Physics 445LW Modern Physics Laboratory Zeeman Effect

Introduction The Zeeman effect is the name for the splitting of atomic energy levels or spectral lines due to the action of an external magnetic field. The effect was first predicted by H. A. Lorenz in 1895 as part of his classic theory of the electron, and experimentally confirmed some years later by P. Zeeman. Zeeman observed a line triplet instead of a single spectral line at right angles to a magnetic field, and a line doublet parallel to the magnetic field. Later, more complex splittings of spectral lines were observed, which became known as the anomalous Zeeman effect. To explain this phenomenon, Goudsmit and Uhlenbeck first introduced the hypothesis of electron spin in 1925. Ultimately, it became apparent that the anomalous Zeeman effect was actually the rule and the normal Zeeman effect the exception. Electrons in atoms occupy states with well-defined energies. When an electron transitions from a higher energy state to a lower energy state the atom emits a photon with energy equal to this difference. In the atomic spectroscopy experiment we studied the emitted lines under "normal" conditions. Application of a magnetic field can change the properties of the emitted photons, so we can glean additional information about the initial and final states of the electron. Experiments such as the one by Zeeman on the effects of outside forces on electron transitions led to the quantum understanding of atomic structure. It is interesting to note that when the atomic electron transitions which we will observe in this experiment were first studied they were observed as a series of visible colored lines. Therefore, the term "line" is commonly used to denote transitions observed in spectroscopy. However, the equipment that we will use in this experiment will display the "lines" as a set of concentric circles.

Figure 1. Electron transitions

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Theory The normal Zeeman effect only occurs at the transitions between atomic states with the total spin S = 0. The total angular momentum J = L + S of a state is then a pure orbital angular momentum (J = L). For the corresponding magnetic moment, we can simply say that:

=
where

B J !

(I)

B =

!e "2 me

(II)

(mB = Bohrs magneton, me = mass of electron, e = elementary charge, _ = h/2_, h = Plancks constant). !

Figure 1a. Magnetic field and polarization In an external magnetic field B, the magnetic moment has the energy
E = " # B

Figure 1b. Splitting of lines

(III)

The angular-momentum component in the direction of the magnetic field can have the values
J! z = M j " ! with Mj = J,J-1, ... ,-J

(IV)

Therefore, the term with the angular momentum J is split into 2 J + 1 equidistant Zeeman components which differ by the value of MJ . The energy interval of the adjacent components MJ, MJ+1 is !
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"E = B # B

(V).

We can observe the normal Zeeman effect e.g. in the red spectral line of cadmium (!0 = 643.8 nm, f0 = 465.7 THz). It corresponds to the transition 1D2 (J = 2, S = 0) ! 1P1 (J = 1, S = 0) of an electron of the fifth shell (see Fig. 1). In ! the magnetic field, the 1D2 level splits into five Zeeman components, and the level 1P1 splits into three Zeeman components having the spacing calculated using equation (V). Optical transitions between these levels are only possible in the form of electrical dipole radiation. The following selection rules apply for the magnetic quantum numbers MJ of the states involved:
"M j = {1 for " components { 0 for # components

(VI)

Thus, we observe a total of three spectral lines (see Fig. 1); the # component is not shifted and the two ! " components are shifted by

"f =

"E h

(VII)

with respect to the original frequency. In this equation, $E is the equidistant energy split calculated in (V). ! Angular distribution and polarization Depending on the angular momentum component $MJ in the direction of the magnetic field, the emitted photons exhibit different angular distributions. Fig. 2 shows the angular distributions in the form of two-dimensional polar diagrams. They can be observed experimentally, as the magnetic field is characterized by a common axis. In classical terms, the case $MJ = 0 corresponds to an infinitesimal dipole oscillating parallel to the magnetic field. No quanta are emitted in the direction of the magnetic field, i.e. the #-component cannot be observed parallel to the magnetic field. The light emitted perpendicular to the magnetic field is linearly polarized, whereby the E-vector oscillates in the direction of the dipole and parallel to the magnetic field (see Fig. 3). Conversely, in the case $MJ = 1 most of the quanta travel in the direction of the magnetic field. In classical terms, this case corresponds to two parallel dipoles oscillating with a phase difference of 90. The superposition of the two dipoles produces a circulating current. Thus, in the direction of the magnetic field, circularly polarized light is emitted; in the positive direction, it is clockwise-circular for _MJ = +1 and anticlockwise-circular for $!J = "1 (see Fig. 3).

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Figure 2. Angular distributions

Figure 3. Light polarization

Spectroscopy of the Zeeman components The Zeeman effect enables spectroscopic separation of the differently polarized components. To demonstrate the shift, however, we require a spectral apparatus with extremely high resolution. In the experiment a Fabry-Perot etalon is used. This is a glass plate which is plane parallel to a very high precision with both sides being aluminized. The slightly divergent light enters the etalon, which is aligned perpendicularly to the optical axis, and is reflected back and forth several times, whereby part of it emerges each time (see Fig. 4). Due to the aluminizing this emerging part is small, i.e., many emerging rays can interfere. Behind the etalon the emerging rays are focused by a lens on to the focal plane of the lens. There a concentric circular fringe pattern associated with a particular wavelength ! can be observed with an ocular. The aperture angle of a ring is identical with the angle of emergence % of the partial rays from the Fabry-Perot etalon. The rays emerging at an angle of %k interfere constructively with each other when two adjacent rays fulfill the condition for curves of equal inclination (see Fig. 4):

" = 2 d ( n 2 # sin $ k ) = k% !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"#$$$%!

! "&!'!()*+,-.!)-*/!0+112324,25!!"'!*/+,64277!(1!*/2!2*-.(45!#"'!3213-,*+82!+4029!(1!*/2!:.-775!$"'!(3023! (1!+4*2312324,2%;! ! ! <!,/-4:2!+4!*/2!=-82.24:*/!>?! &!!+7!7224!-7!-!,/-4:2!+4!*/2!-)23*@32!-4:.2!>?! &!;!A2)240+4:!(4! */2!1(,-.!.24:*/!(1!*/2!.2475!*/2!-)23*@32!-4:.2! %!,(3327)(407!*(!-!3-0+@7! %" -40!*/2!,/-4:2!+4!*/2! -4:.2! &%! *(! -! ,/-4:2! +4! */2! 3-0+@7! &%;! $1! -! 7)2,*3-.! .+42! ,(4*-+47! 72823-.! ,(B)(424*7! =+*/! */2! 0+7*-4,2! &!5! 2-,/! ,+3,@.-3! +4*2312324,2! 13+4:2! +7! 7).+*! +4*(! -7! B-4?! ,(B)(424*7! =+*/! */2! 3-0+-.! 0+7*-4,2! &%;! C(! -! 7)2,*3-.! .+42! 0(@>.2*! +7! 32,(:4+D20! >?! -! 0(@>.2*! 7*3@,*@32! -40! -! 7)2,*3-.! .+42! *3+).2*!>?!-!*3+).2*!7*3@,*@32!+4!*/2!,+3,@.-3!13+4:2!)-**234;!EFG! !

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H+:@32!I;!!H->3?JK23(*!2*-.(4! Experimental Apparatus and Procedures

Apparatus The equipment used in this experiment consists of the following components assembled as shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6.

Figure 5. Zeeman effect apparatus [2]

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Figure 6. Zeeman effect apparatus [2]

Procedure The first step in this experiment is to calibrate the magnet. If the mercury lamp is in the magnet, carefully remove it and disconnect the leads. Set the Gauss meter to the 15kG setting and place the probe between the poles of the magnet. Press the button switches to turn on the power and the magnet. Gradually increase the current knob. At each 0.1A reading on the ammeter record the current and the magnetic field strength. Turn off the power switch, the magnet switch, and return the current knob to its full counter clockwise (minimum) setting. Make a graph of this calibration to include in your report. Reattach the lamp leads and carefully replace the lamp in the holder in the magnet. Results Extensions [1] Leybold Physics Leaflets P6.2.7.3 [2] United Scientific Supply, Operation and Experiment Guide ZEA001

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