203554753.

doc
The simplest second-order system is one for which the Ls can be combined, the s can be
combined, and the !s can be combined into one L, one , and one !. Let "s consider sit"ations
where there is no so"rce, or a # so"rce.
For an RLC Series Circuit
$f the circ"it is a series circ"it, then there is one c"rrent.
%ote that in the abo&e circ"it, the ' and ! co"ld be con&erted to a %orton e("i&alent, permittin)
the incorporation of a c"rrent so"rce into the problem instead of a &olta)e so"rce.
*sin) +'L,
0
,
+ + + + + +

dt i
C dt
di
L iR V v v v V
C L R
.
Ta-in) the deri&ati&e,
0
2
2
+ +
C
i
dt
i d
L
dt
di
R .
%ote that the constant so"rce term ' is )one, lea&in) "s with the characteristic equation .i.e.,
so"rce free/, which yields the natural response of the circ"it. !ewritin),
0
2
2
+ +
LC
i
dt
di
L
R
dt
i d
. .,/
0"ess the nat"ral response sol"tion
st
Ae i and try it,
0
, ,
2 2

,
_

+ + + +
LC L
R
s s Ae Ae
LC
Ase
L
R
e As
st st st st
,
1nd we reason that the only possibility for a )eneral sol"tion is when
0
,
2
+ +
LC L
R
s s
.
2a)e , of 20
'
3
&

4
i
L

!
3 &
L
4 3 &
!
4
203554753.doc
This leads "s to
LC L
R
L
R LC L
R
L
R
s
,
2 2 2
4
2
2

,
_

t

,
_

.
#efinin)
L
R
2

as the dampin) coefficient .nepers5sec/ for the series case .2/
LC
o
,

as the nat"ral resonant fre("ency .radians5sec/ .3/
then we ha&e
2 2
o
s t . .4/
6"bstit"tin) .2/ and .3/ into .,/ yields a "sef"l form of .2/, which is
0 2
2
2
2
+ + i
dt
di
dt
i d
o
.5/
For an RLC Parallel Circuit
$f the circ"it is a parallel circ"it, then there is one &olta)e. +L at the top node yields
0
,
+ + + + + +

dt
dv
C vdt
L R
v
I i i i I
C L R
.
Ta-in) the deri&ati&e
0
,
2
2
+ +
dt
v d
C
L
v
dt
dv
R
.
!ewritin),
2a)e 2 of 20
$
3
&
4
i
!
L !
i
L
i

203554753.doc
0
,
2
2
+ +
LC
v
dt
dv
RC
dt
v d
. .7/
8("ation .7/ has the same form as .5/, e9cept that
RC 2
,

for the parallel case. .7/
Th"s, it is clear that the sol"tions for series and parallel circ"its ha&e the same form, e9cept that
the dampin) coefficient

is defined differently.
1 nice property of e9ponential sol"tions s"ch as
st
Ae is that deri&ati&es and inte)rals of
st
Ae
also ha&e the
st
e term. Th"s, one can concl"de that all &olta)es and c"rrents thro")ho"t the
series and parallel circ"its ha&e the same
st
e terms.
There are Three Cases
8("ation .4/
2 2
o
s t
has three distinct cases:
,. ase , is where o
>
, so that the term inside the radical is positi&e. Overdamped.
2. ase 2 is where
o
<
, so that the term inside the radical is ne)ati&e. Underdamped.
3. ase 3 is where o

, so that the term inside the radical is ;ero. Critically Damped.
ase 3 rarely happens in practice beca"se the terms m"st be e9actly e("al. ase 3 sho"ld be
tho")ht of as a transition from ase , to ase 2, and the transition is &ery )rad"al.
Case 1: Overdamped
<hen
o
>
, then the sol"tions for .4/ are both ne)ati&e real and are
2 2
, o
s + ,
2 2
2 o
s .
The nat"ral response for any c"rrent .or &olta)e/ in the circ"it is then
t s t s
e A e A t i
2
2
,
,
/ . + .
oefficients 1
,
and 1
2
are fo"nd from the bo"ndary conditions as follows:
2a)e 3 of 20
203554753.doc
2 ,
0
2
2
0
,
,
/ 0 . A A e A e A t i
t
t s
t
t s
+ +

,
2 2 , ,
0
2
2 2
0
,
, ,
0
s A s A e s A e s A
dt
di
t
t s
t
t s
t
+ +

.
Th"s, we ha&e two e("ations and two "n-nowns. To sol&e, one m"st -now
/ 0 . t i
and
0 t
dt
di
. 6ol&in), we )et
1
1
1
1
]
1

2
, ,
0
2 ,
/ 0 . / 0 .
s
s A
dt
di
t i A t i A
t
,
so
2
,
2
0
,
,
/ 0 .
s
s
s
dt
di
t i
A
t

1
1
1
1
]
1

.%ote 4 see modification needed to incl"de final response/ .=/

Then, find
2
A from
, 2
/ 0 . A t i A .%ote 4 see modification needed to incl"de final response/ .>/
The key to finding
1
and
!
is al"ays to kno" the inductor current and capacitor voltage
at t # $
%
& !emember that
*nless there is an infinite imp"lse of c"rrent thro")h a capacitor, the &olta)e across a
capacitor .and the stored ener)y in the capacitor/ remains constant d"rin) a switchin)
transition from t ? 0
-
to t ? 0
3
.
*nless there is an infinite imp"lse of &olta)e across an ind"ctor, the c"rrent thro")h an
ind"ctor .and the stored ener)y in the ind"ctor/ remains constant d"rin) a switchin)
transition from t ? 0
-
to t ? 0
3
.
2a)e 4 of 20
203554753.doc
@or e9ample, consider the series circ"it at t ? 0
3
. "rrent +

0
/ 0 .
L
I t i
.
Ance $
L03
and '
03
are -nown, then we )et
0 t
dt
di
as follows. @rom +'L
0
0 0 0
+ + +
+ + + C L L
V V RI V
th"s
+ + +

0 0 0 C L L
V RI V V
. .,0/
6ince
0
0

+

t
L
dt
di
L V

then we ha&e
L
V
dt
di
L
t
+

0
0
. .,,/
6imilarly, for the parallel circ"it at t ? 0
3
, the &olta)e across all elements +

0
/ 0 .
C
V t v
.
<e )et
0 t
dt
dv
as follows. @rom +L
0 $
0 0 !0
+ + +
+ + + C L
I I I
2a)e 5 of 20
'
3
'
03
4
$
L03
L

!
3 '
L03
4 3 !$
L03
4
4
$
L !
$
L03
3
'
03
4
$
03
$
!03
203554753.doc
th"s
+ + +

0 0 0 L R C
I I I I
. .,2/
6ince
0
0

+

t
C
dt
dv
C I

then we ha&e
C
I
dt
dv
C
t
+

0
0
. .,3/
Case !: 'nderdamped
<hen o
<
, then the sol"tions for .4/ are both comple9 and are
2 2 2 2 2 2
,
/ /. , . + + +
o o o
j s ,
2 2
2

o
j s .
#efine damped resonant fre("ency d

as
2 2

o d
, .,4/
so that
d
j s +
, ,
d
j s
2
The nat"ral response for any c"rrent .or &olta)e/ in the circ"it is then
t
d
j t
d
j t s t s
e A e A e A e A t i
/ .
2
/ .
,
2
2
,
,
/ .
+
+ + ,
t
d
j t t
d
j t
e e A e e A

+
2 ,
.
89pandin) the
t
d
j
e

and
t
d
j
e

terms "sin) 8"lers r"le, / sin. / cos.

j e
j
+ ,
[ ] [ ] / sin. / cos. / sin. / cos. / .
2 ,
t j t e A t j t e A t i
d d
t
d d
t


+ + +

,
2a)e 7 of 20
203554753.doc
[ ] [ ] / sin. / cos. / sin. / cos.
2 ,
t j t e A t j t e A
d d
t
d d
t


+ +

,
[ ] / sin. / . / cos. / .
2 , 2 ,
t A A j t A A e
d d
t

+ +

. .,5/
6ince i.t/ is a real &al"e, then .,5/ cannot ha&e an ima)inary component. This means that
/ .
2 ,
A A + is real, and / .
2 ,
A A j is real .which means that / .
2 ,
A A is ima)inary/. These
conditions are met if
B
, 2
A A . Th"s, we can write .,5/ in the form of
[ ] / sin. / cos. / .
2 ,
t B t B e t i
d d
t

+

.,7/
where C
,
and C
2
are real n"mbers.
To e&al"ate C
,
and C
2
, it follows from .,7/ that
[ ]
, 2 ,
0
/ 0 sin. / 0 cos. / 0 . B B B e t i +

,
so
/ 0 .
,
t i B .%ote 4 see modification needed to incl"de final response/ .,7/
To find
2
B , ta-e the deri&ati&e of .,7/ and e&al"ate it at t ? 0,
[ ] [ ] / cos. / sin. / sin. / cos.
2 , 2 ,
t B t B e t B t B e
dt
di
d d d d
t
d d
t


+ + +

,
[ ] [ ]
d d
t
B B B B
dt
di

2 , 2 ,
0
+ +

,
so we can find
2
B "sin)
d
t
B
dt
di
B

,
0
2
+

.,=/
Case ! Solution in Polar Form
The form in .,7/, [ ] / sin. / cos. / .
2 ,
t B t B e t i
d d
t

+

is most "sef"l in e&al"atin)
coefficients C
,
and C
2
. C"t in practice, the answer is "s"ally con&erted to polar form.
2roceedin), write .,7/ as
1
1
]
1

+
+
+
+

/ sin. / cos. / .
2
2
2
,
2
2
2
2
,
, 2
2
2
,
t
B B
B
t
B B
B
e B B t i
d d
t

2a)e 7 of 20
203554753.doc
[ ] / sin. / sin. / cos. / cos. / .
2
2
2
,
t t e B B t i
d d
t

+ +

The
2
2
2
,
,
B B
B
+
and
2
2
2
,
2
B B
B
+
terms are the cosine and sine, respecti&ely, of the an)le shown
in the ri)ht trian)le. *nless C, is ;ero, yo" can find D "sin)
1
]
1

,
2 ,
tan
B
B

.
C"t be caref"l beca"se yo"r calc"lator will )i&e the wron) answer 50E of the time. The reason
is that
/ ,=0 tan. / tan. t
. 6o chec- the ("adrant of yo"r calc"lator answer with the
("adrant consistent with the ri)ht trian)le. $f the calc"lator ("adrant does not a)ree with the
fi)"re, then add or s"btract ,=0F from yo"r calc"lator an)le, and re-chec- the ("adrant.
The polar form for i.t/ comes from a tri)onometric identity. The e9pression
[ ] / sin. / sin. / cos. / cos. / .
2
2
2
,
t t e B B t i
d d
t

+ +

becomes the damped sin"soid
/ cos. / .
2
2
2
,

+

t e B B t i
d
t
.
Case (: Critically )amped
<hen o

, then there is only one sol"tion for .4/, and it is
2 ,
s s . Th"s, we ha&e
repeated real roots. 2roceedin) as before, then there appears to be only one term in the nat"ral
response of i.t/,
t
Ae t i

/ . .
C"t this term does not permit the nat"ral response to be ;ero at t ? 0, which is a problem. Th"s,
let "s propose that the sol"tion for the nat"ral response of i.t/ has a second term of the form
t
te

, so that
( )
t t t
e A t A e A te A t i

+ +
2 , 2 ,
/ . . .,>/
1t this point, let "s consider the )eneral form of the differential e("ation )i&en in .5/, which
shown a)ain here is
0 2
2
2
2
+ + i
dt
di
dt
i d
o
.
2a)e = of 20
C
2
C
,
D
203554753.doc
@or the case with o

, the e("ation becomes
0 2
2
2
2
+ + i
dt
di
dt
i d
.
<e already -now that
t
Ae

satisfies the e("ation, b"t let "s now test the new term
at
Ate

.
6"bstit"tin) in,
( ) ( ) G 0 2
2 2
+ + +
t t t t t t
Ate te e A te e e A


@actorin) o"t the
t
Ae

term common to all yields
( ) ( ) G 0 , 2
2 2
+ + + t t t .HesI/
6o, we confirm the sol"tion of the nat"ral response.
( )
t t t
e A t A e A te A t i

+ +
2 , 2 ,
/ . .20/
To find coefficient 1
2
, "se
( )
2
0
2 ,
0 / 0 . A e A A t i +

.
Th"s,
/ 0 .
2
t i A . .%ote 4 see modification needed to incl"de final response/ .2,/
To find
,
A , ta-e the deri&ati&e of .20/,
( )
t t t t
e A t A A e A te A e A
dt
di




2 , , 2 , ,
.
8&al"atin) at t ? 0 yields
2 ,
0
A A
dt
di
t

.
Th"s,
2
0
,
A
dt
di
A
t
+

. .22/
The ("estion that now be)s to be as-ed is Jwhat happens to the
t
te

term as t K LG
#etermine this "sin) the series e9pansion for an e9ponential.
2a)e > of 20
203554753.doc
<e -now that
( ) ( ) ( )
+ + + +
I 3 I 2 I ,
,
3 2
t t t
e
t

.
Then,
( ) ( ) ( )
+ + + +

I 3 I 2 I ,
,
3 2
t t t
t
e
t
te
t
t

.
#i&idin) n"merator and denominator by t yields,
( ) ( ) ( )
+ + + +

I 3 I 2 I ,
,
,
I 3 I 2 I ,
,
,
2 3 2 3 2
t t
t t
t
t
t
t
t
t
e
t
te
t
t

.
1s t K L, the
t
,
in the denominator )oes to ;ero, and the other JtM terms are h")e. 6ince the
n"merator stays ,, and the denominator becomes h")e, then
t
te

K 0.
The Total Response # The *atural Response Plus The Final Response
$f the circ"it has # so"rces, then the steady-state .i.e., JfinalM/ &al"es of &olta)e and c"rrent
may not be ;ero. J@inalM is the &al"e after all the e9ponential terms ha&e decayed to ;ero. 1nd
yet, for all the cases e9amined here so far, the e9ponential terms all decayed to ;ero after a lon)
time. 6o, how do we acco"nt for JfinalM &al"es of &olta)es or c"rrentsG
6imply thin- of the circ"it as ha&in) a total response that e("als the s"m of its nat"ral response
and final response. 1dd the final term, e.).
t s t s
final
e A e A I t i
2
2
,
,
/ . + + ,
so
[ ]
t s t s
final
e A e A I t i
2
2
,
,
/ . + .for o&erdamped/. .23/
Li-ewise,
[ ] / sin. / cos. / .
2 ,
t B t B e I t i
d d
t
final

+ +

,
[ ] [ ] / sin. / cos. / .
2 ,
t B t B e I t i
d d
t
final

+

.for "nderdamped/. .24/
Li-ewise,
2a)e ,0 of 20
203554753.doc
( )
t
final
e A t A I t i

+ +
2 ,
/ .
,
[ ] ( )
t
final
e A t A I t i

+
2 ,
/ .
.for critically damped/. .25/
Ho" can see that the presence of the final term final
I
will affect the 1 and C coefficients
beca"se the initial &al"e of i.t/ now contains the final
I
term. Take final
I
into account "hen
you evaluate the +s and ,+s -y replacing
/ 0 . t i
in ./01 .201 .1301 and .!10 "ith
[ ]
final
I t i / 0 .
&
Now do yo" )et the final &al"esG $f the problem has a # so"rce, then remember that after a
lon) time when the time deri&ati&es are ;ero, capacitors are Jopen circ"its,M and ind"ctors are
Jshort circ"its.M omp"te the Jfinal &al"esM of &olta)es and c"rrents accordin) to the Jopen
circ"itM and short circ"itM principles.
The 4eneral Second Order Case
6econd order circ"its are not necessarily simple series or parallel !L circ"its. 1ny two non-
combinable stora)e elements .e.)., an L and a , two Ls, or two s/ yields a second order
circ"it and can be sol&ed as before, e9cept that the

and o

are different from the simple

series and parallel !L cases. 1n e9ample follows.
<or- problems li-e irc"it O, by definin) capacitor &olta)es and ind"ctor c"rrents as the % state
&ariables. @or irc"it O,, % ? 2. Ho" will write % circ"it e("ations in terms of the state
&ariables, and stri&e to )et an e("ation that contains only one of them. 'se varia-les instead of
num-ers "hen "riting the e5uations.
@or con&enience, "se the simple notation C
V
and
L
I to represent time &aryin) capacitor
&olta)e and ind"ctor c"rrent, and

C
V
and

L
I
to represent their deri&ati&es, and so on.
To find the natural response, t"rn off the so"rces. <rite yo"r % e("ations by "sin) +'L and
+L, ma-in) s"re to incl"de each circ"it element in yo"r set of e("ations.
@or irc"it O,, start with +'L aro"nd the o"ter loop,
2a)e ,, of 20
'
3 '

4
$
L
L

!
,
!
2
0eneral ase irc"it O, .2rob. =.57/
203554753.doc
0
,
+ +

L C L
I L V I R
. .27/
%ow, write +L at the node P"st to the left of the capacitor,
0
2
+ +

C
C
L
V C
R
V
I
,
which yields

+
C
C
L
V C
R
V
I
2
. .27/
Ta-in) the deri&ati&e of .27/ yields

+
C
C
L
V C
R
V
I
2
. .2=/
<e can now eliminate
L
I and

L
I
in .27/ by s"bstit"tin) .27/ and .2=/ into .27/, yieldin)
0
2 2
,

1
1
1
]
1

+ + +
1
]
1

C
C
C C
C
V C
R
V
L V V C
R
V
R
.
0atherin) terms,
[ ] 0 ,
2
,
2
,

1
]
1

+ +
1
]
1

+ +

C C C
V
R
R
V
R
L
C R V LC ,
and p"ttin) into standard form yields
0 ,
, ,
2
,
2
,

1
]
1

+ +
1
]
1

+ +

C C C
V
R
R
LC
V
C R L
R
V .2>/
2a)e ,2 of 20
203554753.doc
omparin) .2>/ to the standard form in .5/, we see that the circ"it is second-order and
1
]
1

+ ,
,
2
, 2
R
R
LC
o

,
1
]
1

+
C R L
R
2
,
,
2
, so
1
]
1

+
C R L
R
2
,
,
2
,

.
The sol"tion proced"re for the nat"ral response and total response of either
/ .t v
C
or / .t i
L
can
then proceed in the same way as for series and parallel !L circ"its, "sin) the

and
o

&al"es shown abo&e.
%otice in the abo&e two e("ations that when
2
R ,
LC
o
,
2

, and
L
R
2
,
,
which correspond to a series !L circ"it. #oes this ma-e sense for this circ"itG
%ote that when 0
,
R , then
LC
o
,
2

, and
C R
2
2
,

,
which correspond to a parallel !L circ"it. #oes this ma-e sense, tooG
%ow, consider irc"it O2.
T"rnin) off the independent so"rce and writin) +'L for the ri)ht-most mesh yields
0
2 2 2 2 , ,
+ +

L L L
I L I R I L
. .30/
+'L for the center mesh is
[ ] 0
, , 2 , ,
+ +

L L L
I L I I R
,
yieldin)
2a)e ,3 of 20
$
0eneral ase irc"it O2 .2rob. =.70/
L
2
!
2
$
L2
L
,
!
,
$
L,
203554753.doc

,
,
,
, 2 L L L
I
R
L
I I
. .3,/
Ta-in) the deri&ati&e of .3,/ yields


,
,
,
, 2 L L L
I
R
L
I I . .32/
6"bstit"tin) into .3,/ and .32/ into .30/ yields
0
,
,
,
, 2 ,
,
,
, 2 , ,

1
]
1

+
1
]
1

+

L L L L L
I
R
L
I L I
R
L
I R I L
.
0atherin) terms,
0
, 2 , 2
,
, 2
, ,
,
2 ,

1
]
1

+
1
]
1

L L L
I R I L
R
L R
L I
R
L L
,
and p"ttin) into standard form yields
0
,
2 ,
2 ,
,
,
,
2
2
2
,
,

1
]
1

+
1
]
1

+ + +

L L L
I
L L
R R
I
L
R
L
R
L
R
I . .33/
omparin) .33/ to .5/,
2 ,
2 , 2
L L
R R
o

,
1
]
1

+ +
,
,
2
2
2
,
2
L
R
L
R
L
R

, so
1
]
1

+ +
,
,
2
2
2
,
2
,
L
R
L
R
L
R

. .34/
The sol"tion proced"re for the nat"ral response and total response of either / .
,
t i
L
or / .
2
t i
L

can then proceed in the same way as for series and parallel !L circ"its, "sin) the

and
o

&al"es shown abo&e.
2a)e ,4 of 20
203554753.doc
*ormali6ed )amping Ratio
A"r pre&io"s e9pression for sol&in) for s was
0 2
2 2
+ +
o
s s . .35/
8("ation .35/ is sometimes written in terms of a Jnormali;ed dampin) ratioM

as follows:
0 2
2 2
+ +
o o
s s . .37/
Th"s, the relationship between dampin) coefficient

and normali;ed dampin) ratio

is
o

. .37/
%ormali;ed dampin) ratio

has the con&enient feat"re of bein) ,.0 at the point of critical

dampin). <hen

Q ,.0, the response is "nderdamped. <hen

Q ,.0, the response is

o&erdamped. 89amples for a "nit step inp"t are shown in the followin) fi)"re.
2a)e ,5 of 20
203554753.doc
2a)e ,7 of 20
Response of Second Order System
(zeta = 0.99, 0.8, 0.6, 0.4, 0.2, 0.1)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
0 2 4 6 8 10
0.99
0.1
0.4
0.2
203554753.doc
*otes on Solving the Three Cases
2 2
o
s t has three distinct cases:
ase , is where o
>
, so that the term inside the radical is positi&e. Overdamped.
ase 2 is where o
<
, so that the term inside the radical is ne)ati&e. Underdamped.
ase 3 is where o

, so that the term inside the radical is ;ero. Critically Damped.
Case 1: Overdamped .
o
> , so s
,
and s
2
are both ne)ati&e real0
The nat"ral .i.e., so"rce free/ response for any c"rrent or &olta)e in the networ- has the form

t s t s
e A e A
2
2
,
,
+

2 2
, o
s + ,

2 2
2 o
s .
The -ey to findin) 1
,
and 1
2
is always to -now the ind"ctor c"rrent and capacitor &olta)e at t ?
0
3
. !emember that
*nless there is an infinite imp"lse of c"rrent thro")h a capacitor, the &olta)e across a
capacitor .and the stored ener)y in the capacitor/ remains constant d"rin) a switchin)
transition from t ? 0
-
to t ? 0
3
.
*nless there is an infinite imp"lse of &olta)e across an ind"ctor, the c"rrent thro")h an
ind"ctor .and the stored ener)y in the ind"ctor/ remains constant d"rin) a switchin)
transition from t ? 0
-
to t ? 0
3
.
2a)e ,7 of 20
203554753.doc
Case !: 'nderdamped .
o
< 1so s
1
and s
!
are comple7 con8ugates0
The nat"ral .i.e., so"rce free/ response for any c"rrent or &olta)e in the networ- has the
rectan)"lar form
[ ] / sin. / cos. / .
2 ,
t B t B e t i
d d
t

+

.,7/

2 2
,
+
o
j s ,

2 2
2

o
j s .
#amped resonant fre("ency
2 2

o d
, .,4/
so that
d
j s +
, ,
d
j s
2
/ 0 .
,
t i B .%ote 4 see modification needed to incl"de final response/ .,7/

d
t
B
dt
di
B

,
0
2
+

.,=/
$n polar form,
/ cos. / .
2
2
2
,

+

t e B B t i
d
t

1
]
1

,
2 ,
tan
B
B

.
!e)ardin) the arctan)ent - be caref"l beca"se yo"r calc"lator will )i&e the wron)
answer 50E of the time. The reason is that
/ ,=0 tan. / tan. t
. 6o chec- the
("adrant of yo"r calc"lator answer with the ("adrant consistent with the ri)ht
trian)le. $f the calc"lator ("adrant does not a)ree with the fi)"re, then add or s"btract
,=0F from yo"r calc"lator an)le, and re-chec- the ("adrant.
2a)e ,= of 20
C
2
C
,
D
203554753.doc
Case (: Critically )amped . o

, so
2 ,
s s /
( )
t t t
e A t A e A te A t i

+ +
2 , 2 ,
/ . . .,>/
/ 0 .
2
t i A . .%ote 4 see modification needed to incl"de final response/ .2,/
2
0
,
A
dt
di
A
t
+

. .22/
Total Response # *atural Response Plus Final Response
$f the circ"it has # so"rces, then the final response is also #. The total response is

t s t s
final
e A e A I t i
2
2
,
,
/ . + + ,
[ ]
t s t s
final
e A e A I t i
2
2
,
,
/ . + .23/
The effect of $
final
on determinin) 1
,
and 1
2
simply means that yo" "se .23/ at t ? 0 instead of
i.t ? 0/ by itself.
$f the circ"it has 1 so"rces, the final response is the phasor sol"tion.
2a)e ,> of 20
203554753.doc
*ormali6ed )amping Ratio
A"r pre&io"s e9pression for sol&in) for s was
0 2
2 2
+ +
o
s s . .35/
8("ation .35/ is sometimes written in terms of a Jnormali;ed dampin) ratioM

as follows:
0 2
2 2
+ +
o o
s s . .37/
Th"s, the relationship between dampin) coefficient

and normali;ed dampin) ratio

is
o

. .37/
%ormali;ed dampin) ratio

has the con&enient feat"re of bein) ,.0 at the point of critical

dampin). <hen

Q ,.0, the response is "nderdamped. <hen

Q ,.0, the response is

o&erdamped. 89amples for a "nit step inp"t are shown in the followin) fi)"re.
2a)e 20 of 20
Response of Second Order System
(zeta = 0.99, 0.8, 0.6, 0.4, 0.2, 0.1)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
0 2 4 6 8 10
0.99
0.1
0.4
0.2