesses$ moti ations and emotions$ and Hfinally$ heTshe may be able to abstract 6nowledge about social rules and the ma6e7up of society surrounding himTher-I Progress is not li6ely to be quite so linear$ and the curriculum can be laid out in more detail$ but this is a reasonable starting point- "n this wor6 Staudinger writes of the alue of life re iew for learning about fundamental life pragmaticsStaudinger$ Smith$ & @altes F344(+(A'G conclude their report of a test of a life7 re iew tas6 for measuring wisdom7related 6nowledge with the suggestion that it might be possible to use life re iew scenarios for helping people de elop wisdom7related 6nowledge$ and that such an approach might also help clarify the relation between (=A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

personality de elopment and wisdom7related 6nowledge- *inding a how to culti ate wisdom will not be nearly as difficult as finding a wh $ finding and nurturing the moti ation- Hall F34((G pointed out the almost epochal new opportunities for a higher le el of e0isting that ha e become a ailable with increased lifespan- The technological aids$ the 6nowledge e0plosion$ the possibility of increased leisure too$ all add to possibilities for continued psychosocial de elopment toward wisdom- @ut the path is hard$ and to tra erse it requires will$ dedication$ moti ation- *ortunately the path can be trod a step at a time- This is not a commitment for a single lifetime^ @altes spea6s of wisdom as pro iding Hfast and frugal heuristicsI for coming to an optimal decision- Through following a simple model$ it would not be correct to say that any fool can act wisely$ but it would be correct to say that any fool can act more wisely$ and a model can be de eloped$ tested$ and impro ed$ by which people can as6 the questions regarding$ and guide their choices toward$ the goal of optimal outcomes- The concept of wisdom helps pro ide some directionPwise decisions are not matters of personal preference$ any more than health or intelligence are- Some restrictions wisdom places upon candidates for optimal choices are 3- They must attempt to answer the question$ 2hat is important for humans8 Any choice with pretensions to wisdom has this inescapable e0igency- #all this$ H*alling into the hands of the li ing <od-I 2hether or not <od is dead$ the question$ 2hat is most important8 remains$ and one ignores it at hir peril- A wisdom choice must stri e to align with that which is most important(- They must ta6e into account the limits of human 6nowledge$ including the limits of possibilities for human 6nowledge Fand the difficulty of communicating e0tremely ad anced insights to a erage people in a democratic societyG(=4

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

&- They must ta6e into account all aspects of human e0istence- These can be categorized as physical$ mental$ social$ and spiritual- At least reasons must be pro ided for slighting any of these?- They must ta6e into account the interests of all the beings in ol ed$ including future beings- At least reasons must be pro ided for slighting the interests of those who will be affected-

Such a H@est Possible #hoiceI model can also be used to supplement decisions made through other methods- <i en the circumstances$ decisions might be made according to other models9 for e0ample$ through the influence of single7issue pressure groups or constraining emergencies- "n this case$ a wisdom model can be used for comparison$ as a chec6 on the course that has been chosenA wisdom model can be a reminder of the possibilities$ of the possibility and desirability of wisdom$ and pro ide a stimulus to ma6ing wise choices- Humans ha e only begun to recognize wisdom:s alue and import- 2isdom can be an organizing and directing principle of action- *la ell F3454+4'5G demonstrates that Hit is possible to acquire metacogniti e strategies as well as cogniti e onesI$ and wisdom strategies should in principle be no less acquirableReturning to Sternberg:s statement F344'+i0G that scientific wor6 in a field of 6nowledge goes through four stages$ and that empirical research into wisdom is currently in the second$ mar6ed by an enthusiastic setting forth of paradigms$ the models so far put forth do not by any stretch of the imagination encompass the totality of the concept of wisdom- @y finding ways to operationalize wisdom and legitimize its study in academia$ psychologists ha e performed an important ser ice$ comparable to the empirical studies (5'

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

of spirituality$ wellness$ and positi e psychology in general- These too are recently initiated- "n relation to what could be done$ they are a bare beginning- #arl7*riedrich <eyer F34A4+))7=G quotes E- Eacho ec+ HSo long as high intellect goes down the path of decline$ and o ershadows wisdom$ so also goes the entire ci ilization down the certain and ery unwise path to total self7destruction-I Oang F(''3+=55G writes that H"n the last analysis$ indi idual actualization of conceptions of wisdom in real life$ and the positi e impact of these wise decisions and actions$ may be the ehicle of the ad ance of human ci ilizations-I There is something uniquely aluable to be gained from achie ing clear understanding of wisdom and ta6ing a wisdom approach to li ingPespecially at this time-

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Re"erences

Achenaum$ 2- Andrew- 3445- HThe 2isdom of AgePAn Historian:s Perspecti e-I !ni ersity of >orth #arolina "nstitute on Aging Distinguished ;ecture Series$ April &$ 3445- Swww-aging-unc-eduTinfocenterTresourcesT3445Tachenbaumw-pdfU- accessed 33T5T(''?hhhhhh- (''?- 2isdom:s Cision of Relations- #uman &e0elopment F,argerG$ Col- ?5F)G$ September+&''7&'&Achenbaum$ 2- A-$ & %rwoll$ ;- 3443- H@ecoming wise+ A Psycho7gerontological interpretation of the boo6 of Dob-I International ;ournal of Aging and #uman &e0elopment$ Col- &(F3G+(37&4Adler$ Eortimer D- >-d- HEodern Science and Ancient 2isdom-I The )adical Academ website- Shttp+TTradicalacademy-comTadlersciwisdom-htmU- &T(3T('')Ale0ander$ #harles >-$ & /llen D- ;anger F/ds-G- 344'- #igher Stages of #uman &e0elopment- >ew Oor6+ %0fordAnnan$ ,ofi- (''&- H"mplementation of the !nited >ations Eillennium Declaration+ Report of the Secretary7<eneral-I ( September- !nited >ations <eneral Assembly AT)AT&(&- Shttp+TTods7dds7 ny-un-orgTdocT!>D%#T</>T>'&T?A3T)5TPD*T>'&?A3)5-pdf8%pen/lementUaccessed 3'T(AT(''&Aquinas$ St- Thomas- Scriptum super Sententiis- F;iber """ a distinctione XXX"C ad distinctionem XXXCG- Te0tum Parmae 3A)A editumSwww-corpusthomisticum-orgTiopera-htmli%EUhhhhhh- Summa Theologiae- Swww-corpusthomisticum-orgU(5(

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Ardelt$ Eoni6a- 3445- H2isdom and ;ife Satisfaction in %ld Age-I ;ournal of 7erontolog 9 Ps chological Sciences$ Col- )(@F3G+P3)7P(5hhhhhh- ('''- HAntecedents and /ffects of 2isdom in %ld Age+ A ;ongitudinal Perspecti e on Aging 2ell-I )esearch on Aging$ Col ((F?G$ Duly+&='7&4?hhhhhh- ('''a- H"ntellectual Cersus 2isdom7Related ,nowledge+ The #ase for a Different ,ind of ;earning in the ;ater Oears of ;ife-I Educational 7erontolog $ (=+55375A4hhhhhh- (''&- H/mpirical Assessment of a Three7Dimensional 2isdom Scale-I )esearch on Aging$ Col- ()F&G+(5)7&(?hhhhhh- (''?- H2isdom as /0pert ,nowledge System+ A #ritical Re iew of a #ontemporary %perationalization of an Ancient #oncept-I #uman &e0elopment ?5+()57(A)hhhhhh- (''?a- H2here #an 2isdom @e *ound8I #uman &e0elopment ?5+&'?7&'5Aristotle- Metaph sics- Translated by 2- D- Ross- Internet ,lassics Archi0e$ Shttp+TTclassics-mit-eduTAristotleTmetaphysics-3-i-htmlU- accessed &T)T('')hhhhhh- 34=(- Nichomachean Ethics- Translated$ with "ntroduction and notes by Eartin %stwald- "ndianapolis+ ;ibrary of ;iberal ArtsP@obbs7Eerrillhhhhhh- 34&?- Nicomachean Ethics- Te0t$ with an /nglish translation by H- Rac6ham#ambridge$ EA+ ;oeb #lassical ;ibrary7Har ard !ni ersity PressArlin$ Particia ,ennedy- 344'- H2isdom+ The Art of Problem *inding-I (&'7(?& in Wisdom9 Its Nature, 3rigins, and &e0elopment edited by Sternberg$ Robert- D-$ /d->ew Oor6+ #ambridge !ni ersity PressAspinwall$ ;isa <-$ & !rsula E- Staudinger F/ds-G- (''&- A Ps cholog of #uman Strengths9 5undamental 4uestions and 5uture &irections for a Positi0e Ps cholog (5&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

2ashington$ D#+ American Psychological AssociationAssmann$ Aleida- 344?- H2holesome 6nowledge+ #oncepts of wisdom in a historical and cross7cultural perspecti e- Pp- 3A57((? in -ife/span &e0elopment and 'eha0ior$ Col3(- Da id ;- *eatherman$ /d-$ Richard E- ;erner$ /d-$ et al- Hillsdale$ >D+ ;awrence /rlbaum AssociatesAtchley$ Robert #- 344&- HSpiritual De elopment and 2isdom+ A Cedantic Perspecti e-I Pp- ?547?A& in Enc clopedia of Adult &e0elopment$ Robert ,astenbaum$ /dPhoeni0$ AN+ %ry0 PressAugustinus Hipponensis- &e 'eata *ita -iber DnusSwww-augustinus-itTlatinoTfelicitaTinde0-htmU hhhhhh- &e &octrina ,hristiana -ibri 4uatuorSwww-augustinus-itTlatinoTdottrinahcristianaTinde0(-htmU hhhhhh- &e Trinitate -ibri 4uindecim- Swww-augustinus-itTlatinoTtrinitaTinde0-htmU hhhhhh- Enchiridion &e 5ide, Spe Et ,haritate -iber DnusSwww-augustinus-itTlatinoTenchiridionTinde0-htmU

@altes$ Paul @- 34A5- HTheoretical Propositions of ;ife7Span De elopmental Psychology+ %n the Dynamics @etween <rowth and Decline-I &e0elopmental Ps cholog (&F)G$ September+=337=(=hhhhhh- 344&- HThe aging mind+ Potential limits-I 7erontologist &&F)G$%ctober+ )A'7)4?hhhhhh- (''?- Wisdom as 3rchestration of Mind and *irtue$ @oo6 in preparation$ Swww-mpib7berlin-mpg-deTdo6TfullTbaltesTorchestrTinde0-htmU- !pdate &T(''?$ Ea0 Planc6 "nstitute for Human De elopment- accessed 3'T35T(''?@altes$ Paul @- and Ale0andra E- *reund- (''&- HThe "ntermarriage of 2isdom and (5?

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Selecti e %ptimization with #ompensation+ Two Eeta7heuristics <uiding the #onduct of ;ife-I Pp- (?47(5& in 5lourishing9 Positi0e Ps cholog and the -ife Well/ -i0ed edited by #orey ;- E- ,eyes and Donathan Haidt- 2ashington$ D#+ American Psychological Association@altes$ Paul @-$ Dudith <lZc6$ and !te ,unzmann- (''(- H2isdom+ "ts Structure and *unction in Regulating Successful ;ifespan De elopment-I Pp- &(57&?5 in #andboo% of Positi0e Ps cholog $ edited by #- R- Snyder and Shane D- ;opez;ondon+ %0ford !ni ersity Press@altes$ Paul- @-$ & !te ,unzmann- (''&- H2isdom-I The Ps chologist 3=+3&373&(hhhhhh- (''?- HThe Two *aces of 2isdom+ 2isdom as a <eneral Theory of ,nowledge and Dudgment about /0cellence in Eind and Cirtue s- 2isdom as / eryday Realization in People and Products-I #uman &e0elopment ?5+(4'7(44@altes$ Paul @-$ & Dacqui Smith- 344'- HThe psychology of wisdom and its ontogenesis-I Pp- A573(' in Wisdom9 Its nature, origins, and de0elopment$ edited by Robert DSternberg- >ew Oor6+ #ambridge !ni ersity Press@altes$ P- @-$ D- Smith$ & !- E- Staudinger- 3443- H2isdom and Successful Aging-I Pp3(&73=5 in Nebras%a S mposium on Moti0ation$ Col- &4$ edited by T- Sonderegger F/d-G$ ;incoln$ >/+ !ni ersity of >ebras6a Press@altes$ Paul @-$ & !rsula E- Staudinger- 344&- HThe Search for a Psychology of 2isdom-I ,urrent &irections in Ps chological Science (F&G$ Dune+5)7A'hhhhhh$ F/ds-G- 344=- Interacti0e Minds9 -ife/Span Perspecti0es on the Social 5oundation of ,ognition- >ew Oor6+ #ambridge !ni ersity Presshhhhhh- ('''- H2isdom+ A Eetaheuristic FPragmaticG To %rchestrate Eind and Cirtue Toward /0cellence-I American Ps chologist ))F3G+3((73&=(5)

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

@altes$ Paul @-$ !rsula E- Staudinger$ Andreas Eaerc6er$ & Dacqui Smith- 344)- HPeople >ominated as 2ise+ A #omparati e Study of 2isdom7Related ,nowledge-I Ps cholog and Aging 3'F(G$ Dune+3))73==@annister$ Robert #- 34AA- Sociology and Scientism+ The #ase of 2illiam *- %gburnPaper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Society$ 34AASwww-swarthmore-eduTSocSciTrbannis3TSociologyT%gburnTogburn-ASS-htmlUaccessed AT()T('')@irren$ Dames /-$ & ;aurel E- *isher- 344'- HThe /lements of 2isdom+ % er iew and "ntegration-I Pp- &357&&( in Wisdom9 Its Nature, 3rigins, and &e0elopment$ edited by Robert D- Sternberg- >ew Oor6+ #ambridge !ni ersity Press@lanchard7*ields$ *redda and ;isa >orris- 344)- HThe De elopment of 2isdom-I Pp 3'(733A in Aging, Spiritualit , and )eligion9 A #andboo%$ edited by Eel in A,imble$ Susan H- Ec*adden$ Dames 2ellor$ and Dames *- Seeber- Einneapolis+ *ortress Press@lanshard$ @rand- 34=5- H2isdom-I in The Enc clopedia of Philosoph $ editor in chief Paul /dwards- >ew Oor6+ Eacmillan@luc6$ Susan$ and Dudith <lZc6- (''?- HEa6ing Things @etter and ;earning a ;esson+ /0periencing 2isdom Across the ;ifespan-I ;ournal of Personalit 5(F&G$ Dune+)?&7 )5(@oadt$ ;awrence- 34A)- St- Thomas Aquinas and the @iblical 2isdom TraditionSwww-thomist-orgTBournalT34A)T%ctoberT34A)[('%ct[('A[@oadt[('web-htmUaccessed )T((T('')@oone$ D- Allen- 345=- 8inship with All -ife- >ew Oor6+ Harper#ollins7 HarperSan*rancisco(5=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

@oulding$ ,enneth /- 34=)- The Meaning of the Twentieth ,entur - >ew Oor6+ Harper and Row@rown$ Ale0andra R- F('')G- 2isdom ;iterature+ Theoretical Prespecti es- "n ;indsay Dones$ /ditor in #hief$ Enc clopedia of )eligion$ (nd ed- Detroit+ Thomson <aleP Eacmillan- Col- 3?$ 45=(745==@zda6$ Eichael D- (''3- H2isdom and /ducation in the Eiddle Ages+ "mages and Traditions-I !npublished dissertation- Rutgers$ the State !ni ersity of >ew Dersey-

#annella$ @arbara ;-$ and Eary Ann Scolo eno- (''&- HAn "ntegrati e Re iew of Positi e Health Practices-I ,linical Nursing )esearch 3(F?G$ >o ember+ &(?7&&4#attell$ R- @- 3453- Abilities9 Their Structure, 7rowth and Action- @oston+ Houghton Eifflin#handler$ Eichael D- with Stephen Holliday- 344'- H2isdom in a Postapocalyptic Age-I Pp- 3(373?3 in Wisdom9 Its Nature, 3rigins, and &e0elopment$ edited by Robert DSternberg- >ew Oor6+ #ambridge !ni ersity Press#harron$ Pierre- 3545 J3='3K- &e la sagesse$ 3st ed- Paris+ de #haignieauShttp+TT isualiseur-bnf-frT#adres*enetre8%L>!EE7A5A55&ELnotice&OLTe0teU#icero$ E- Tullius- Tusculanae &isputationes$ ed- !n6nown- The ;atin ;ibrarySwww-thelatinlibrary-comTciceroTtusc-shtmlU#layton$ Ci ian- 345)- H/ri6son:s Theory %f Human De elopment As "t Applies To The Aged+ 2isdom As #ontradicti e #ognition-I #uman &e0elopment 3AF37(G+ 3347(Ahhhhhh- 345=- HA Eultidimensional Scaling analysis of the #oncept of 2isdom-I !npublished doctoral dissertation$ !ni ersity of Southern #aliforniahhhhhh- 34A(- H2isdom and "ntelligence+ The >ature and *unction %f ,nowledge "n the (55

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

;ater Oears-I International ;ournal of Aging and #uman &e0elopment 3)F?G+ &3)7(3#layton$ Ci ian P- and Dames /- @irren- 34A'- HThe De elopment %f 2isdom Across the ;ife Span+ A Ree0amination %f an Ancient Topic-I -ife/Span &e0elopment and 'eha0ior &+ 3'&73&)#olby$ Anne$ & 2illiam Damon- 344(- Some &o ,are9 ,ontemporar -i0es of Moral ,ommitment- >ew Oor6+ EacmillanPThe *ree Press#ollingwood$ R- <- 34&&- An Essa on Philosophical Method- >ew Oor6+ %0ford !ni ersity Press#ollins$ Dames Daniel- 34=(- The -ure of Wisdom- Eilwau6ee+ Earquette !ni ersity Press#ommons$ Eichael ;amport- (''(- H"ntroduction+ Attaining a >ew Stage-I ;ournal of Adult &e0elopment 4F&G$ Duly+ 3))73)5#onley$ ,ieran- 34=&- A Theolog of Wisdom- Dubuque$ "A+ Priory Press#onley$ ,- H2isdom-I (''&- Pp- 4A?74A5in New ,atholic Enc clopedia$ (nd ed- Detroit+ Thomson7<ale- Col- 3?#ooper$ Harris E- 34A(- HScientific <uidelines for #onducting "ntegrati e Research Re iews-I )e0iew of Eductional )esearch )(F(G$ Summer+ (437&'(#o ington$ Eartin C- ('''- <oal Theory$ Eoti ation$ and School Achie ement+ An "ntegrati e Re iew- Annual )e0iew of Ps cholog )3+ 3537(''#raig$ /dward$ <eneral editor- 344A- )outledge Enc clopedia of Philosoph - ;ondon and >ew Oor6+ Routledge#risbgono de Descs$ R- P- 34=?- *ida de San ;uan de la ,ru6- "n *ida 3bras de San ;uan de la ,ru6$ )th ed- ;ucinio del Ss- Sacramento$ /d- Eadrid+ @iblioteca de Autores #ristianos(5A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

#rombie$ "- E- 34=&- An E!amination of Plato2s &octrines" *olume Two, Plato on 8nowledge and )ealit " >ew Oor6+ The Humanities Press#uomo$ #hris D- 344A- 5eminism and Ecological ,ommunities9 An Ethic 3f 5lourishing;ondon and >ew Oor6+ Routledge#urnow$ Tre or- 3444- Wisdom, Intuition and Ethics" Aldershot$ !, & @roo6field$ CT+ Ashgate#si6szentmihalyi$ Eihalyi and ,e in Rathunde- 344'- HThe Psychology of 2isdom+ An / olutionary "nterpretation-I Pp- ()7)3 in Wisdom9 Its Nature, 3rigins, and &e0elopment edited by Robert- D- Sternberg- >ew Oor6+ #ambridge !ni ersity Press-

Deane7Drummond$ #elia- 3444- H*uturenatural8 A *uture of Science Through the ;ens of 2isdom-I Pp- ?37)4 in #e ; I-- %0ford$ !,$ and @oston+ @lac6wellhhhhhh- ('''- H#ome to the @anquet+ See6ing 2isdom in a <enetically /ngineered /arth-I Ecotheolog 4+ (57&5Denney$ >ancy 2-$ Dames R- Dew$ and Shenan ;- ,roupa- 344)- HPerceptions of 2isdom+ 2hat "s "t and 2ho Has "t8I ;ournal of Adult &e0elopment (F3G+ &57?5Descartes$ Rene- 3=??$ 3=?5- Selections from The Principles of Philosoph - Translated by Dohn Ceitch- The #lassical ;ibrarySwww-classicallibrary-orgTdescartesTprinciplesTinde0-htmUDittmann7,ohli$ *-$ & @altes$ P- @- 344'- HToward a >eofunctionalist #onception %f Adult "ntellectual De elopment+ 2isdom As a Protypical #ase %f "ntellectual <rowth-I Pp- )?75A "n #igher Stages of #uman &e0elopment$ edited by #harles >Ale0ander & /llen D- ;anger- >ew Oor6+ %0ford !ni ersity PressDonini$ Pierluigi- 3444- HStoic /thics$ C"""7X"-I Pp- 5')75&A in The ,ambridge #istor (54

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

of #ellenistic Philosoph edited by ,eimpe Algra$ Donathan @arnes$ Daap Eansfeld$ Ealcolm Schofield- #ambridge$ !,$ >ew Oor6+ #ambridge !ni ersity Press-Doyle$ Rodger- ('')- HThe ;ion:s Share+ Eeasuring the Human "mpact on <lobal Resources-I Scientific American$ April+ &'Dunne$ Doseph- 3445- 'ac% To the )ough 7round- >otre Dame$ ">+ !ni ersity of >otre Dame PressDupre$ ;ouis- 344&- HThe #ommon <ood and the %pen Society-I )e0iew of Politics ))F?G$ *all+ =A5753(-

/ricsson$ ,- Anders$ & Dacqui Smith$ F/ds-G- 3443- Toward a 7eneral Theor of E!pertise 9 Prospects and -imits- #ambridge$ /ngland+ #ambridge !ni ersity Press/ri6son$ /ri6 H- 34)A- Joung Man -uther" A Stud Ps choanal sis and #istor - >ew Oor6+ 2- 2- >ortonhhhhhh- 34)4- Identit and the -ife , cle- Psychological "ssues Eonograph "- >ewor6+ "nternational !ni ersities Presshhhhhh- 34=&- ,hildhood and Societ F(nd edG- >ew Oor6+ >ortonhhhhhh- 34=4- 7andhiKs Truth9 3n the 3rigin of Militant Non0iolence- >ew Oor6+ 2-2->ortonhhhhhh- 3445- The -ife , cle ,ompleted- /0tended ersion with >ew #hapters on the >inth Stage of De elopment by Doan H- /ri6son- >ew Oor6+ 2- 2- >orton/ri6son$ /ri6 H-$ Doan E- /ri6son$ and Helen V- ,i nic6- 34A=- *ital In0ol0ement in 3ld Age- >ew Oor6+ 2- 2- >orton-

*etzer "nstitute$ >ational "nstitute on Aging 2or6ing <roup- 3444- Eultidimensional (A'

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Eeasurement %f Religiousness$ Spirituality for !se "n Health Research- A Report %f a >ational 2or6ing <roup- ,alamazoo$ E"+ *etzer "nstitute*la ell$ Dohn- H- 3454- HEetacognition and #ogniti e Eonitoring+ A >ew Area %f #ogniti e De elopmental "nquiry-I American Ps chologist &?+4'=7433*lesher$ Paul C- E- 344=$ 3445- @uddhism <lossaryShttp+TTuwacadweb-uwyo-eduTreligionetTerTbuddhismT@<;%SSRO-HTEiltr-pUaccessed &T)T('')*ly bBerg$ @ent- (''3- Ma%ing Social Science Matter9 Wh Social In(uir 5ails and #ow It ,an Succeed Again" >ew Oor6+ #ambridge !ni ersity Press*owers$ @laine D- (''&- HReason and Human *initude+ "n Praise of Practical 2isdom-I American 'eha0ioral Scientist ?5F?G$ December+ ?3)7?(=*owler$ Dames 2- 344)- Stages of 5aith9 The Ps cholog of #uman &e0elopment and the 4uest 5or Meaning- >ew Oor6+ Harper#ollins*ran6l$ Ci6tor /- 34A?- Man2s Search 5or Meaning" Third ed- >ew Oor6+ Simon & SchusterPA Touchstone @oo6*riedman$ Thomas ;- (''' J3444K- The -e!is and the 3li0e Tree- >ew Oor6+ Anchor Doubleday-

<anong$ ;awrence H- 34A5- H"ntegrati e Re iews of >ursing Research-I )esearch in Nursing A #ealth 3'+3733<ardner$ Howard- 3444- The &isciplined Mind- >ew Oor6+ Simon & Schuster<arrett$ Richard- 344=- HThree Definitions of 2isdom-I Pp- ((37(&( in ,- ;ehrer$ @- D;um$ @- A- Slichta$ & >- D- Smith$ F/ds-G- 8nowledge, Teaching and WisdomDordrecht and @oston+ ,luwer(A3

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

<eyer$ #arl7*riedrich- 34A4- HPhilosophie im Spannungsfeld on 2eisheit und 2issenschaft-I Pp- )?7=? in Philosophie und Weisheit$ edited by 2illi %elmZllerPaderborn+ Schoeningh<igerenzer$ <erd and Peter E- Todd$ and the A@# Research <roup- 3444- Simple #euristics That Ma%e Ds Smart- >ew Oor6+ %0ford !ni ersity Press<ill$ Derry H- (''(- The Enduring 4uestions9 Traditional and ,ontemporar *oices$ 5th edition- 2adsworth<illigan$ #arol- 34A(- In a &ifferent *oice9 Ps chological Theor and Women2s &e0elopment- #ambridge$ EA+ Har ard !ni ersity Press<illigan$ #arol$ Dohn Eichael Eurphy$ and Ear6 @- Tappan- 344'- HEoral De elopment @eyond Adolescence-I Pp- ('A7(() in #igher Stages of #uman &e0elopment+ Perspecti0es on Adult 7rowth$ edited by #harles >- Ale0ander and /llen D- ;anger>ew Oor6+ %0ford !ni ersity Press<ilson$ /tienne- 34)3- Wisdom and -o0e In Saint Thomas A(uinas- Eilwau6ee$ 2"+ Earquette !ni ersity Presshhhhhh- 34='- The ,hristian Philosoph of Saint Augustine- Trans by ;- /- E- ;ynch>ew Oor6+ Random House<lZc6$ Dudith$ Susan @luc6$ Dacqueline @aron$ Dan P- EcAdams- ('')- HThe 2isdom %f /0perience+ Autobiographical >arrati es Across Adulthood-I International ;ournal of 'eha0ioral &e0elopment (4F&G$ Eay+345e('A<oring$ Rosemary- 344? J344(K- HSpirituality-I P- ?44 in -arousse &ictionar of 'eliefs and )eligions- >ew Oor6+ ;arousse<regory$ R- ;- 34A3- Mind in Science$ >ew Oor6+ #ambridge !ni ersity Press<utmann$ Amy$ and Dennis Thompson- 3445- HDeliberating About @ioethics-I #astings (A(

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

,enter )eport (5F&G$ Eay7Dune+&A7?3-

Haac6$ Susan- (''?- HPragmatism$ %ld and >ew-I ,ontemporar Pragmatism 3F3G$ Dune+&7?3Hall$ <- Stanley- 34((- Senescence, the -ast #alf of -ife" >ew Oor6+ Appleton- Reprint edition$ >ew Oor6+ Arno Press$ 345(Hall$ Todd 2-$ and ,eith D- /dwards- (''(- HThe Spiritual Assessment "n entory+ A Theistic Eodel and Eeasure *or Assessing Spiritual De elopment-I ;ournal for the Scientific Stud of )eligion ?3F(G+&?37&)5Halpern$ Diane *- (''3- H2hy 2isdom8I Educational Ps chologist &=F?G+()&7()=Hal erson$ Richard- (''?- HAccessing$ Documenting$ and #ommunicating Practical 2isdom+ The Phronesis of School ;eadership Practice-I American ;ournal of Education Col- 333F3G$ >o ember+4'73(3Hampson$ >orman- 34=A- The Enlightenment- The Pelican History of /uropean Thought$ Col- ?- @altimore+ PenguinHanna$ *red D-$ and Allen D- %ttens- 344)- HThe Role of 2isdom in Psychotherapy-I ;ournal of Ps chotherap Integration )F&G+34)7(34HappW$ *rancesca <- /-9 /llen 2inner$ Hiram @rownell- 344A- HThe <etting of 2isdom+ Theory of Eind in %ld Age-I &e0elopmental Ps cholog &?F(G$ Earch+&)A7&=(Harding$ Sandra- 3443- Whose ScienceL Whose 8nowledgeL Thin%ing from Women2s -i0es- "thaca$ >O+ #ornell !ni ersity PressHelson$ Ra enna$ & SanBay Sri asta a- (''(- H#reati e and 2ise People+ Similarities$ Differences$ and How They De elop-I Personalit And Social Ps cholog 'ulletin (AF&G$ Earch+3?&'73??'(A&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Hershey$ Douglas A-$ & Alicia H- *arrell- 3445- HPerceptions of 2isdom Associated with Selected %ccupations-I ,urrent Ps cholog 3=F(G$ Summer+33)73&'Hira$ *rancis D-$ & Patricia D- *aul6ender- 3445- HPercei ing 2isdom+ Do Age and <ender Play a Part8I International ;ournal of Aging and #uman &e0elopment ??F(G+A)73'3Hoare$ #arol Hren- (''(- Eri%son on &e0elopment9 New Insights from the Dnpublished Papers- >ew Oor6+ %0ford !ni ersity PressHodes$ >ancy$ and Eichael Hays F/ds-G- 344)- The Dnited Nations and the World2s )eligions9 Prospects for a 7lobal Ethic- #ambridge$ EA+ @oston Research #enter for the (3st #enturyHodge$ Da id R- (''3- HSpiritual Assessment+ A Re iew %f EaBor Vualitati e Eethods and a >ew *ramewor6 *or Assessing Spirituality-I Social Wor% ?=F&G$ Duly+('&7(3?Holliday$ Stephen <-$ Eichael D- #handler- 34A=- Wisdom9 E!plorations in Adult ,ompetence- @asel$ Switzerland+ S- ,arger A<Honderich$ Ted F/d-G- 344)- 3!ford ,ompanion To Philosoph - >ew Oor6+ %0ford !ni ersity PressHorn$ D- ;- 34A(- HThe Aging of Human Abilities-I Pp- A?57A5' in #andboo% of &e0elopmental Ps cholog $ edited by @- @- 2olman- /nglewood #liffs$ >D+ Prentice7 HallHorn$ Dohn ;- and Hiromi Easunaga- ('''- H%n the /mergence %f 2isdom+ /0pertise De elopment-I Pp- (?)7(5= in Dnderstanding Wisdom9 Sources, Science, and Societ $ edited by 2arren S- @rown- Philadelphia+ Templeton *oundation Press$ ('''Hugh of St- Cictor- &idascalicon- Shttp+TTfreespace- irgin-netTangus-grahamTHugh-htmU(A?

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Te0t from the edition by #harles Henry @uttimer F34&4G$ #ugonis de Sancto *ictore &idascalicon de Studio -egendi, a critical te!t$ Studies in Eedie al and Renaissance ;atin X$ 2ashington+ The #atholic !ni ersity PressHume$ Da id- 34?4- An En(uir ,oncerning #uman Dnderstanding- ;asalle$ ";+ %pen #ourt- FReprint from the second olume of the posthumous edition of 3555GHutcheson$ *rancis- (''?- An In(uir into the 3riginal of 3ur Ideas of 'eaut and *irtue35()- /dited and with an "ntroduction by 2olfgang ;eidhold- "ndianapolis+ ;iberty *und$ (''?Shttp+TToll-libertyfund-orgTTe0tsT;*@oo6sTHutcheson'??)T@eautyCirtueT'??4h@6-pdfU

Instructions of Shuruppa%- /lectronic Te0t #orpus of Sumerian ;iterature F/T#S;G%0ford !ni ersity- Shttp+TTetcsl-orinst-o0-ac-u6Tcgi7binTetcsl-cgi8te0tLt-)-=-3iUaccessed 5T(T('')-

Dacobs$ D- 34A4- HPractical 2isdom$ %bBecti ity and Relati ism-I American Philosophical 4uarterl (=+3447('4Dames$ 2illiam- 34)) J34'5$ 34'4K- Pragmatism, and 5our Essa s 5rom the Meaning of Truth- >ew Oor6+ Eeridianhhhhhh- 34)A- The *arieties of )eligious E!perience- >ew Oor6+ >ew American ;ibrary7EentorDason$ ;eonard A-$ Arne Reichler$ #aroline ,ing$ Derry6 Eadsen$ Dennifer #amacho$ 2endy Earchese- (''3- HThe Eeasurement of 2isdom+ A Preliminary /ffort-I ;ournal of ,ommunit Ps cholog (4F)G+)A)7)4ADaspers$ ,arl- 34)? J34)3K- Wa To Wisdom9 An Introduction To Philosoph - Translated (A)

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

by Ralph Eanheim- >ew Ha en+ Oale !ni ersity PressDeannot$ Thomas E- 34A4- HEoral ;eadership and Practical 2isdom-I International ;ournal 3f Social Economics 3=F=G+3?7&ADohnson$ R- /- 34A(- A Stud of Wisdom As )eported ' 3lder Adults In America- Ann Arbor$ E"+ !ni ersity Eicrofilms "nternationalDung$ #arl- 34)4- Aion9 )esearches Into the Phenomenolog of the Self- Trans- by R- *#- Hull- >ew Oor6+ @ollingenhhhhhh- 34=&- Memories, &reams, )eflections, Re - ed- Recorded and edited by Aniela DaffW- Translated from the <erman by Richard and #lara 2inston- >ew Oor6+ Pantheonhhhhhh- 34=5- S mbols of Transformation$ (nd ed- Trans- by R- *- #- Hull- ;ondon+ Routledge & ,egan Paul- J%riginal ersion in <erman 34)(Khhhhhh- 34=A- The Archet pes and the ,ollecti0e Dnconscious$ (nd /d- Trans- by R- *- #Hull- Princeton$ >D+ Princeton !ni ersity Presshhhhhh- 3455 J345'K- M sterium ,oniunctionis$ (nd ed- Trans- R- *- #- Hull- Princeton$ >D+ Princeton !ni ersity Press-

,ant$ "mmanuel- 34=?- 7roundwor% of the Metaph sic of Morals" Translated by H- DPaton- >ew Oor6+ Harper & Row e Harper Torchboo6s,e6es$ Dohn- 34A&- H2isdom-I American Philosophical 4uarterl ('+(557(A=hhhhhh- 344)- Moral Wisdom and 7ood -i0es- "thaca$ >O+ #ornell !ni ersity Press,itchener$ ,aren Strohm$ & Helene <- @renner- 344'- H2isdom and Reflecti e Degement+ ,nowing in the *ace of !ncertainty-I Pp- (3(7((4 in Wisdom9 Its Nature, 3rigins, and &e0elopment$ edited by Robert- D- Sternberg- >ew Oor6+ #ambridge !ni ersity (A=

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Press-,ohl$ Ear in- (''3- H2isdom and the A0iom of *utility-I The Philosophical 5orum &(F3G$ Spring+5&74&,ohlberg$ ;awrence- 34=4- HStage and Sequence- The #ogniti e7De elopmental Approach to Socialization-I Pp- &?57&A' in #andboo% of Sociali6ation Theor and )esearch$ edited by Da id A- <oslin- #hicago$ ";+ Rand Ec>ally-hhhhhh- 34A3- The Philosoph of Moral &e0elopment F/ssays on Eoral De elopment$ Col- 3G- >ew Oor6+ Harper & Row,ohut$ Heinz- 345A- The Search for the Self- Cols- 3 and ($ Paul H- %rnstein$ /d- >ew Oor6+ "nternational !ni ersities Presshhhhhh- 34A)- Self/Ps cholog and the #umanities- >ew Oor6+ 2- 2- >orton,ramer$ Deirdre A- 344'- H#onceptualizing 2isdom+ the Primacy of Affect7cognition Relations-I Pp- (547&3& in Wisdom9 Its Nature, 3rigins, and &e0elopment$ edited by Robert- D- Sternberg- >ew Oor6+ #ambridge !ni ersity Presshhhhhh- ('''- H2isdom As a #lassical Source of Human Strength+ #onceptualization and /mpirical "nquiry-I ;ournal of Social and ,linical Ps cholog 34F3G+A&73'3,uhn$ Thomas S- 345'- The Structure 3f Scientific )e0olutions- #hicago+ !ni ersity of #hicago Press,unzmann$ !te$ and P- @- @altes- (''&- H@eyond the Traditional Scope of "ntelligence+ 2isdom "n Action-I Pp- &(47&?& in Models of Intelligence9 International Perspecti0es$ edited by R- D- Sternberg$ D- ;autrey$ et al- 2ashington$ D#+ American Psychological Associationhhhhhh- (''&a- H2isdom7Related ,nowledge+ Affecti e$ Eoti ational$ and "nterpersonal #orrelates-I Personalit and Social Ps cholog 'ulletin (4F4G$ September+33'?73334(A5

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

;abou ie7Cief$ <isela- 344'- H2isdom As "ntegrated Thought+ Historical and De elopmental Perspecti es-I Pp- )(7A& in Wisdom9 Its Nature, 3rigins, and &e0elopment$ edited by Robert- D- Sternberg- >ew Oor6+ #ambridge !ni ersity Press;ehrer$ ,-$ @- D- ;um$ @- A- Slichta$ & >- D- Smith- F/ds-G- 344=- 8nowledge, Teaching and Wisdom- Dordrecht and @oston+ ,luwer;ehrer$ ,eith$ and >icholas D- Smith- 344=- H"ntroductory /ssay+ ,nowledge$ Teaching and 2isdom-I Pp- &735 in 8nowledge, Teaching and Wisdom$ edited by ,- ;ehrer$ D;um$ @- A- Slichta$ & >- D- Smith- Dordrecht and @oston+ ,luwer;eisegang$ Hans- 345(- HSophia-I Paul s )ealen6 %lopHdie der ,lassischen Altertumswissenschaft" Eunich+ Alfred Druc6enmZller;e itt$ H-E- 3444- HThe De elopment of 2isdom+ An Analysis of Tibetan @uddhist /0perience-I ;ournal of #umanistic Ps cholog &4+A=e3');imas$ Eichael D- and Robert %- Hansson- (''?- H%rganizational 2isdom-I International ;ournal of Aging and #uman &e0elopment )4F(G+A)73'&;owry$ Richard D- 345&- A" #" Maslow9 An Intellectual Portrait- Eonterey$ #A+ @roo6sT#ole Publishing;yster$ Tracy ;- 344=- HA >omination Approach To the Study of 2isdom "n %ld Age-I Doctoral Dissertation$ #oncordia !ni ersity$ Eontreal$ Vuebec$ #anada-

Eac"ntyre$ Alasdair- 34A?- After *irtue$ (nd ed- >otre Dame$ ">+ !ni ersity of >otre Dame Presshhhhhh- 344A- The MacInt re )eader- /d- by ,el in ,night- >otre Dame$ ">+ !ni ersity of >otre Dame Press(AA

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

hhhhhh- 3444- &ependent )ational Animals+ Wh #uman 'eings Need the *irtues#hicago and ;a Salle$ ";+ %pen #ourtEac"ntyre$ Alasdair9 A-2- Eoore$ E-D- "nwood- 3445- HHistory of Philosophy-I Philosophical 'oo%s$ %ctober 3445 &AF?G+(&47(?=Eaerc6er$ A-$ S- @_hmig$ & !- E- Staudinger- 344A- H/0istentielle ,onfrontation+ /ine !ntersuchung mit einem psychologischen 2eisheitsparadigmaI JH/0istential confrontation+ An /mpirical "n estigation !sing a Psychological 2isdom ParadigmIK- :eitschrift fMr Entwic%lungsps chologie und PHdagogische Ps chologie J;ournal of &e0elopmental and Educational Ps cholog K &'+(73(Eansbridge$ Dane- ('''- HResponse to The #ommon <ood and the ;anguage of #atholic Social Thought$ @y Dohn #oleman$ SD-I Paper presented at the #ommonweal Spring (''' #olloquium$ Eay 3(73?Swww-catholicsinpublicsquare-orgTpapersTspring('''commonwealTmansbridgerespo nseTmansbridgeprint-htmU- accessed 3(T(3T(''?Earchand$ Helena- (''&- HAn % er iew of the Psychology of 2isdom-I Prometheus Research <roup- Swww-prometheus-org-u6T*ilesTEarchand%n2isdom-PD*Uaccessed 33T35T(''?Earquard$ %do- 34A4- HDrei @etrachtungen zum Thema MPhilosophie und 2eisheit:-I JHThree %bser ations %n the Theme of MPhilosophy and 2isdomIK- Pp- (5)7&'A in Philosophie und Weisheit$ edited by 2illi %elmZller- Paderborn+ SchoeninghEaslow$ Abraham H- 34=A J34=(K- Toward a Ps cholog of 'eing$ re - ed- >ew Oor6+ Can >ostrandhhhhhh- 345'- Moti0ation and Personalit " (nd ed- >ew Oor6+ Harper & Rowhhhhhh- 3453- The 5arther )eaches of #uman Nature- >ew Oor6+ Ci6ing Press(A4

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Ea0well$ >icholas- 34A?- 5rom 8nowledge to Wisdom- %0ford$ /ngland$ and >ew Oor6+ @asil @lac6wellhhhhhh- H"n Defence of See6ing 2isdom-I (''?- Eetaphilosophy &)F)G+5&&75?&Ec,ee$ Patric6$ and #lifton @arber- 3444- H%n Defining 2isdom-I The International ;ournal of Aging and #uman &e0elopment ?4F(G+3?473=?Ec>eill$ D- R- ('''- Something New Dnder the Sun9 An En0ironmental #istor 3f the Twentieth/,entur World- >ew Oor6+ 2- 2- >ortonEeacham$ D- A- 34A&- H2isdom and the #onte0t %f ,nowledge+ ,nowing That %ne Doesn:t ,now-I Pp- 33373&? in 3n the &e0elopment 3f &e0elopmental Psychology$ edited by Deanna ,uhn and Dohn A- Eeacham- @asel9 >ew Oor6+ ,argerEerriam$ Sharan @-$ & Rosemary S- #affarella- 3444- -earning In Adulthood9 A ,omprehensi0e 7uide$ (nd ed- San *rancisco+ Dossey7@assEitroff$ "an "-$ & /lizabeth A- Denton- 3444- HA Study of Spirituality "n the 2or6place-I Sloan Management )e0iew ?'F?G$ Summer+A&74(Eoberg$ Da id %- (''(- HAssessing and Eeasuring Spirituality+ #onfronting Dilemmas %f !ni ersal and Particular / aluati e #riteria-I ;ournal of Adult &e0elopment 4F3G$ Danuary+?57='Eontaigne$ Eichel de- H%f the /ducation of #hildren-I "n <?G? Essa s- Translated by #harles #otton- Shttp+TTeser er-orgTphilosophyTmontaigne7essays-t0tUhhhhhh- HDe l\institution des enfans-I Essais$ ;i re "$ #hapitre XXC- Cersion HTE; d\aprjs l\Wdition de 3)4)- Swww-bribes-orgTtrismegisteTes3ch()-htmUEontgomery$ Anita$ #lifton @arber$ and Patric6 Ec,ee- (''(- HA Phenomenological Study of 2isdom "n ;ater ;ife-I International ;ournal of Aging and #uman &e0elopment )?F(G+3&473)5(4'

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Eumford$ ;ewis- 34)=- The Transformations 3f Man- >ew Oor6+ Harper & @rothersEurphy$ Roland /- 344(- H2isdom "n the %T-I Pp- 4('74&3 in The Anchor 'ible &ictionar $ Col- =- >ew Oor6+ Doubledayhhhhhh- (''&- H2isdom F"n the @ibleG-I Pp- 5AA754( in New ,atholic Enc clopedia$ (nd ed-$ Col- 3?- Detroit+ Thomson7<aleEurzi$ Eauro- (''3- ;ogical Positi ism- The Internet Enc clopedia of Philosoph Swww-iep-utm-eduTlTlogpos-htmU- accessed )T((T(''?-

>atali$ #arlo- (''3- The Wisdom of Aristotle- Translated by <erald Par6s- Albany+ State !ni ersity of >ew Oor6 Press>aylor$ Stephen T- 344A- HCedasI in Enc clopedia M thica$ Swww-pantheon-orgTarticlesT T edas-htmlU- ;ast modified (5 December 344AAccessed ?T?T(''=>oel$ Dana- 3444- H%n the Carieties %f Phronesis-I Educational Philosoph and Theor &3F&G+(5&7(A4>ozic6$ Robert- 344' J34A4K- The E!amined -ife9 Philosophical Mediations- >ew Oor6+ Simon & Schuster7Touchstone-

%elmZller$ 2illi- F/d-G- 34A4- Philosophie und Weisheit- Paderborn+ Schoeningh%rwoll$ ;ucinda$ and Earion Perlmutter- 344'- HThe Study of 2ise Persons+ "ntegrating a Personality Perspecti e-I Pp- 3='7355 in Wisdom9 Its Nature, 3rigins, and &e0elopment$ edited by Robert- D- Sternberg- >ew Oor6+ #ambridge !ni ersity Press%ser$ *ritz ,-$ Domini6 Schen6er$ Earia Spychiger- 3444- H2isdom+ An Action7 %riented Approach-I Pp- 3))735( in Ps chological Studies 3n Spiritual and (43

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

)eligious &e0elopment9 'eing #uman9 The ,ase 3f )eligion$ Col- (-$ edited by ,Helmut Reich$ *ritz ,- %ser$ 2- <eorge Scarlett- ;engerich$ <ermany+ Pabst Science Publishers%0ford /nglish Dictionary$ (nd ed- 34A4- H2isdom-I Definition 3a-

Papy$ Dan- (''?- Dustus ;ipsius- "n The Stanford Enc clopedia of Philosoph B5all NOO> EditionP$ edited by /dward >- NaltaShttp+TTplato-stanford-eduTarchi esTfall(''?TentriesTBustus7lipsiusTU- accessed ?T3=T('')Pascual7;eone$ Duan- 344'- HAn /ssay %n 2isdom+ Toward %rganismic Processes That Ea6e "t Possible-I Pp- (??7(5A in Wisdom9 Its Nature, 3rigins, and &e0elopment$ edited by Robert- D- Sternberg- >ew Oor6+ #ambridge !ni ersity PressPascual7;eone$ Duan- ('''- HEental Attention$ #onsciousness$ and the Progressi e /mergence of 2isdom-I ;ournal of Adult &e0elopment 5F?G$ %ctober+(?37()?Pasupathi$ E-$ & @altes$ P- @- ('''- H2isdom-I "n Enc clopedia of Ps cholog $ edited by A-/- ,azdin- 2ashington$ D#+ American Psychological AssociationPasupathi$ E-$ & !-E- Staudinger- (''3- HDo Ad anced Eoral Reasoners Also Show 2isdom8 ;in6ing Eoral Reasoning and 2isdom7Related ,nowledge and Dudgement-I International ;ournal of 'eha0ioral &e0elopment ()F)G$ September+?'37 ?3)Pasupathi$ Eonisha$ !rsula E Staudinger$ & Paul @- @altes- (''3- HSeeds of 2isdom+ Adolescents\ ,nowledge and Dudgment About Difficult ;ife Problems-I &e0elopmental Ps cholog &5F&G$ Eay+&)37&=3-

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Peirce$ #harles Sanders- 3A55- HThe *i0ation of @elief-I Popular Science Monthl 3($ >o ember+373)- Swww-peirce-orgTwritingsTp3'5-htmlU- accessed )T=T(''?Pepper$ Stephen #- 34== J34?(K- World # potheses- @er6eley+ !ni ersity of #alifornia PressPer6ins$ Da id- 344)- 3utsmarting I49 The Emerging Science of -earnable Intelligence>ew Oor6+ The *ree PressPerry$ #heryl ;-$ ,elli A- ,omro$ Resa E- Dones$ ,aren Eunson$ #arolyn ;- 2illiams$ ;eonard Dason- (''(- HThe Eeasurement of 2isdom and "ts Relationship to Adolescent Substance !se and Problem @eha iors-I ;ournal of ,hild A Adolescent Substance Abuse$ 3(F3G+?)7=&Perry$ 2illiam <-$ Dr- 345'- 5orms of Intellectual and Ethical &e0elopment- >ew Oor6+ Holt$ Rinehart and 2instonPhillips$ D- #- 34A5- Philosoph , Science, and Social In(uir - %0ford+ Pergamon PressPlato- 34AA- Apolog - Translation by Hugh Tredennic6- "n Daitz$ Stephen <- Plato2s Portrait of So%rates- <uilford$ #T+ Deffrey >ortonhhhhhh- 3445- Protagoras- Translated by Stanley ;onbardo and ,aren @ell- "n Plato,omplete Wor%s$ edited by Dohn E- #ooper- "ndianapolis+ Hac6etthhhhhh- 3445- )epublic- Translated by <- E- A- <rube$ re - by #- D- #- Ree e- "n Plato,omplete Wor%s$ edited by Dohn E- #ooper- "ndianapolis+ Hac6ett$ 3445hhhhhh- 34?) J34?3K- )epublic- Translated with "ntroduction and >otes by *rancis EacDonald #ornford$ >ew Oor6+ %0ford !ni ersity Press$ hhhhhh- 3445- &efinitions- Translated by D- S- Hutchinson- "n Plato$ ,omplete Wor%s$ edited by Dohn E- #ooper- "ndianapolis+ Hac6ettPsi #afe- ('')- <- Stanley Hall- Description of Hall obtained from Eus6ingum #ollege(4&

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Swww-psy-pd0-eduTPsi#afeT,eyTheoristsTHall-htmU- Page updated '?T3'T('')- Psi #afe+ A Psychology Resource Site- accessed =T()T('')Ptah7Hotep- The Precepts of Ptah7Hotep- Ancient #istor Sourceboo%Swww-fordham-eduThalsallTancientTptahhotep-htmlU- accessed &T((T('')-

Vuinton$ AJnthonyK- 344)- HPhilosophical "nquiry-I Pp- ==37==& in 3!ford ,ompanion To Philosoph $ edited by Ted Honderich- >ew Oor6+ %0ford !ni ersity Press-

Ray$ Paul H-$ & Sherry Ruth Anderson- ('''- The ,ultural ,reati0es9 #ow ?O Million People Are ,hanging the World- >ew Oor6+ HarmonyRescher$ >icholas- 3455- Methodological Pragmatism9 A S stems/Theoretic Approach To the Theor of 8nowledge- >ew Oor6+ >ew Oor6 !ni ersity PressRhodes$ Dames E- (''&- Eros, Wisdom, and Silence9 Plato2s Erotic &ialogues#olumbia+ !ni ersity of Eissouri PressRice$ /ugene *- 34)A- The )enaissance Idea of Wisdom- #ambridge+ Har ard !ni ersity PressRobinson$ Daniel >- 344'- H2isdom Through the Ages-I Pp- 3&7(? in Wisdom9 Its Nature, 3rigins, and &e0elopment$ edited by Robert- D- Sternberg- >ew Oor6+ #ambridge !ni ersity PressRollin$ @ernard /- 344'- The Dnheeded ,r 9 Animal ,onsciousness, Animal Pain and Science- >ew Oor6+ %0ford !ni ersity PressRorty$ Richard- F/d-G- 34=5- The -inguistic Turn9 )ecent Essa s In Philosophical Method- #hicago+ !ni ersity of #hicago PressRudolph$ ,urt- (''&- H2eisheitT2eisheitsliteraturP"- Religionsgeschichtlich-I Pp- ?5A7 (4?

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

?A= in Theologische )ealen6 %lopHdie &)- @erlin and >ew Oor6+ 2alter de<ruyterhhhhhh- ('') J34A5K- H2isdom-I Pp- 45?=745)? in Enc clopedia of )eligion$ (nd ed-$ Col- 3?- editor in #hief ;indsay Dones- Detroit+ Thomson <alePEacmillanRussell$ @ertrand- 343A- HA *ree Ean:s 2orship-I "n M sticism and -ogic- >ew Oor6Swww-users-drew-eduTkBlenzTfmw-htmlU- @ertrand Russell Society Home Pageaccessed 4T35T(''?Ryan$ Sharon- 344=- H2isdom-I Pp- (&&7(?( in 8nowledge, Teaching and Wisdom$ edited by ,- ;ehrer$ D- ;um$ @- A- Slichta$ & >- D- Smith- Dordrecht and @oston+ ,luwer-

Scherer$ Paul- 34)?- E!position To the 'oo% 3f ;ob- Pp- A5)7334A in Interpreter2s 'ible &- >ew Oor6+ Abingdon PressSchiller$ *riedrich- 35A)- lAn die *reudeH- A ailable at Shttp+TTgutenberg-spiegel-deTschillerTgedichteTfreude-htmUSchlic6$ Eauritz- 34&(- HPositi ismus und Realismus-I Er%enntnis &- Vuoted in Eauro Eurzi$ H;ogical Positi ism$I The Internet Enc clopedia of Philosoph , NOO<Swww-iep-utm-eduTlTlogpos-htmU- accessed )T((T(''?Schopenhauer$ Arthur- 34)3- Essa s9 5rom the Parerga and Paralipomena- Trans- by T@ailey Saunders- ;ondon+ <eorge Allen & !nwinSchRyen$ Eartin- ('')- HThe SchRyen #ollection+ #hec6list of =)' Eanuscripts Spanning )''' Oears$ 34th edition$ internet ed-I /lizabeth <ano SRrenssen$ #ompiler- %slo$ >orway- *ebruary- Swww-nb-noTbaserTschoyenT?T?-&T?&3-htmlUaccessed &T((T('')-

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Schwartz$ Tony- 344=- What )eall Matters9 Searching 5or Wisdom In America- >ew Oor6+ @antamSen$ Amartya- 3444- &e0elopment As 5reedom- >ew Oor6+ Random House7AnchorSeneca$ ;ucius Annaeus- Ad -ucilium Epistulae Morales, ( ols-$ ;- D- Reynolds$ ed%0ford+ %0ford !ni ersity Press$ 34=)Swww-intrate0t-comT"XTT;AT'(&'Th">D/X-HTEU Shedloc6$ Dorothy D- 344A- H2isdom+ Assessment$ De elopment$ and #orrelates-I Dissertation$ #ornell !ni ersityShigara6i$ Ta6amaro- >-d-- HThe ;ogic of PraBna-I "n What Is Shin 'uddhismL Shttp+TTweb-mit-eduTstclairTwwwTwhatisshin-htmlU- accessed &T)T('')Sil a$ Eary #ipriano$ & Deanne Eer6le Sorrell- 3443- )esearch on Ethics in Nursing Education9 An Integrati0e )e0iew and ,riti(ue- >ew Oor6+ >ational ;eague for >ursing PressSmith$ Dacqui$ & Paul @- @altes- 344'- HA Study of 2isdom7Related ,nowledge+ AgeT#ohort Differences in Response to ;ife7Planning Problems-I &e0elopmental Ps cholog (=F&G$ Eay+?4?7)')Smith$ D-$ R-A- Di0on$ & P- @- @altes- 34A4- H/0pertise in ;ife7Planning+ A >ew Research Approach To "n estigating Aspects %f 2isdom-I Pp- &'57&&3 in Adult &e0elopment9 ,omparisons and Applications 3f &e0elopmental Models 3$ edited by E- ;- #ommons$ D- D- Sinnott$ *- A- Richards$ & #- Armon- >ew Oor6+ Praeger-Smith$ Dacqui9 !rsula E- Staudinger$ & Paul @- @altes- 344?- H%ccupational Settings *acilitating 2isdom7Related ,nowledge-I ;ournal 3f ,onsulting and ,linical Ps cholog =(F)G$ %ctober+4A47444-

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The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Smith$ ,urt- (''&- HDescartes\ ;ife and 2or6s-I "n The Stanford Enc clopedia 3f Philosoph , Spring NOOF Edition$ edited by /dward >- NaltaShttp+TTplato-stanford-eduTarchi esTspr(''&TentriesTdescartes7wor6sTUSmith$ >icholas D- 344A- H2isdom-I Pp- 5)(75)) in )outledge Enc clopedia of Philosoph $ general editor /dward #raig- ;ondon & >ew Oor6+ RoutledgeSmith$ Richard- 3444- HPaths %f Dudgement+ the Re i al of Practical 2isdom-I Educational Philosoph and Theor &3F&G+&(57&?'Sou aine$ /mily$ ;isa ;- ;ahey$ and Robert ,egan- 344'- H;ife After *ormal %perations+ "mplications *or a Psychology of the Self-I Pp- ((47()5 in #igher Stages of #uman &e0elopment+ Perspecti0es on Adult 7rowth$ edited by #harles >Ale0ander$ & /llen D- ;anger- >ew Oor6+ %0ford !ni ersity PressSowar6a$ D- 34A4- H2eisheit und weise Personen+ #ommon7Sense7,onzepte ]lterer EenschenI JH2isdom and 2ise Persons+ #ommon Sense #oncepts of %lder PeopleIK- :eitschrift fMr Entwic%lungsps chologie und PHdagogische Ps chologie (3+A573'4Staudinger$ !rsula E- 34A4- The Stud of -ife )e0iew9 An Approach To the In0estigation 3f Intellectual &e0elopment Across the -ife Span- @erlin+ Ea07Planc67"nstitut fZr @ildungsforschungP/dition Sigmahhhhhh- 3444- H%lder and 2iser8 "ntegrating Results %n the Relationship between Age and 2isdom7related Performance-I International ;ournal of 'eha0ioral &e0elopment (&F&G+=?37==?hhhhhh- 3444a- HSocial #ognition and a Psychological Approach To an Art of ;ife-I Pp&?&7&5) in Social ,ognition and Aging$ edited by Thomas E- Hess$ & *redda @lanchard7*ields- San Diego+ Academic Press(45

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

hhhhhh- (''3a- H2isdom-I Pp- 3')473'=( in The Enc clopedia of Aging ($ &rd ed-$ editor in chief <eorge ;- Eaddo0- >ew Oor6+ SpringerStaudinger$ !rsula E-$ Paul @- @altes- 344=- H"nteracti e Einds+ A *acilitati e Setting for 2isdom7Related Performance8I ;ournal of Personalit and Social Ps cholog 53F?G$ %ctober+5?=75=(hhhhhh- 344=a- H2eisheit als <egenstand psychologischer *orschung-I Ps chologische )undschau ?5- )5755Swww-mpib7berlin-mpg-deTenTinstitutTdo6TfullT@altesTweisheit4=TU Staudinger$ !- E-$ Da id- *- ;opez$ & P- @- @altes- 3445- HThe Psychometric ;ocation of 2isdom7Related Performance+ "ntelligence$ Personality$ And Eore8I Personalit A Social Ps cholog 'ulletin (&F33G+3(''73(3?Staudinger$ !rsula E-$ Anna <- Eaciel$ Dacqui Smith$ & Paul @- @altes- 344A- H2hat Predicts 2isdom7Related Performance8 A *irst ;oo6 At Personality$ "ntelligence$ and *acilitati e /0periential #onte0ts-I European ;ournal of Personalit 3(+3735Staudinger$ !rsula E-$ & Eonisha Pasupathi- (''&- H#orrelates %f 2isdom7Related Performance in Adolescence and Adulthood+ Age7<raded Differences in MPaths: Toward Desirable De elopment-I ;ournal of )esearch on Adolescence 3&F&G$ September+(&47(=AStaudinger, !- E-$ D- Smith$ & P- @- @altes- 344(- H2isdom7Related ,nowledge "n a ;ife Re iew Tas6+ Age Differences and the Role of Professional Specialization-I Ps cholog And Aging 5F(G$ Dune+(537(A3Stern$ Paul- 3445- HThe Rule of 2isdom and the Rule of ;aw in Plato:s MStatesman-:I American Political Science )e0iew 43F(G$ Dune+(=?7(5=Sternberg$ Robert D- 34A)- H"mplicit Theories of "ntelligence$ #reati ity$ and 2isdom-I (4A

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

;ournal of Personalit A Social Ps cholog ?4F&G$ September+='57=(5hhhhhh- F/d-G- 344'- Wisdom9 Its Nature, 3rigins, and &e0elopment- >ew Oor6+ #ambridge !ni ersity Presshhhhhh- F344'aG H2isdom and its Relations To "ntelligence and #reati ity-I Pp- 3?(73)4 in Wisdom9 Its Nature, 3rigins, and &e0elopment$ edited by Robert- D- Sternberg>ew Oor6+ #ambridge !ni ersity Presshhhhhh- F344=G- HStyles of Thin6ing-I Pp- &?57&=) in Interacti0e Minds9 -ife/Span Perspecti0es on the Social 5oundation of ,ognition$ edited by Paul @- @altes$ & !rsula E- Staudinger- >ew Oor6+ #ambridge !ni ersity Presshhhhhh- F344AG- HA @alance Theory of 2isdom-I )e0iew of 7eneral Ps cholog (F?G+&?57&=)hhhhhh- F(''3aG- H2hy Schools Should Teach *or 2isdom+ The @alance Theory of 2isdom in /ducational Settings-I Educational Ps chologist &=F?G$ *all+((57(?)hhhhhh- F(''(bG- H2isdom$ Schooling$ and Society-I Transcribed tal6 at The 5irst International Positi0e Ps cholog Summit, Washington, &,Swww-gallup-huTppsTsternberghlong-htm-U- accessed &T3'T('')hhhhhh- F(''&G- Wisdom, Intelligence, and ,reati0it S nthesi6ed- >ew Oor6+ #ambridge !ni ersity Presshhhhhh- F(''&aG- H2"#S+ A Eodel of ;eadership in %rganizations-I Academ of Management -earning and Education (F?G+&A=7?'3hhhhhh- F(''?cG- H2ords to the 2ise About 2isdom8I #uman &e0elopment ?5+(A=7 (A4hhhhhh- F(''?dG- 2hat "s 2isdom and How #an 2e De elop "t8 The Annals of The American Academ of Political and Social Science$ Danuary$ (''?$ )43 Annals 3=?7 (44

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

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Ta6ahashi$ Easami$ & Prashant @ordia- ('''- HThe #oncept of 2isdom+ A #ross7 cultural #omparison-I International ;ournal of Ps cholog &)F3G$ *ebruary 3+374Ta6ahashi$ Easami$ & 2illis *- % erton- (''(- H2isdom+ A #ulturally "nclusi e De elopmental Perspecti e-I International ;ournal of 'eha0ioral &e0elopment (=F&G+(=47(55Taranto$ Earia A- 34A4- H*acets of 2isdom+ A Theoretical Synthesis-I International ;ournal of Aging and #uman &e0elopment (4+37(3Terrien$ Samuel- 34)?- Introduction and E!egesis to the 'oo% of ;ob- Pp- A5)7334A in Interpreter2s 'ible &- >ew Oor6+Abingdon PressThomas$ D- A-$ E- <- Telfer$ D- @- Roy$ #- D- Preston$ D- D- D- <reenwood$ D- Asher$ R*o0$ R- T- #lar6e$ & D- H- ;awton- (''?- H#omparati e ;osses %f @ritish @utterflies$ @irds$ and Plants and the <lobal /0tinction #risis-I Science &'&F)==)G$ Earch 34+3A5473AA3- Story by Paul Recer$ H/0tinction ongoing8 @irds$ bugs$ plants ebb-I Associated Press$ Earch 34$ (''?-

!nderhill$ / elyn- 345? J34&'K- M sticism, 3(thJ8K ed- >ew Oor6+ >ew American ;ibrary!-S- @ureau of the #ensus$ "nternational Data @aseSwww-census-go TipcTwwwTworldpop-htmlU- Data updated &' September (''?accessed &T)T('') !-S- #ensus @ureau$ Population Di ision$ "nternational Programs #enter&''

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Swww-census-go TipcTwwwTworldhis-htmlU- ;ast Re ised &' September (''? 3?+3A+?3 /DT- accessed &T)T('')-

Calliere$ Paul- ('''- Modern )ussian Theolog 9 'u%hare0, Solo0ie0, 'ulga%o0- <rand Rapids$ E"+ 2illiam @- /erdmansCan ;anc6er$ Diana- ('''- HA >eurolinguistic Perspecti e %n Pro erbs and the ;aws of ;ife-I Pp- (3)7(?& in Dnderstanding Wisdom9 Sources, Science, and Societ $ edited by 2arren S- @rown- Philadelphia+ Templeton *oundation Presson ;ips$ Hermann- (''&- H2eisheitT2eisheitsliteratur "C+ >eues Testament-I Pp- )'A7 )3) in Theologische )ealen6 %opHdie &)- @erlin and >ew Oor6+ 2alter de <ruyter-

2agner$ Richard ,- 34A=- HThe Search *or "ntraterrestrial "ntelligence-I Pp- &=37&5A in Practical Intelligence9 Nature and 3rigins of ,ompetence In the E0er da World$ edited by Robert D- Sternberg$ & Richard ,- 2agner- #ambridge <@$ & >ew Oor6+ #ambridge !ni ersity Press2atson$ Dohn @- 34&'- 'eha0iorism- >ew Oor6+ >orton2ebster$ Deffrey Dean- (''&- HAn /0ploratory Analysis %f a Self7Assessed 2isdom Scale-I ;ournal of Adult &e0elopment 3'F3G$ Danuary+3&7((2erner$ H- 34)5- HThe #oncept of De elopment *rom a #omparati e and %rganismic Point of Ciew-I Pp- 3()73?A in The ,oncept of &e0elopment$ edited by D- @- HarrisEinneapolis$ E>+ !ni ersity of Einnesota Press2hitehead$ Alfred >orth- 34()- Science and the Modern World- >ew Oor6+ Eacmillan2hitfield$ #harles ;- 344A- HAd erse #hildhood /0perience and Trauma-I American ;ournal 3f Pre0enti0e Medicine 3?F?G$ Eay+&=37&=?&'3

The Scientific Approach to Wisdom

Swww-cbwhit-comTA#/s-htmU- accessed &T&T('')2ilber$ ,en- ('''- Integral Ps cholog - @oston+ Shambhala2ilson$ /dward %- 344(- The &i0ersit 3f -ife- #ambridge$ EA+ @el6nap Press2in6$ Paul$ and Ra enna Helson- 3445- HPractical and Trancendent 2isdom+ Their >ature and Some ;ongitudinal *indings-I ;ournal of Adult &e0elopment ?F3G+373)2instead7*ry$ P-$ & D- ,iBe6- 3444- HAn "ntegrati e Re iew and Eeta7Analysis of Therapeutic Touch Research-I Alternati0e Therapies In #ealth and Medicine )F=G$ >o ember+)A7=52isdom #ollection- ('')- ;ibrary of American @roadcastingSwww-lib-umd-eduT;A@T#%;;/#T"%>STwisdom-htmlU- accessed ?T=T('')2ittgenstein$ ;udwig- 34)&- Philosophical In0estigations- Trans- by <- /- E- Anscombe%0ford$ !,+ @lac6well2ong$ Da id- ('')- m#omparati e Philosophy+ #hinese and 2esternm$ in /dward >Nalta Fed-G$ The Stanford Enc clopedia of Philosoph B5all NOO? EditionPShttp+TTplato-stanford-eduTarchi esTfall('')TentriesTcomparphil7chiwesTU2orld Health %rganization- 34?=- HPreamble to the #onstitution of the 2orld Health %rganization as Adopted by the "nternational Health #onference$ >ew Oor6$ 347(( Dune$ 34?=9 signed on (( Duly 34?= by the representati es of =3 States F%fficial Records of the 2orld Health %rganization$ no- ($ p- 3''G and entered into force on 5 April 34?A-I

Oang$ Shih7Oing- (''3- H#onceptions of 2isdom Among Taiwanese #hinese-I ;ournal of ,ross/,ultural Ps cholog &(F=G$ >o ember+==(7=A'-

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