Welding Process Description PDF

8
Consumables
Fundamentals of Flux and Metal Cored Arc Welding

Welding Technique
Successful ux and metal cored arc welding depends on the following factors: 1 Selection of correct consumables 2 Selection of the correct power source 3 Selection of the correct shielding gas 4 Selection of the correct application techniques: a Correct angle of electrode to work b Correct electrical stick-out c Correct travel speed 5 Selection of the welding preparation. Common Materials Welded with Flux and Metal Cored Wire Material BOC MIG Wire
Material
Carbon and Alloy steel castings Quench and tempered steels Ferritic steels
Page No
351 353 352
AS2074 C1, C2, C3, C4-1, C42, BOC SmoothCor 711, C5, C6 SmoothCor 70C6, SmoothCor 715 AS/NZS 3678-9 250, 300, 350, 400 AS1548-430, 460, 490 ASTM A36, A106, EN8, 8A BS970 EN 43A, AS3597-500 BS970 EN24, AS3597-700 Stainless Steel Grade 304 Stainless to mild steel Grade 316 Cigweld Shieldchrome 308LT Cigweld Shieldchrome 309LT Cigweld Shieldchrome 316LT BOC SmoothCor 711, SmoothCor 70C6, SmoothCor 715 BOC SmoothCor 711, SmoothCor 70C6, SmoothCor 715 BOC SmoothCor 711, SmoothCor 70C6, SmoothCor 715 BOC SmoothCor 811K2 BOC SmoothCor 115
Selection of correct consumables

Chemical composition As a general rule, the selection of a wire is straightforward, in that it is only a matter of selecting an electrode of similar composition to the parent material. However, there are certain applications for which electrodes will be selected on the basis of mechanical properties or the level of residual hydrogen in the weldmetal. The classication system for ux cored wires will provide an indication of the residual hydrogen level that can be expected in the weldmetal. The following table gives a general overview of some of the BOC range of ux and metal cored wires for the most common materials. More detailed selection charts for specic materials can be found in the appropriate materials sections.
E T P G C p W 5 0 4 A . C M I H 10
H10 H5 H10 H15
Designates the diffusable hydrogen content of deposited weld metal(DWM). 5 ml H2 / 100 g of DWM 10 ml H2 / 100 g of DWM 15 ml H2 / 100 g of DWM
WARNING W elding can give rise to electric shock, excessive noise, eye and skin burns due to the arc rays, and a potential health hazard if you breathe in the emitted fumes and gases. Read all the manufacturers instructions to achieve the correct welding conditions and ask your employer for the Materials Safety Data Sheets. Refer to www.boc.com.au or www.boc.co.nz
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AU : IPRM 2007 : SECTiON 8 : CONsumaBLEs

Physical condition
Surface condition BOC ux and metal cored wires are supplied as an in line baked product and therefore have a typical dark surface appearance. The wire must, however, be free from any surface contamination, including surface rust. Most ux and metal cored wires have a thin lm of graphite on the surface of the wire to assist with feedability. BOC SmoothCor wires are supplied in tough vacuum packs to ensure performance as manufactured. Cast and Helix The AWS standard for ux cored wires do not specify a cast or helix, other than to stipulate that it should be of such a nature that the wire can be fed uninterrupted. The following table gives an indication of the operating amperage for different size wires. Wire Size (mm)
FCAW 1.2 1.2 1.6 1.6 MCAW 1.2 1.6 Horizontal Horizontal 150350 300500 Horizontal Vertical-up Horizontal Vertical-up 200300 150250 300400 180250
Direction
Amperage Range (A)
Selection of the Correct Power Source

Power sources for ux and metal cored welding are selected on a number of different criteria, including: 1 Maximum output of the machine 2 Duty cycle 3 Output control (voltage selection,wire feed speed control) 4 Portability
A BOC power sources selection chart is contained in the arc equipment section of this manual (see pages 240241).
Selection of the Correct Shielding Gas

The selection of the shielding gas has a direct inuence on the appearance and quality of the weldbead. Flux cored wires are manufactured to be welded with either 100% CO2 or an Argon/CO2 gas mixture. Mostly, these mixtures will contain 25% CO2, as is the case with BOC Argoshield 52.
Current / Voltage Envelope for Argoshield 52

40
Undercutting and burnback 1.2 mm 1.6 mm Flat and Horizontal Optimum Paramaters Burnback and arc instability Positional Welding Optimum Paramaters Defect Free Zone Electrode stubbing and spatter Defect Zone
35
30
Voltage (V)
25
20
No working condition
0 10 Plate Thickness (mm) Positional Welding 0 5 20 10 15 20
15
10
Plate Thickness (mm) Flat and Horizontal
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
Current (A)
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Torch angle for llet welds
Correct Application Techniques

Direction of travel Flux cored welding is normally performed using a drag technique. The welding gun is tilted to a 5060 backhand angle. If, however, a atter bead prole is required the backhand angle can be reduced. Metal cored wire, because of its similarity to solid wires (no slag formers added to the core mainly metallic powders), are normally welded with the push technique Travel direction (Flux cored)
When welding horizontal-vertical llet welds, the wire tip must be aimed exactly in the corner of the joint. For the rst bead, the welding gun is tilted at an angle of 3040 from the horizontal plane. Flux cored welding is still performed with the drag technique and metal cored welding with the push technique. Vertical-up
Travel direction (Metal cored)
Vertical-up welding can be undertaken in a similar way, as MMA with a slight weave motion. Vertical-up welding with metal cored wire can successfully be undertaken with pulsed MIG welding equipment. When welding butt welds with ux or metal cored wires, the torch should be positioned within the centre of the groove and tilted at an angle of 20. Flux cored welding is still performed with the drag technique and metal cored welding with the push technique. Torch position for butt welds Electrical stick-out
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 Gas Nozzle Contact Tube Setback Consumable Electrode Workpiece Standoff Distance Contact Tube Visible Stick-out Arc length Electrical Stick-out
1 2
3 5
7 8
The electrical stick-out is the distance between the end of the contact tip and the end of the wire. An increase in the electrical stick-out results in an increase in the electrical resistance. The resultant increase in temperature has a positive inuence in the melt off rate of the wire that will have an inuence on the weldbead prole. Travel speed The construction of ux and metal cored wires ensures the highest current density for a given current setting compared to all other welding processes.
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High current densities produce high deposition rates. Current Density or J = = Amperage Cross-sectional area of wire I A Dia. (mm) Cross section area (mm2)
4 1.2 1.2 1.2 12.57 0.625 1.130 0.625
Electrode/ Wire
MMA electrode (E7024) FCAW wire (E71T-1) MIG wire (ER70S-6) MCAW wire (E70C-6M)
Current (A)
235 235 235 300
Current Density (A/mm2)

18.7 376 287.5 480
Deposition rate (kg/h)

3.0 3.8 3.3 5.2
Consequently, travel speed must be increased proportionately to maintain control of the weld pool and bead shape, and to balance the deposited weld metal versus fusion obtained.
Travel speed too slow Excessive penetration Excessive weld metal deposited Roll over of weld metal on horizontalplate
Correct travel speed Recommended penetration depth Proper sidewall fusion without roll over or undercut
Travel speed too fast Weld bead too small Inadequate sidewall fusion Lack of root penetration
325
Consumables
Fundamentals of Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding

Welding Technique
Successful welding depends on the following factors: 1 Selection of correct consumables 2 Selection of the correct power source 3 Selection of the correct shielding gas 4 Selection of the correct application techniques: a Correct angle of electrode to work b Correct electrical stick-out c Correct travel speed 5 Selection of the welding preparation. Material
AS2074 C1, C2, C3, C4-1, C4-2, C5, C6 AS/NZS 3678-9 250, 300, 350, 400 AS1548-430, 460, 490 ASTM A36, A106 Stainless Steel Grade 304 Stainless to Carbon-Mn steels Grade 316 Aluminium 1080 6061, 3004 5005 BOC Aluminium MIG 1080 BOC Aluminium MIG 4043 BOC Aluminium MIG 5356 BOC Stainless Steel 316LSi BOC Stainless Steel 308LSi
Common Materials Welded with BOC MIG Wire BOC MIG Wire
BOC Mild Steel MIG Wire BOC Mild Steel MIG Wire BOC Mild Steel MIG Wire BOC Mild Steel MIG Wire
Selection of correct consumables

Chemical composition As a general rule, the selection of a wire is straightforward, in that it is only a matter of selecting an electrode of similar composition to the parent material. However, there are certain applications for which electrodes will be selected on the basis of mechanical properties or the level of residual hydrogen in the weldmetal. Solid MIG wires are all considered to be of the low hydrogen type consumables. The following table gives a general overview of some of the BOC range of MIG wires for the most common materials. More detailed selection charts for specic materials can be found in the appropriate materials sections. Material
Mild and Alloy steel Quench and tempered steels Ferritic materials Stainless steel Aluminium
Physical condition Surface condition. The welding wire must be free from any surface contamination, including mechanical damage such as scratch marks. A simple test for checking the surface condition is to run the wire through a cloth that has been dampened with acetone for 20sec. If a black residue is found on the cloth, the surface of the wire is not properly cleaned. Cast and Helix. The cast and helix of the wire has a major inuence on the feedability of MIG wire.
Page No
351 353 352 406 425
Cast
Helix
318

Cast Diameter of the circle Helix Vertical height If the cast is too small, the wire will dip down from the tip. The result of this is excessive tip wear and increased wear in the liners. If the helix is too large, the wire will leave the tip with a corkscrew effect and cause feeding problems. Different grades of shielding are required for materials such as stainless steel, aluminium and copper. The following table gives an indication of the most common shielding gases used for carbon manganese and alloy steels: Material thickness
18mm 512mm >12mm
Recommended shielding gas

Argoshield Light Argoshield Universal Argoshield Heavy
Selection of the Correct Power Source

Power sources for MIG/MAG welding is selected on a number of different criteria, including: 1 Maximum output of the machine 2 Duty cycle 3 Output control (voltage selection, wire feed speed control) 4 Portability The following table gives an indication of the operating amperage for different size wires Wire Size
0.8mm 0.9mm 1.0mm 1.2mm
More detailed selection charts, including recommendations for welding parameters (voltage, amperage, electrical stick-out, travel speed and gas ow rate) can be found in the following sections: Material
C-Mn and Alloy Steels Argoshield Light 60 61 62 63
Page
Amperage Range (A)

60180 70250 90280 120340
Argoshield Universal Argoshield Heavy Argoshield 52 Stainless Steel Stainshield Stainshield Heavy Aluminium Argon Alushield Light Alushield Heavy Copper Specshield Copper
65 65
A BOC power sources selection chart is contained in the arc equipment section of this manual (see pages 240241).
Selection of the Correct Shielding Gas

The selection of the shielding gas has a direct inuence on the appearance and quality of the weldbead. The type and thickness of the material to be welded will determine the type of shielding gas that is selected. As a general rule, the thicker the material (C-Mn and Alloy Steels), the higher the percentage of CO2 in the shielding gas mixture.
54 67 67
80
Wire Operating Limits

35
Undercutting and burnback
30
1.0mm 1.2mm
Spray Transfer Optimum Parameters DipTransfer Optimum Parameters Defect Free Zone
25
Burnback and arc instability
Voltage (V)
20
0.8mm
0.9mm
1.0mm
Electrode (wire) stubbing and spatter Defect Zone
15
No working condition
0 1 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5
10
Dip Transfer (Steel Thickness (mm)) 0 1
Spray Transfer (Steel Thickness (mm))
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Current (A)
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Torch position for llet welds
Correct Application Techniques

Direction of welding MIG welding with solid wires takes place normally with a push technique. The welding gun is tilted at an angle of 10 towards the direction of welding (push technique).
When welding llet welds, the torch should be positioned at an angle of 45 from the bottom plate, with the wire pointing into the llet corner. Welding is still performed in the push technique Electrical stick-out
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 Gas Nozzle Contact Tube Setback Consumable Electrode Workpiece Standoff Distance Contact Tube Visible Stick-out Arc length Electrical Stick-out
1 2
The inuence of changing the torch angle and the welding direction on the weld bead prole can be seen below
3 5
7 8
The electrical stick-out is the distance between the end of the contact tip and the end of the wire. An increase in the electrical stick-out results in an increase in the electrical resistance. The resultant increase in temperature has a positive inuence in the melt-off rate of the wire that will have an inuence on the weldbead prole Torch perpendicular to workpiece Narrow bead width with increased reinforcement
10
Short
Normal
Long
Inuence of the change in electrical stick-out length on the weldbead prole Torch positioned at a drag angle of 10 narrow bead with excessive reinforcement
015
Travel speed
Slow
90 90
Normal
Fast
The travel speed will inuence the weldbead prole and the reinforcement height. If the travel speed is too slow, a wide weldbead with excessive rollover will result. Conversely, if the travel speed is too high, a narrow weldbead with excessive reinforcement will result. Recommendations for travel speed are contained in the detailed gases datasheets found in pages 5868 of this manual.
Torch position for butt welds
When welding butt welds, the torch should be positioned within the centre of the groove and tilted at an angle of 15 from the vertical plane. Welding is still performed in the push technique
320
Consumables
Fundamentals of Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding

Welding Technique
Successful MMA welding depends on the following factors: 1 Selection of the correct electrode 2 Selection of the correct size of the electrode for the job 3 Correct welding current 4 Correct arc length 5 Correct angle of electrode to work 6 Correct travel speed 7 Correct preparation of work to be welded.
BOC Smootharc 24 E7024
Electrodes and Typical Applications Name

BOC Smootharc 13
AWS Classication
E6013
Application
A premium quality electrode for general structural and sheet metal work in all positions, including verticaldown using low carbon steels An iron powder electrode for high speed welding for H-V llets and at butt joints. Medium to heavy structural applications in low carbon steels A premium quality, all positional hydrogen controlled electrode for carbon steels in pressure vessel applications and where high integrity welding is required; and for freemachining steels containing sulphur Rutile basic coated low carbon electrodes for welding austenitic stainless steel Rutile basic coated low carbon electrode for welding mild steel to stainless steel and difcult to weld material
Electrode Selection
As a general rule, the selection of an electrode is straight forward, in that it is only a matter of selecting an electrode of similar composition to the parent metal. However, for some metals there is a choice of several electrodes, each of which has particular properties to suit specic classes of work. Often, one electrode in the group will be more suitable for general applications due to its all round qualities. The table below shows just a few of the wide range of electrodes available from BOC, with their typical areas of application. For example, the average welder will carry out most fabrication using mild steel and for this material has a choice of various standard BOC electrodes, each of which will have qualities suited to particular tasks. For general mild steel work, however, BOCSmootharc 13 electrodes will handle virtually all applications. BOC Smootharc 13 is suitable for welding mild steel in all positions using AC or DC power sources. Its easy striking characteristics and the tolerance it has for work where t-up and plate surfaces are not considered good, make it the most attractive electrode of its class. Continuous development and improvement of BOC Smootharc 13 have provided in-built operating qualities, which appeal to the beginner and experienced operator alike. For further advice on the selection of electrodes for specic applications, or to obtain a copy of the Welding Consumables: Selection Chart, contact your local BOC representative on 131 262.
BOC Smootharc S 308L BOC Smootharc S 316L BOC Smootharc S 309L E308L E316L E309L
BOC Smootharc 18
E7018-1
Electrode Size The size of the electrode generally depends on the thickness of the section being welded, and the thicker the section the larger the electrode required. In the case of light sheet, the electrode size used is generally slightly larger than the work being welded. This means that, if 2.0mm sheet is being welded, 2.5mm diameter electrode is the recommended size. The following table gives the maximum size of electrodes that may be used for various thicknesses of section.
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Electrode Angle Maximum Recommended Electrode Diameter
2.5 mm 3.2 mm 4.0 mm 5.0 mm
Recommended Electrode Sizes Average Thickness of Plate or Section

1.52.0 mm 2.05.0 mm 5.08.0 mm 8.0 mm
The angle that the electrode makes with the work is important to ensure a smooth, even transfer of metal. The recommended angles for use in the various welding positions are covered later. Correct Travel Speed The electrode should be moved along in the direction of the joint being welded at a speed that will give the size of run required. At the same time, the electrode is fed downwards to keep the correct arc length at all times. As a guide for general applications, the table below gives recommended run lengths for the downhand position. Correct travel speed for normal welding applications varies between approximately 100 and 300mm per minute, depending on electrode size, size of run required and the amperage used. Excessive travel speeds lead to poor fusion, lack of penetration etc, while too slow a rate of travel will frequently lead to arc instability, slag inclusions and poor mechanical properties. Run Length per Electrode BOC Smootharc 13 Run Length (mm) Electrode Size (mm)
4.0 3.2 2.5
Welding Current Correct current selection for a particular job is an important factor in arc welding. With the current set too low, difculty is experienced in striking and maintaining a stable arc. The electrode tends to stick to the work, penetration is poor and beads with a distinct rounded prole will be deposited. Excessive current is accompanied by overheating of the electrode. It will cause undercut and burning through of the material, and will give excessive spatter. Normal current for a particular job may be considered as the maximum, which can be used without burning through the work, over-heating the electrode or producing a rough spattered surface (i.e. the current in the middle of the range specied on the electrode package is considered to be the optimum). In the case, of welding machines with separate terminals for different size electrodes, ensure that the welding lead is connected to the correct terminal for the size electrode being used. When using machines with adjustable current, set on the current range specied. The limits of this range should not normally be exceeded. The following table shows the current ranges generally recommended for BOC Smootharc 13. Generally Recommended Current Range for BOC Smootharc 13 Electrode Size (mm)
2.5 3.2 4.0 5.0
Electrode Length (mm)

350 350 350
Minimum
175 125 100
Maximum
300 225 225
Correct Work Preparation The method of preparation of components to be welded will depend on equipment available and relative costs. Methods may include sawing, punching, shearing, machining, ame cutting and others. In all cases edges should be prepared for the joints that suit the application.The following section describes the various joint types and areas of application.
Current Range (Amp)

6095 110130 140165 170260
Types of Joints
Butt Welds A butt weld is a weld made between two plates so as to give continuity of section. Close attention must be paid to detail in a butt weld to ensure that the maximum strength of the weld is developed. Failure to properly prepare the edges may lead to the production of faulty welds, as correct manipulation of the electrode is impeded.
Butt Welding
Reinforcement Weld Face
Arc Length To strike the arc, the electrode should be gently scraped on the work until the arc is established. There is a simple rule for the proper arc length; it should be the shortest arc that gives a good surface to the weld. An arc too long reduces penetration, produces spatter and gives a rough surface nish to the weld. An excessively short arc will cause sticking of the electrode and rough deposits that are associated with slag inclusions. For downhand welding, an arc length not greater than the diameter of the core wire will be most satisfactory. Overhead welding requires a very short arc, so that a minimum of metal will be lost. Certain BOC electrodes have been specially designed for touch welding. These electrodes may be dragged along the work and a perfectly sound weld is produced.
Root Face
Root Gap
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Two terms relating to the preparation of butt welds require explanation at this stage. They are:
General Notes on Butt Welds The rst run in a prepared butt weld should be deposited with an electrode not larger than 4.0 mm. The angle of the electrode for the various runs in a butt weld is shown below. It is necessary to maintain the root gap by tacking at intervals or by other means, as it will tend to close during welding. All single V, single U and square butt welds should have a backing run deposited on the underside of the joint, otherwise 50% may be deducted from the permissible working stress of the joint. Before proceeding with a run on the underside of a weld, it is necessary to back-gouge or grind that side of the joint. Butt welds should be overlled to a certain extent by building up the weld until it is above the surface of the plate. Excessive reinforcement, however, should be avoided. In multi-run butt welds, it is necessary to remove all slag and surplus weld metal before a start is made on additional runs. This is particularly important with the rst run, which tends to form sharp corners that cannot be penetrated with subsequent runs. Electrodes larger than 4.0mm are not generally used for vertical or overhead butt welds. The diagrams below indicate the correct procedure for welding thick plate when using multiple runs.
Bead Sequence for 1st and 2nd Layers
WELD BEADS WELD BEADS
Root Face: the proportion of the prepared edge that has not been bevelled (Land). Root Gap: the separation between root faces of the parts to be joined.
Various types of butt welds are in common use and their suitability for different thickness of steel are described as follows:
Square Butt Weld The edges are not prepared, but are separated slightly to allow fusion through the full thickness of the steel. Suitable for plate up to 6mm in thickness. Single V Butt Weld This is commonly used for plate up to 16mm in thickness and on metal of greater thickness where access is available from only one side. Double V Butt Weld Used on plate of 12mm and over in thickness when welding can be applied from both sides. It allows faster welding and greater economy of electrodes than a single V preparation on the same thickness of steel and also has less tendency to distortion as weld contraction can be equalised. Butt Weld with Backing Material When square butt welds or single V welds cannot be welded from both sides, it is desirable to use a backing bar to ensure complete fusion. Single U Butt Weld Used on thick plates as an alternative to a single V preparation. It has advantages in speed of welding. It takes less weld metal than a single V, there is less contraction and there is, therefore, a lessened tendency to distortion. Preparation is more expensive than in the case of a V, as machining is required. This type of joint is most suitable for material over 40mm in thickness.
WELD BEADS
LAYERS
Bead Sequence for Subsequent Layers

WELD BEADS WELD BEADS
LAYERS
W SLAG WE SLAG WELD METAL WELD METAL
LAYERS LAYERS
Double U Butt Weld For use on thick plate that is accessible for welding from both sides. For a given thickness it is faster, needs less weld metal and causes less distortion than a single U preparation.
Welding Progression Angle

1 Weld Metal 2 Workpiece 3 3 Electrode 4 Slag 5 Welding Direction ELECTRODE 6 7085 Angle 70 - 85 7 Arc 8 Weld Pool WELD POOL
ARC
LAYERS WELD BEADS
Horizontal Butt Weld
WELD BEADS
ERS WELD BEADS LAYERS
The lower member in this case is bevelled to WELD METAL approximately 15 and the upper member 45, making an included angle of 60. This preparation ELECTRODE provides a ledge on the lower member, which 70 - 85 tends to retain the molten metal.
WELD BEADS WELD POOL WELD BEADS SLAG WELD METAL ARC
SLAG
7 8
DIRECTION 2 OF WELDING
ERS WELD BEADS
WARNING W elding can give rise to electric shock, excessive noise, eye and skin burns due to the arc rays, and a potential health hazard if you breathe in the emitted fumes and gases. ELECTRODE Read all the manufacturers instructions to achieve the correct welding conditions and ask your employer for the Materials Safety Data Sheets. Refer to www.boc.com.au or www.boc.co.nz DIRECTION OF WELDING LAYERS ELECTRODE 70 - 85 WELD POOL WELD : BEADS AU : IPRMSLAG 2007 SECTiON 8 : CONsumaBLEs WELD METAL WELD BEADS ARC WELD POOL SLAG 70 - 85
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Throat Thickness A measurement taken through the centre of a weld from the root to the face, along the line that bisects the angle formed by the members to be joined. Many countries use throat thickness rather than leg length. Effective throat thickness is a measurement on which the strength of a weld is calculated. The effective throat thickness is based on a mitre llet (Concave Fillet Weld), which has a throat thickness equal to 70% of the leg length. For example, in the case of a 20mm llet, the effective throat thickness will be 14 mm. Convex Fillet Weld A llet weld in which the contour of the weld metal lies outside a straight line joining the toes of the weld. A convex llet weld of specied leg length has a throat thickness in excess of the effective measurement.
Convex Fillet Weld
1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 Actual Throat Effective Throat Convexity Leg Size Theoretical Throat
Fillet Welds
A llet weld is approximately triangular in section, joining two surfaces not in the same plane and forming a lap joint, tee joint or corner joint. Joints made with llet welds do not require extensive edge preparation, as is the case with butt welded joints, since the weld does not necessarily penetrate the full thickness of either member. It is, however, important that the parts to be joined be clean, close tting, and that all the edges on which welding is to be carried out are square. On sheared plate, it is advisable to entirely remove any false cut on the edges prior to welding. Fillet welds are used in the following types of joints:
T Joints A llet weld may be placed either on one or both sides, depending on the requirements of the work. The weld metal should fuse into or penetrate the corner formed between the two members. Where possible, the joint should be placed in such a position as to form a Natural V llet since this is the easiest and fastest method of llet welding. Lap Joints In this case, a llet weld may be placed either on one or both sides of the joint, depending on accessibility and the requirements of the joint. However, lap joints, where only one weld is accessible, should be avoided where possible and must never constitute the joints of tanks or other fabrications where corrosion is likely to occur behind the lapped plates. In applying llet welds to lapped joints, it is important that the amount of overlap of the plates be not less than ve times the thickness of the thinner part. Where it is required to preserve the outside face or contour of a structure, one plate may be joggled. Corner Joints The members are tted as shown, leaving a V-shaped groove in which a llet weld is deposited. Fusion should be complete for the full thickness of the metal. In practice, it is generally necessary to have a gap or a slight overlap on the corner. The use of a 1.02.5mm gap has the advantage of assisting penetration at the root, although setting up is a problem. The provision of an overlap largely overcomes the problem of setting up, but prevents complete penetration at the root and should therefore be kept to a minimum (i.e.1.02.5 mm).
4 5
4 5
Concave Fillet Weld A llet in which the contour of the weld is below a straight line joining the toes of the weld. It should be noted that a concave llet weld of a specied leg length has a throat thickness less than the effective throat thickness for that size llet. This means that, when a concave llet weld is used, the throat thickness must not be less than the effective measurement. This entails an increase in leg length beyond the specied measurement.
Concave Fillet Weld
1 2 3 5 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 Actual Throat Effective Throat Concavity Leg Size Theoretical Throat
The following terms and denitions are important in specifying and describing llet welds. Leg Length A fusion face of a llet weld, as shown below. In Australia and NZ, specications for llet weld sizes are based on leg length.
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The size of a llet weld is affected by the electrode size, welding speed or run length, welding current and electrode angle. Welding speed and run length have an important effect on the size and shape of the llet, and on the tendency to undercut. Insufcient speed causes the molten metal to pile up behind the arc and eventually to collapse. Conversely, excessive speed will produce a narrow irregular run having poor penetration, and where larger electrodes and high currents are used, undercut is likely to occur. Fillet Weld Data Nominal Fillet Size (mm)
5.0 6.3 8.0 10.0
Multi-run (multi-pass) horizontal llets have each run made using the same run lengths (Run Length per Electrode Table). Each run is made in the same direction, and care should be taken with the shape of each, so that it has equal leg lengths and the contour of the completed llet weld is slightly convex with no hollows in the face. Vertical llet welds can be carried out using the upwards or downwards technique. The characteristics of each are: Upwards current used is low, penetration is good, surface is slightly convex and irregular. For multiple run llets, large single pass weaving runs can be used. Downwards current used is medium, penetration is poor, each run is small, concave and smooth. The downwards method should be used for making welds on thin material only. Electrodes larger than 4.0mm are not recommended for vertical-down welding. All strength joints in vertical plates 10.0mm thick or more should be welded using the upward technique.This method is used because of its good penetration and weld metal quality.The rst run of a vertical-up llet weld should be a straight sealing run made with 3.2mm or 4.0mm diameter electrode. Subsequent runs for large llets may be either numerous straight runs or several wide weaving runs. Correct selection of electrodes is important for vertical welding. In overhead llet welds, careful attention to technique is necessary to obtain a sound weld of good prole. Medium current is required for best results. High current will cause undercutting and bad shape of the weld, while low current will cause slag inclusions. To produce a weld having good penetration and of good prole, a short arc length is necessary. Angles of electrode for overhead llets is illustrated below.
Recommended Electrode Angles for Overhead Fillet Welds
Min.Throat Thickness (mm)

3.5 4.5 5.5 7.0
Plate Thickness (mm)

5.06.3 6.312 8.012 and over 10 and over
Electrode Size (mm)

3.2 4.0 5.0 4.0
Selection of welding current is important. If it is too high, the weld surface will be attened and undercut accompanied by excessive spatter is likely to occur. Alternatively, a current which is too low will produce a rounded narrow bead with poor penetration at the root. The rst run in the corner of a joint requires a suitably high current to achieve maximum penetration at the root. A short arc length is recommended for llet welding. The maximum size llet which should be attempted with one pass of a large electrode is 8.0mm. Efforts to obtain larger leg lengths usually result in collapse of the metal at the vertical plate and serious undercutting. For large leg lengths, multiple run llets are necessary. These are built up as shown below. The angle of the electrode for various runs in a downhand llet weld is also shown. Recommended Electrode Angles For Fillet Welds
1st Run 2nd Run
15
45 30
3rd Run
Multi-run Fillet
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Welding Defects and Problems

Manual metal arc welding, like other welding processes, has welding procedure problems that may develop and which can cause defects in the weld. Some defects are caused by problems with the materials. Other welding problems may not be foreseeable and may require immediate corrective action. A poor welding technique and improper choice of welding parameters can cause weld defects. Defects that can occur when using the shielded metal arc welding process are slag inclusions, wagon tracks, porosity, wormhole porosity, undercutting, lack of fusion, overlapping, burn through, arcstrikes, craters and excessive weld spatter. Many of these welding technique problems weaken the weld and can cause cracking. Other problems that can occur and which can reduce the quality of the weld are arc blow, nger nailing and improper electrode coating moisturecontents. Wagon Tracks
Defects Caused by Welding Technique

Slag Inclusions
Top View Thru Transparent Bead
Wagon tracks are linear slag inclusions that run the longitudinal axis of the weld. They result from allowing the slag to run ahead of the weld puddle and by slag left on the previous weld pass. These occur at the toe lines of the previous weld bead. Slag inclusions occur when slag particles are trapped inside the weld metal, which produces a weaker weld. These can be caused by:

Porosity
erratic travel speed too wide a weaving motion slag left on the previous weld pass too large an electrode being used letting slag run ahead of the arc. a uniform travel speed a tighter weaving motion complete slag removal before welding using a smaller electrode keeping the slag behind the arc, which is done by shortening the arc, increasing the travel speed or changing the electrode angle. Porosity is gas pockets in the weld metal that may be scattered in small clusters or along the entire length of the weld. Porosity weakens the weld in approximately the same way that slag inclusions do. Porosity may be caused by:

This defect can be prevented by:

excessive welding current rust, grease, oil or dirt on the surface of the base metal excessive moisture in the electrode coatings impurities in the base metal too short an arc length, except when using low-hydrogen or stainless steel electrodes travel speed too high, which causes freezing of the weld puddle before gases can escape. lowering the welding current cleaning the surface of the base metal redrying electrodes changing to a different base metal with a different composition using a slightly longer arc length lowering the travel speed to let the gases escape preheating the base metal, using a different type of electrode, orboth.
This problem can be prevented by:

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Wormhole Porosity (Piping Porosity) Lack of Fusion
Wormhole porosity is the name given to elongated gas pockets. The best method of preventing this is to lower the travel speed to permit gases to escape before the weld metal freezes. Undercutting
Lack of fusion is when the weld metal is not fused to the base metal. This can occur between the weld metal and the base metal or between passes in a multiple pass weld. Causes of this defect can be:

excessive travel speed electrode size too large welding current too low poor joint preparation letting the weld metal get ahead of the arc. reducing the travel speed using a smaller diameter electrode increasing the welding current better joint preparation using a proper electrode angle.
Undercutting is a groove melted in the base metal next to the toe or root of a weld that is not lled by the weld metal. Undercutting causes a weaker joint and it can cause cracking. This defect is causedby: excessive welding current

Lack of fusion can usually be prevented by:

too long an arc length excessive weaving speed excessive travel speed.
Overlapping
On vertical and horizontal welds, it can also be caused by too large an electrode size and incorrect electrode angles. This defect can. be prevented by:
choosing the proper welding current for the type and size of electrode and the welding position holding the arc as short as possible pausing at each side of the weld bead when a weaving technique is used using a travel speed slow enough so that the weld metal can completely ll all of the melted out areas of the base metal.
Overlapping is the protrusion of the weld metal over the edge or toe of the weld bead. This defect can cause an area of lack of fusion and create a notch, which can lead to crack initiation. Overlapping is often produced by:
too slow a travel speed, which permits the weld puddle to get ahead of the electrode an incorrect electrode angle.
Legend to Welding Position Abbreviations

Symbol Abbreviation
F H/V-FILLET H V V-DOWN OH
Description
Flat Horizontal-Vertical Fillet Horizontal Vertical Vertical-Down Overhead
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Coating Types
It is the composition of the coating that differentiates one type of electrode from another and, to a degree, what type of application it can be used for. MMA electrodes, with a solid wire core, are generally categorised by the type of ux coating they employ. There are three main groups of electrode coating: rutile, basic and cellulosic, plus a less-widely-used acid type. The name of each group is a description of the main constituent of the coating. Although not strictly a coating type, iron-powder electrodes are often considered as a separate group. Electrodes for cutting, grooving and gouging, plus those for hardsurfacing, including tubular MMA electrodes, are not classied by coating type. Basic-type electrodes for ferritic steels, with low-alloy additions to the coatings or the core wire, allow a much wider use, including sub-zero and elevated-temperature application. Basic coatings are also widely used for electrodes for welding stainless steels, nickel alloys, cast irons, copper and aluminium alloys, and for hardfacing applications.
Cellulosic Electrodes
Cellulosic electrodes contain a high proportion of organic material, replacing all or some of the rutile sand. This produces a erce, deep penetrating arc and a faster burn-off rate. Cellulosic electrodes are more prone to spatter than rutile types. Only carbon and some low-alloy steels are made with a cellulosic coating and most run only on DC+ polarity, but some are made that will also operate on AC and DC-. They are truly all-positional electrodes in all sizes and even larger diameters up to 6mm will operate verticaldown. Cellulosic electrodes are used for root passes and pipeline welding. It should be noted that celullosic electrodes generate high amounts of hydrogen. This presents a risk of hydrogen-induced cracking if correct welding procedures are not followed.
Rutile Electrodes
Rutile electrodes have a coating that contains about 50% rutile sand (a pure form of titanium dioxide), plus additions of ferro-manganese, mineral carbonates and silicates, held together with approximately 15% sodium silicate, also known as waterglass. The rutiles characteristics include easy striking, stable arc, low spatter, good bead prole and, generally, easy slag removal from the electrode. The electrode can operate on both AC and DC currents and can operate in all positions if the formulation of the coating is sodesigned. One negative aspect of these electrodes is that they produce a high level of hydrogen, typically greater than 15ml/100g of deposited weld metal. This cannot be avoided, because they rely on a certain amount of moisture being present in the coating to operate properly. If the electrodes are dried too much, they will fail to function properly. Rutile-coated electrodes are manufactured for welding mild and low-carbon steels. In this context, they are often referred to as general-purpose or GP electrodes. Some low-alloy grades also use rutile coatings. Rutile-type coatings, which are modications of those used for ferritic steels, are also used on many austenitic stainless steel electrodes.
Acid Electrodes
Acid electrodes for mild steels have been largely replaced by rutile types, but some are still produced by a few manufacturers. These electrodes contain high amounts of iron oxide, are relatively easy to use and give a voluminous glassy slag that detaches easily. They are lower-strength products, so they are conned to use on nonstructural components. Acid-rutile electrodes for stainless steel are now replacing conventional rutile types. They are higher in silicon, which gives improved operating and wetting characteristics, and they are much more welder-friendly. They strike and re-strike readily and will operate on AC and DC current. They produce low spatter levels and an easily removed slag. However, they are prone to start porosity and need re-drying before use to avoid this.
Basic Electrodes
Basic, or low-hydrogen, electrodes contain calcium carbonate and calcium uoride in place of the rutile sand and mineral silicates. This makes them less easy to strike and more difcult to re-strike, due to the very deep cup formed at the tip during operation. They also have a poorer, more convex bead prole than rutile electrodes. The slag is more difcult to remove than the rutile types, but they do give better weld metal properties than rutile types, with a higher metallurgical quality. Basic electrodes are capable of being used on AC or DC currents and can be used in multi-pass welds on materials of all thicknesses. Basic electrodes do not rely on moisture to function properly, and for the more critical applications should be used completely dry. It is important to note that basic electrodes are only lowhydrogen electrodes if they have been correctly dried before use. This conventionally involves re-drying in ovens on site in accordance with manufacturers recommendations. Drying can reduce weld metal hydrogen to less than 5ml/100g, as can vacuumpacking the electrodes. These can be used straight from the packs without any form of drying required. BOC Smootharc 16 and 18 electrodes are supplied in hermetically sealed containers, which ensures that they meet the H4 grade.
Iron-powder Electrodes
Iron-powder electrodes are often considered an independent group of consumables. As their name suggests, these electrodes contain high levels of iron powder held within the coating as the coating melts, the iron powder creates more weld metal. This effectively improves the productivity from the electrode, allowing either larger or longer welds to be created from a single rod. The amount of iron powder added depends on the consumable being produced, but it is not uncommon for 75% of the core weight to beadded. The addition of the iron powder to the coating has the effect of increasing the overall diameter of the electrode and reducing the amount of uxing agent present in the coating. With less uxing agent available, the slag coating tends to be thinner, so many of the MMA electrodes positional welding characteristics are lost. This means that many of the electrodes can only be used in the at or horizontal-vertical (H-V) positions. Coatings for iron-powder electrodes may be based on either the rutile or basic systems.
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Fundamentals of Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding Care and Conditioning of Consumables
Practical Considerations
Storage and Re-drying MMA electrodes should be stored in dry, well-ventilated and preferably heated stores. For critical applications it is also recommended that they be held in temperature and humidity controlled conditions, maintaining humidity below 60%RH (Relative Humidity) and a temperature above the dew point to avoid moisture condensing onto the electrodes. Electrodes held in dry conditions will remain in prime condition for several years, but if the coating absorbs moisture, this will lead to a gradual deterioration. Evidence of deterioration includes the presence of white powdery areas on the surface of the coating, cracks in the coating or missing pieces of coating. Electrodes with rutile or cellulosic coating require some moisture in the coating to operate properly and should not be re-dried. If rutile electrodes get wet, re-drying at about 80C is all that is needed. Cellulosic electrodes must not be dried. In some hot environments they may need wetting to function efciently. Basic coated electrodes need to be dry to give low-hydrogen weld metal. Before use, these electrodes should be re-dried according to manufacturers recommendations, put in holding ovens and then transferred to the workstations in heated quivers until needed.Vacuum-packed basic electrodes can be used straight from thepacket. Electrodes for non-ferrous alloys and stainless steel always need to be completely dry before use and should be treated in accordance with manufacturers requirements. Welding Parameters Some electrodes will operate satisfactorily on AC or DC current and, for AC operation, manufacturers will recommend a minimum OCV (Open Circuit Voltage) to initiate a welding arc with theelectrode.
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Welding Processes
GMAW (MIG) / FCAW / MCAW

Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) and Metal Cored Arc Welding (MCAW) Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
GMA commonly referred to as Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding embraces a group of arc welding processes in which a continuous electrode (the wire) is fed by powered feed rolls (wire feeder) into the weld pool. An electric arc is created between the tip of the wire and the weld pool. The wire is progressively melted at the same speed at which it is being fed and forms part of the weld pool. Both the arc and the weld pool are protected from atmospheric contamination by a shield of inert (non-reactive) gas, which is delivered through a nozzle that is concentric with the welding wire guide tube. MIG welding can be carried out using solid wire, ux cored, or a copper-coated solid wire electrode. The shielding gas or gas mixture may consist of the following:

Argon Carbon dioxide Argon and carbon dioxide mixtures Argon mixtures with oxygen or helium mixtures
BOC recommends BOC shielding gas mixtures (see pages 120133). Each gas or gas mixture has specic advantages and limitations. Other forms of MIG welding include using a ux cored continuous electrode and carbon dioxide shielding gas, or using self-shielding ux cored wire, requiring no shielding.
Operation
MIG welding is usually carried out with a handheld gun as a semiautomatic process. The MIG process can be suited to a variety of job requirements by choosing the correct shielding gas, electrode (wire) size and welding parameters. Welding parameters include the voltage, travel speed, arc (stick-out) length and wire feed rate. The arc voltage and wire feed rate will determine the ller metal transfer method.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Gun trigger Welding wire Weld Weld pool Gun Shroud Gas diffuser Contact tip Shielding Droplets
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

How it Works
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) uses the heat generated by a DC electric arc to fuse the metal in the joint area, the arc being struck between a continuously fed consumable ller wire and the workpiece, melting both the ller wire and the workpiece in the immediate vicinity. The entire arc area is covered by a shielding gas that protects the molten weld pool from the atmosphere. FCAW is a variant of the MIG process and, while there are many common features between the two processes, there are also several fundamental differences. As with MIG, direct current power sources with constant voltage output characteristics are normally employed to supply the welding current. With ux cored wires, the terminal that the ller wire is connected to depends on the specic product being used (some wires run electrode positive and others run electrode negative). The work return is then connected to the opposite terminal. It has also been found that the output characteristics of the power source can have an effect on the quality of the welds produced. The wire feed unit takes the ller wire from a spool, and feeds it through the welding gun, to the arc at a predetermined and accurately controlled speed. Normally, special knurled feed rolls are used with ux cored wires to assist feeding and to prevent crushing the consumable. Unlike MIG, which uses a solid consumable ller wire, the consumable used in FCAW is of tubular construction, an outer metal sheath being lled with uxing agents plus metal powder.
5 1 6 7 8 2 3 9 10
This application combines the advantages of continuity, speed, comparative freedom from distortion and the reliability of automatic welding with the versatility and control of manual welding. The process is also suitable for mechanised set-ups, and its use in this respect is increasing.
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AU : IPRM 2007 : SECTiON 4 : WELDiNG PrOCEssEs

Theux ll is also used to provide alloying, arc stability, slag cover, de-oxidation and, with some wires, gas shielding. In terms of gas shielding, there are two different ways in which this may be achieved with the FCAW process:
Flux cored arc welding does, however, have the same drawback as solid wire MIG in terms of gas disruption by wind, and screening is always necessary for site work. It also incurs the extra cost of shielding gas, but this is often outweighed by gains in productivity.
Additional gas-shielding supplied from an external source, such as a gas cylinder Production of a shielding gas by decomposition of uxing agents within the wire (self-shielding)
Self-Shielded Operation
There are also self-shielded consumables designed to operate without an additional gas shield. In this type of product, arc shielding is provided by gases generated by decomposition of some constituents within the ux ll. These types of wire are referred to as self-shielded. If no external gas shield is required, then the ux ll must provide sufcient gas to protect the molten pool and to provide de-oxidisers and nitride formers to cope with atmospheric contamination. This leaves less scope to address performance, arc stabilisation and process tolerance, so these tend to suffer when compared with gas shielded types. Wire efciencies are also lower, at about 65%, in this mode of operation than with gas-shielded wires. However, the wires do have a distinct advantage when it comes to site work in terms of wind tolerance, as there is no external gas shield to be disrupted.
Gas shielded wires are available with either a basic or rutile ux ll, while self-shielded wires have a broadly basic-type ux ll. The ux ll dictates the way the wire performs, the properties obtainable, and suitable applications.
Gas-Shielded Operation
Many cored wire consumables require an auxiliary gas shield in the same way that solid wire MIG consumables do. These types of wire are generally referred to as gas-shielded. Using an auxiliary gas shield enables the wire designer to concentrate on the performance characteristics, process tolerance, positional capabilities and mechanical properties of the products. In a ux cored wire, the metal sheath is generally thinner than that of a self-shielded wire. The area of this metal sheath surrounding the ux cored wire is much smaller that than that of a solid MIG wire. This means that the electrical resistance within the ux cored wire is higher than with solid MIG wires and it is this higher electrical resistance that gives this type of wire some of its novel operating properties. One often quoted property of uxed cored wires are their higher deposition rates than solid MIG wires. What is often not explained is how they deliver these higher values and whether these can be utilised. For example, if a solid MIG wire is used at 250 amps, then exchanged for a ux cored wire of the same diameter, and welding power source controls are left unchanged, then the current reading would be much less than 250 amps, and perhaps as low as 220 amps. This is because of Ohms Law, which states that as the electrical resistance increases (and if the voltage remains stable) then the current must fall. To bring the welding current back to 250 amps, it is necessary to increase the wire feed speed, effectively increasing the amount of wire being pushed into the weld pool to make the weld. It is this effect that produces the higher deposition rates that the ux cored wire manufacturers claim for this type of product. Unfortunately, in many instances, the welder has difculty in utilising this higher wire feed speed and must either increase the welding speed or increase the size of the weld. Often in manual applications, neither of these changes can be implemented and the welder simply reduces the wire feed speed back to where it was and the advantages are lost. However, if the process is automated in some way, then the process can show improvements in productivity. It is also common to use longer contact tip to workplace distances with ux cored arc welding than with solid wire MIG welding, which has the effect of increasing the resistive heating on the wire further accentuating the drop in welding current. Research has also shown that increasing this distance can lead to an increase in the ingress of nitrogen and hydrogen into the weld pool, which can affect the quality of the weld. Flux cored arc welding has a lower efciency than solid wire MIG welding, because part of the wire ll contains slag forming agents. Although the efciency varies by wire type and manufacturer, it is typically between 75 and 85%.
Extended self shielded ux cored wire nozzle
When using self-shielded wires, external gas supply is not required and, therefore, the gas shroud is not necessary. However, an extension nozzle is often used to support and direct the long electrode extensions that are needed to obtain high depositionrates.
Metal Cored Arc Welding (MCAW)

How It Works
Metal Cored Arc Welding (MCAW) uses the heat generated by a DC electric arc to fuse metal in the joint area, the arc being struck between a continuously fed consumable ller wire and the workpiece, melting both the ller wire and the workpiece in the immediate vicinity. The entire arc area is covered by a shielding gas, which protects the molten weld pool from the atmosphere. As MCAW is a variant of the MIG welding process, there are many common features between the two processes, but there are also several fundamental differences. As with MIG, direct current power sources with constant voltage output characteristics are normally employed to supply the welding current. With metal cored wires, the terminal that the ller wire is connected to depends on the specic product being used. (Some wires are designed to run on electrode positive, while others run on electrode negative, and some run on either.) The work return lead is then connected to the opposite terminal. Electrode negative operation will usually give better positional welding characteristics.
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Dip Transfer
Also known as short-circuiting arc or short-arc, this is an allpositional process, using low heat input. The use of relatively low current and arc voltage settings cause the electrode to intermittently short-circuit with the weld pool at a controlled frequency. Metal is transferred by the wire tip actually dipping into the weld pool and the short-circuit current is sufcient to allow the arc to be re-established. This short-circuiting mode of metal transfer effectively extends the range of MIG welding to lower currents so thin sheet material can readily be welded. The low heat input makes this technique well-suited to the positional welding of root runs on thick plate, butt welds for bridging over large gaps and for certain difcult materials where heat input is critical. Each short-circuit causes the current to rise and the metal fuses off the end of the electrode. A high short-circuiting frequency gives low heat input. Dip transfer occurs between 70220A, 1423 arc volts. It is achieved using shielding gases based on carbon dioxide and argon.
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Short circuit Necking Arc re-ignition Arc established Arc gap shortens Short circuit Current (A) Voltage (V)
The output characteristics of the power source can have an effect on the quality of the welds produced. The wire feed unit takes the ller wire from a spool or bulk pack, and feeds it through the welding gun to the arc at a predetermined and accurately controlled speed. Normally, special knurled feed rolls are used with metal cored wires to assist feeding and to prevent crushing the consumable. Unlike MIG, which uses a solid consumable ller wire, the consumable used in MCAW is of tubular construction, an outer metal sheath being lled entirely with metal powder, except for a small amount of non-metallic compounds. These are added to provide some arc stability and de-oxidation. MCAW consumables always require an auxiliary gas shield in the same way that solid MIG wires do. Wires are normally designed to operate in argon-carbon dioxide or argon-carbon dioxide-oxygen mixtures or carbon dioxide. Argon-rich mixtures tend to produce lower fume levels than carbon dioxide. As with MIG, the consumable ller wire and the shielding gas are directed into the arc area by the welding gun. In the head of the gun, the welding current is transferred to the wire by means of a copper alloy contact tip, and a gas diffuser distributes the shielding gas evenly around a shroud which then allows the gas to ow over the weld area. The position of the contact tip relative to the gas shroud may be adjusted to limit the minimum electrode extension. Modes of metal transfer with MCAW are very similar to those obtained in MIG welding, the process being operable in both dip transfer and spray transfer modes. Metal cored wires may also be used in pulse transfer mode at low mean currents, but this has not been widely exploited. Process Schematic Diagram for MIG / FCAW and MCAW
1 5 6 7 2 8 9 10 11 3 4 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Gas hose Gas cylinder Power source Return cable Continous wire Wire feed unit Power cable Torch conduit Welding gun Arc Workpiece Earth clamp
Time 7 8 Short circuit cycle Arcing cycle
Schematic of Dip Transfer
Metal cored wires transfer metal in dip mode at low currents, just like solid MIG wires. This transfer mode is used for all positional work with these types of wire.
Globular Transfer
Metal transfer is controlled by slow ejection, resulting in large, irregularly-shaped globs falling into the weld pool under the action of gravity. Carbon dioxide gas drops are dispersed haphazardly. With argon-based gases, the drops are not as large and are transferred in a more axial direction. There is a lot of spatter, especially in carbon dioxide, resulting in greater wire consumption, poor penetration and poor appearance. Globular transfer occurs between the dip and spray ranges. This mode of transfer is not recommended for normal welding applications and may be corrected when encountered by either decreasing the arc voltage or increasing the amperage. Globular transfer can take place with any electrode diameter.
1 Large droplet 2 Splatter 3 Workpiece
Circuit diagram of MIG process
Modes of Metal Transfer The mode or type of metal transfer in MIG welding depends upon the current, arc voltage, electrode diameter and type of shielding gas used. In general, there are four modes of metal transfer. Modes of metal transfer with FCAW are similar to those obtained in MIG welding, but here the mode of transfer is heavily dependent on the composition of the ux ll, as well as on current and voltage. The most common modes of transfer in FCAW are:

Dip transfer Globular transfer Spray transfer Pulsed arc transfer operation has been applied to ux cored wires but, as yet, is not widely used because the other transfer modes are giving users what they require in most cases.
Schematic of Globular Transfer
Basic ux cored wires tend to operate in a globular mode or in a globular-spray transfer mode, where larger than normal spray droplets are propelled across the arc, but they never achieve a true spray transfer mode. This transfer mode is sometimes referred to as non-axial globular transfer.
94

Self-shielded ux cored wires operate in a predominantly globular transfer mode, although at high currents the wire often explodes across the arc.
Pulsed Transfer
Pulsed arc welding is a controlled method of spray transfer, using currents lower than those possible with the spray transfer technique, thereby extending the applications of MIG welding into the range of material thickness where dip transfer is not entirely suitable.The pulsed arc equipment effectively combines two power sources into one integrated unit. One side of the power source supplies a background current which keeps the tip of the wire molten. The other side produces pulses of a higher current that detach and accelerate the droplets of metal into the weld pool. The transfer frequency of these droplets is regulated primarily by the relationship between the two currents. Pulsed arc welding occurs between 50220A, 2335 arc volts, and only with argon and argonbased gases. It enables welding to be carried out in all positions.
Spray Transfer
In spray transfer, metal is projected by an electromagnetic force from the wire tip in the form of a continuous stream of discrete droplets approximately the same size as the wire diameter. High deposition rates are possible and weld appearance and reliability are good. Most metals can be welded, but the technique is limited generally to plate thicknesses greater than 6mm. Spray transfer, due to the tendency of the large weld pool to spill over, cannot normally be used for positional welding. The main exception is aluminium and its alloys where, primarily because of its low density and high thermal conductivity, spray transfer in position can be carried out. The current flows continuously because the high voltage maintains a long arc and short-circuiting cannot take place. It occurs best with argon-based gases.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Gas shroud Wire Shielding gas Droplets Weld Workpiece
Pulsed arc droplets
1 3 2 4 5
300 Current (A) 200 0 18 ms Schematic for Pulse Transfer Time
Schematic of Spray Transfer
Process
Metal InertGas (MIG) Flux Cored (GasShielded) Flux Cored (SelfShielded) Metal Cored
Dip Transfer
Globular Transfer
Spray Transfer
Pulsed Transfer
In solid wire MIG, as the current is increased, dip transfer passes into spray transfer via a transitional globular transfer mode. With metal cored wires there is virtually a direct transition from dip transfer to spray transfer as the current is increased. For metal cored wire, spray transfer occurs as the current density increases and an arc is formed at the end of the ller wire, producing a stream of small metal droplets. Often the outside sheath of the wire will melt rst and the powder in the centre ows as a stream of smaller droplets into the weld pool. This effect seems to give much better transfer of alloying elements into the weld. In spray transfer, as the current density increases, an arc is formed at the end of the ller wire, producing a stream of small metal droplets. In solid wire MIG, this transfer mode occurs at higher currents. Flux cored wires do not achieve a completely true spray transfer mode, but a transfer mode that is almost true spray may occur at higher currents and can occur at relatively low currents depending on the composition of the ux. Rutile ux cored wires will operate in this almost-spray transfer mode at all practicable current levels. They are also able to operate in this mode for positional welding. Basic ux cored and selfshielded ux cored wires do not operate in anything approaching true spray transfer mode.
Not TrueSpray
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MIG (Copper/silicon bronze)
Gas required
56 6064 Specshield Copper Alushield mixture 70 67
MIG (Carbon steel and alloys)

Gas required
Carbon Dioxide Argoshield mixture
MIG (Stainless steel)

Gas required
Stainshield mixture 6566
Metal Consumables
MIG wire (stainless steel) 406
Metal Consumables
MIG wire (carbon steel) 351
Metal Consumables
MIG wire (copper/copper alloys) 439
Other Consumables and Accessories

Abrasives Anti spatter compounds Contact tips Cylinder trolleys Earthing clamps MIG nozzles and other consumables MIG torches Hoses and ttings Machine spares NDT dye penetrant sprays Pickling and passivating paste Welding cable Welding screens 512 548 274 194 231 274 259 179 549 232 639

Abrasives Anti spatter compounds Contact tips Cylinder trolleys Earthing clamps MIG nozzles and other consumables MIG torches Hoses and ttings Machine spares NDT dye penetrant sprays Welding cable Welding screens 512 548 274 194 231 274 259 179 232 639

Gas Equipment
Regulator and owmeter Integrated regulator owmeter 158
Gas Equipment
Gas Equipment
Equipment
Fume extractors MIG machines Grinders Wire feeder rolls Wire feeders 631 234 496 257
Equipment
Equipment
Personal Protective Equipment

Aprons Boots Eye protection Dust masks Ear muffs Face shields Fire extinguishers Gloves Hand shields and helmets Hats and caps Overalls Signage 628 604 612 609 640 616 595


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MIG (Aluminium)
Gas required
Argon Alushield mixture 54 67
FCAW (Carbon steel)

Gas required
Carbon Dioxide Argoshield 52 56 63
FCAW (Stainless steel)

Gas required
Carbon Dioxide Argoshield 52 56 63
Metal Consumables
MIG wire (aluminium) 425
Metal Consumables
FCAW wire (carbon steel) 351
Metal Consumables
FCAW wire (stainless steel) 406



Abrasives Anti spatter compounds Contact tips Cylinder trolleys Earthing clamps MIG nozzles and other consumables MIG torches Hoses and ttings Machine spares NDT dye penetrant sprays Pickling and passivating paste Welding cable Welding screens 512 548 274 194 231 274 259 179 549 232 639
Gas Equipment
Gas Equipment
Gas Equipment
Equipment
Equipment
Equipment



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Consumables
Preheating of Materials
What is Preheat?
A heating procedure applied to parent metal components immediately before welding commences, and considered as an essential part of the welding operation, is called Preheat.
Slow Down the Cooling Rate Some alloys (notably high carbon and low alloy steels), if welded and allowed to cool quickly, can develop hard or brittle phases in the heat affected zone (HAZ). These phases can render such alloys susceptible to cracking under the action of tensile shrinkage stresses as the weld area cools down, or they can result in low toughness of the HAZ. Many steels are susceptible to hydrogen cracking, and fast cooling rates not only promote the formation of hard, susceptible microstructures but also lock the hydrogen into the solidifying weld metal. Because of this trapped hydrogen gas, pressure builds up in the weld and the heat affected zone, which can result in cracking of the already brittle microstructure. Such cracks are normally detected by post-weld inspection techniques, but should they escape detection, they may lead to premature failure in service, with potentially disastrous consequences. Preheating of components prior to welding in these situations is designed primarily to slow down the rate of cooling of the weldment. In reducing the cooling rate, preheat is protecting the parent metal by helping to prevent hardening of the weld by the formation of brittle phases. A softer, more ductile structure is more resistant to cracking. The slower cooling rate also gives more time for any hydrogen introduced into the weld to diffuse away from the welded joint. Reduce Shrinkage Stress and Weld Distortion If welds are made in highly restrained joints, or in materials with very low ductility (e.g. cast irons), the welding cycle of heating, followed by rapid cooling, can result in cracking in the weld or the surrounding area. This is due to the weld metal or adjacent parent metal not being able to withstand the effects of shrinkage stresses created by contraction. Metals and alloys that should not be preheated Preheat and high interpass temperatures can have a negative effect on the mechanical properties or corrosion resistance of some alloys. For example:

Preheating can be applied locally to the areas to be welded, or to the whole component. It is usually done to raise the temperature of the weld area so that the weld does not cool too quickly after welding. This protects the material being welded from the various adverse effects that can be caused by the normally rapid cooling cycle created by the welding process. Note that, while preheat is applied before welding begins, it is essential that the minimum preheat temperature is maintained throughout the welding operation. What does Preheat do? Basically, preheat puts the parent metal components in a suitable condition for the subsequent welding operation. Preheating may be carried out for any of the following reasons;

Slow down the cooling rate Reduce shrinkage stress and weld distortion Promote fusion Remove moisture
Austenitic manganese (13% Mn) steel Austenitic stainless steels Duplex stainless steels Titanium alloys*
*F or further information, please consult your local BOC Welding Specialist, BOC Technical Manager or Welding Engineers.
326
Here preheating is used to balance the thermal cycle and so reduce the shrinkage stresses in the weld and in the adjacent parent material. When welding wrought materials in highly restrained joints, preheat is normally applied locally in the weld area. When welding castings, the preheat applied may be local (heating in the area of the weld only), total (the whole casting is heated), or indirect (heating a part of the casting away from the weld area to balance the effects of expansion and contraction). Promote fusion Some alloy systems (e.g. copper and aluminium) have very high thermal conductivity, and if a weld is attempted on thick, cold plate, the parent material could chill the deposited weld metal so quickly that it does not fuse with the parent metal. This may be referred to as a cold start. The heat conduction away from the joint area can be such that a weld may be impossible using a conventional arc welding process. Preheat is used in this case to raise the initial temperature of the material sufciently to ensure full weld fusion from the start. This is particularly important when using a welding process/plate thickness combination that is likely to produce a cold start. Remove Moisture Any metallic components left overnight in a cold workshop or brought in from outside are likely to be damp or even wet. If they are welded in that condition, problems can arise in the resultant welds. For example, if the components are made of steel, then the moisture will act as a source of hydrogen and the result could be hydrogen cracking. Aluminium has a porous oxide layer, which will absorb moisture from the atmosphere, and, if not removed before welding, this can result in weld metal porosity and subsequent rejection of the weld. While not normally the main objective of preheating, its use for removal of surface moisture prior to welding is not only advisable, but very often essential.
Residual stresses present in a welded joint.
Carbon Steel and Alloy Steel

These two groups of materials have, quite rightly, been given more attention in estimation of preheat temperature than any other alloy system, as the penalty for getting it wrong can be severe. The following list is intended only to give some indication of the level of preheat required for certain types of steel. In these examples, it is assumed that the weld is a butt weld, and the thicknesses given are the normally used combined thickness, where this is the total thickness of all the parts to be joined. When calculating the combined thickness of parts with varying thicknesses (such as forgings), the thickness of each part is usually averaged over a distance of 75mm from the weld line. However, for some processes and materials, account must be taken of any difference of thickness beyond the 75mm point, and it is important to refer to the specic welding procedures or relevant standards in each case.
Distortion due to the presence of residual stress
327
8
Steel type
How much Preheat to Apply The actual preheat temperature required for a specic welding operation depends not only on the material or materials being welded, but also the combined thickness of the joint, the heat input from the welding process being used, and the amount of restraint imposed upon the components. There are no hard and fast rules regarding how much preheat to apply, but there are many publications available that give helpful guidance. These publications include national and international standards or codes of practice and guides from steel and aluminium alloy producers and from consumable manufacturers. Some guidelines are included here and, as in the previous section, categorised for convenience by alloy type.
Combined Thickness (mm) Typical Preheat (C)

<50 >50 50 100150 100200 150250 200300 None to 150 (max.) 100250 200300 150300 150 None
Low C and mild steels
Medium C, C-Mn steels
<40 >40
High C, C-Mn steels QT steels, HSLA steels 0.5%Mo, 1%Cr-0.5%Mo steels*
All All All
Preheating of Aluminium and Aluminium alloys

When to Preheat Preheat is needed when there is a risk that, if a welding operation is carried out cold, an unsound weld could be produced. While it is not possible here to cover all eventualities, there are certain guidelines that can be followed in making the decision as to whether to preheat or not, and these are outlined here, categorised for convenience, by alloy type. Aluminium Alloys Aluminium Alloyshavea high thermal conductivity and preheat is used to provide additional heat to the weld area to help ensure full fusion of the weld. Application of preheat is also used to drive off any moisture in the surface oxide. Preheating is not necessary when welding thin sheet, but becomes increasingly important as thickness increases. High conductivity aluminium busbars are a prime example. As a rule, aluminium alloys are only preheated to temperatures between 80120C. Certain heat treatable aluminium alloys (AlSi-Mg) are sensitive to HAZ liquation cracking if overheated, and preheat must be carefully controlled within this range. With less sensitive alloys, preheat may be increased up to a maximum of 180 200C. Remember that aluminium alloys have relatively low melting points and care must be taken to avoid overheating, which can result in poor weld quality and cracking in some alloys.
2%Cr-1%Mo, 5%Cr-0.5%Mo All steels* Direct hardening steels Case hardening steels 13% Manganese steel All All All
*Preheat is usually specied by procedure and tightly monitored and controlled with these materials.
It is recommended that more comprehensive documentation be consulted when selecting a temperature for a specic application. Information to assist with calculation of preheat for C-Mn steels can be found in international standards (e.g. BS 5135, AWS D1.1 and AS/NZS 1554.1). These standards set out minimum preheat temperatures based on factors such as the type of steel specication or carbon equivalent, thickness, the welding process or heat input, and the hydrogen class of the welding consumable. The guidelines do not take restraint into consideration, so highly restrained joints may need higher levels of preheat than indicated. The information in these standards is often used as a rough guide to determine preheat for low alloy steels. This should be done with extreme caution, as low alloy steels will frequently need much higher preheat than estimated by this means because of their alloy content. When joining or surfacing hardenable steels (steels with high CE), it is sometimes possible to weld with an austenitic type consumable and to use a lower preheat than would be needed if ferritic consumables were to be used. The decision-making process, when deciding whether to use preheat withcarbon steelandalloy steel,can become quite complicated. Carbon and carbon-manganese steels and low alloy steels may require preheating, but this depends on their carbon equivalent, combined thickness and proposed welding heat input. Preheat with these ferritic materials is primarily aimed at reducing the severity of the quench after welding, and helping to prevent the formation of hard brittle microstructures in the weld and HAZ. It also allows hydrogen to diffuse away from the weld area, thus reducing the risk of hydrogen cracking. The objective is to keep the maximum HAZ hardness to below about 350Hv, although this will not always be possible, particularly with some low alloy steels with high hardenability. These low alloy types may, additionally, need a post-weld heat treatment to restore properties.
328
Preheating of Stainless Steel
Martensitic stainless steels generally require preheating to 200300C, depending on carbon content plus post-weld heat treatment to prevent cracking in the weld and/or HAZ. This applies whether they are welded with matching consumables or, as is quite common, with austenitic consumables. Some ferritic stainless steels should be preheated to about 200C to prevent embrittlement. They may also need a post-weld annealing treatment, depending on application. Should it be necessary to preheat duplex stainless steel, it is normal to keep it fairly low, up to a maximum of 150C for Duplex and 100C for Super Duplex. Preheat is invariably specied by procedure and tightly monitored and controlled with thesematerials. No preheat at all is required when welding austenitic stainless steels.
Preheating of Copper and Copper Alloys

High conductivitycopper, phosphorus de-oxidised (PDO) copper and many of the leaner copper alloys have high thermal conductivities and consequently need a very high preheat to ensure full fusion of the joint. Those high conductivity copper alloys that require preheating before welding are normally heated to temperatures of 600700C. Bronzes and brasses, on the other hand, are normally welded without preheat. Their thermal conductivity is low enough to allow full fusion to be readily achieved, and some alloys suffer from hot shortness and so need to cool relatively quickly after welding to avoid cracking. Any applied preheat would prolong this cooling period and so render them more liable to crack.
329
Welding Processes
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

How it Works
SAW uses the arc struck between a continuously fed electrode and the work piece to melt the metal in the joint area and provide additional ller metal under a blanket of granular ux. This arc is completely submerged under the molten ux, which protects the molten metal from the atmosphere. There is no visible arc, spatter or fume during the welding operation. The continuous electrode may be a solid or cored wire. The solid wires are normally copper coated. The cored wires may contain either metallic materials or a mixture of metallic and ux materials. Flux cored wires affect the welding characteristics and metallurgical quality of the deposited weld metal. On surfacing applications, a strip electrode can be used instead of a wire.
1 Submerged arc wire 2 Straightening rollers 3 Feed rollers 4 Power lead 5 Contact tube 6 Extension tube
11
7 Electrode guide 8 Electrode 9 Flux bed 10 Lead to earth 11 Slag sieve 12 Flux hopper 13 Excess ux recovery system
12 13
14 Flux delivery tube 15 Slag 16 Weld bead 17 Work piece
7 8 9
14 15 16
17
10
Schematic of SAW process
101
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Application
SAW is widely used for welding carbon, carbon manganese, alloy and stainless steels. It is also used for joining some nickel based alloys. The ability to produce high quality, defect free welds at high deposition rates and with deep weld penetration makes the SAW process highly suitable for all mechanized and automatic welding and surfacing applications. Typical Welding Applications With welding longitudinal and spiral welded pipes, the longitudinal welds are carried out using a two-pass welding procedure. A welding station located inside the pipe deposits the inside weld and the joint is completed by another station with a single weld on the outside of the pipe. Spiral welded pipes are produced from a continuous coil of strip that is folded into a spiral. One welding head deposits a single weld on the inside and another completes the joint from theoutside. In ship building, the process is used to produce butt welds with a two pass welding procedure depositing a single run on each side of the joint. Stiffeners are produced using single and twin llet welding procedures. Major ship yards carry out this operation using panel lines where large sections are produced prior to transfer to the construction berth. Submerged arc welding is widely used on general structural steel welding applications, including mass production of repetitive short welds. Single side welding procedures using a copper backing system are often used on applications such as propane cylinder production. Typical Surfacing Applications Roll resurfacing is carried out as a continuous operation. Circumferential bead welds are deposited on the roll surface. When a weld is completed around the roll, the welding head is automatically adjusted to produce the next bead adjacent to the previous one. This process is continued until the complete roll has received one layer of surfacing deposit. The head is then repositioned to produce a second and further layers of weld metal as required. Submerged arc welding is widely used for cladding carbon and alloy steels with stainless steel and nickel alloy deposits. This process is usually carried out using strip electrodes and alloy bearing uxes which compensate for alloy losses in the arc.
A wide range of ux compositions is used with submerged arc welding. Generally speaking, uxes with the best welding characteristics give inferior weld metal mechanical properties. These uxes are known as acid uxes. Neutral uxes generally give a good all round performance. While basic uxes give the best metallurgical results, they possess inferior welding characteristics. The normal approach is to select the ux with the best running characteristics that will meet the metallurgical requirements comfortably. SAW may be carried out using either DC or AC power sources. The best all round welding conditions are normally obtained with DC electrode positive. DC electrode negative will give higher deposition rates, but fusion characteristics are reduced so that this mode of transfer is mainly used on weld surfacing applications. AC welding may also be used, but arc control is not as good as on DC electrode positive. This means that many uxes are developed primarily for DC operation and will not operate satisfactorily on AC. Operating Parameters SAW is capable of operating at high welding currents. Welding current is the parameter that controls weld deposition rate. It also controls the depth of weld penetration and the amount of base metal melted. Arc voltage controls the arc length and this has a major inuence on the shape of the weld and its exterior appearance. Raising the arc voltage increases the arc length and this, in turn, increases the weld width. Lowering the arc voltage has the opposite effect. The travel speed controls the heat input into the joint area. Increasing travel speed reduces the heat input and supplies less ller metal per unit length of weld, resulting in less weld reinforcement. Increasing travel speed reduces weld penetration but can cause undercut. Reducing travel speed provides time for the gases to escape from the molten metal and thus porosity may be reduced. Electrode stick out, the distance between the contact tube and the arc, has a major affect on weld penetration and deposition rate. Increasing the stick out increases deposition rate and reduces weld penetration. However, to maintain optimum process control, the electrode stick out is normally maintained between 2535mm unless special nozzle adapters are tted.
102
Welding Processes
GTAW (TIG) Welding
The Gas Tungsten Arc Welding commonly referred to as Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) process uses the heat generated by an electric arc struck between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the workpiece to fuse metal in the joint area and produce a molten weld pool. The arc area is shrouded in an inert or reducing gas shield to protect the weld pool and the non-consumable electrode. The process may be operated autogenously (without ller), or ller may be added by feeding a consumable wire or rod into the established weld pool.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Shielding gas Arc TIG ller rod Weld pool Collet Tungsten Electrode Workpiece
The addition of ller is optional Only inert or reducing gases can be used as the shielding gas TIG welding is a high quality, versatile and commonly-used process TIG is suitable for welding ferrous and non-ferrous materials The TIG process can be run on DC-, DC+, or AC
4 7 3 2
The TIG process is capable of producing very high quality welds in a wide range of materials and in thicknesses up to about 8 or 10mm. It is particularly suited to welding of sheet material and for putting in the root run of pipe butt welds. The process tends to be very clean, producing little particulate fume, although it is capable of generating ozone in appreciable amounts and is not regarded as a high-productivity process.
Schematic of the TIG welding process
DC Electrode Negative (DCEN) In this mode the tungsten electrode is the negative pole in the welding circuit, the workpiece being the positive pole. DC Electrode Positive (DCEP) In this mode the tungsten electrode is the positive pole in the welding circuit, the workpiece being the negative pole. Alternating Current (AC) In this mode the polarity of the tungsten electrode and the workpiece alternate between negative and positive at the frequency of the applied welding current. Process Variants There are three main variations of the TIG process designed to improve productivity:

Operation
Direct or alternating current power sources with constant current output characteristics are normally employed to supply the welding current. For DC operation, the tungsten may be connected to either output terminal, but is most often connected to the negative pole. The output characteristics of the power source can have an effect on the quality of the welds produced. Shielding gas is directed into the arc area by the welding torch, and a gas lens within the torch distributes the shielding gas evenly over the weld area. In the torch, the welding current is transferred to the tungsten electrode from the copper conductor. The arc is then initiated by one of several methods between the tungsten and the workpiece.
Operating Modes
The TIG process may be operated in one of the following modes:

Orbital TIG Hot-wire TIG Narrow-gap TIG Cold-wire TIG
Direct Current Electrode Negative (DCEN) Direct Current Electrode Positive (DCEP) Alternating Current (AC)
The mode used is largely dependent on the parent material beingwelded.
98
GTAW (TIG) Welding

Application
The TIG process is very versatile and may be used to weld any metal or alloy system over a wide range of thicknesses, but is usually restricted to 10mm and under for economic reasons. It is particularly suited to welding sheet materials and for the root run in pipe butt welds. DCEN is the most common mode of operation and is widely used for welding all carbon, alloy and stainless steels, as well as nickel and titanium alloys. Copper alloys, with the exception of those containing aluminium in signicant amounts, can also be welded with this polarity. DCEP is used for aluminium alloys when welding, with pure helium as the shielding gas, since this polarity has a strong cathodic cleaning effect capable of removing the tenacious aluminium oxide lm from the surface. It may also be used for TIG welding magnesium alloys. AC polarity is used most commonly when welding aluminium and its alloys with pure argon or argon-helium mixtures to take advantage of the combination of the cyclic heating and cleaning action. It is also suitable for welding magnesium alloys and aluminiumbronze. Hot-wire TIG is used predominantly for steel and nickel alloys where the electrical resistance of the wire can be used to increase productivity. Applications High quality fabrications in stainless steel

Aluminium, copper and nickel alloys Welding reactive and refractory metals such as titanium, tantalum and zirconium
The process is used extensively in the nuclear and aerospace industries and in the construction and maintenance of chemical and cryogenic process plant and pipework. It is also used for fabrication of tube heat-exchangers in petrochemical and power-generation plant, and for brewing and food-processing vessels. Orbital TIG welding is used in the nuclear, pharmaceutical, semiconductor and food industries for the installation of pipework especially where high quality standards are required. Specialist equipment for tube and tube-plate welding for heat exchangers has been developed. These systems may operate from the outside or inside, depending on tube diameter and the size of the welding head.
TIG Welding Equipment

The equipment used for TIG welding consists of:

Power source Welding torch Tungsten electrode Leads and connectors Gas supply system Arc and re-ignition system
99
GTAW (TIG) Welding

TIG (Stainless steel and nickel)
Gas required
54 Argon Alushield mixture 377 54 67
TIG (Carbon steel)

Gas required
Argon
TIG (Aluminium)
Gas required
Argon Alushield mixture 54 67
Metal Consumables
TIG wire (carbon steel)
Metal Consumables
TIG wire (stainless steel) 407
Metal Consumables
TIG wire (aluminium) 425

Abrasives Ceramic shrouds Cylinder trolleys Earthing clamps TIG torches Tungsten electrodes Hoses and ttings Machine spares NDT dye penetrant sprays Welding cable Welding screens 512 194 231 281 283 179 232 639

Abrasives Ceramic shrouds Cylinder trolleys Earthing clamps TIG torches Tungsten electrodes Hoses and ttings Machine spares NDT dye penetrant sprays Pickling and passivating paste Welding cable Welding screens 512 194 231 281 283 179 549 232 639

Abrasives Ceramic shrouds Cylinder trolleys Earthing clamps TIG torches Tungsten electrodes Hoses and ttings Machine spares NDT dye penetrant sprays Welding cable Welding screens 512 194 231 281 283 179 232 639
Gas Equipment
Gas Equipment
Regulator and owmeter 158 Integrated regulator owmeter
Gas Equipment
Regulator and owmeter 158 Integrated regulator owmeter
Equipment
Fume extractors Grinders TIG machines 631 496 276
Equipment
Fume extractors 631 496 276 Grinders TIG machines
Equipment
Fume extractors Grinders TIG machines 631 496 276


Aprons 628 604 612 609 640 616 595 Boots Eye protection Dust masks Ear muffs Face shields Fire extinguishers Gloves Hand shields and helmets Hats and caps Overalls Signage

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8

Fundamentals of Flux and Metal Cored Arc Welding

Selection of correct consumables

H10 H5 H10 H15

AU : IPRM 2007 : SECTiON 8 : CONsumaBLEs

Fundamentals of Flux and Metal Cored Arc Welding

Amperage Range (A)

Selection of the Correct Power Source

Selection of the Correct Shielding Gas

Current / Voltage Envelope for Argoshield 52

Plate Thickness (mm) Flat and Horizontal

AU : IPRM 2007 : SECTiON 8 : CONsumaBLEs

Fundamentals of Flux and Metal Cored Arc Welding

Correct Application Techniques

Travel direction (Metal cored)

AU : IPRM 2007 : SECTiON 8 : CONsumaBLEs

Fundamentals of Flux and Metal Cored Arc Welding

Current Density (A/mm2)

Deposition rate (kg/h)

AU : IPRM 2007 : SECTiON 8 : CONsumaBLEs

Fundamentals of Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding

Selection of correct consumables

AU : IPRM 2007 : SECTiON 8 : CONsumaBLEs

Fundamentals of Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding

Recommended shielding gas

Selection of the Correct Power Source

Amperage Range (A)

Selection of the Correct Shielding Gas

Wire Operating Limits

Burnback and arc instability

Electrode (wire) stubbing and spatter Defect Zone

Dip Transfer (Steel Thickness (mm)) 0 1

Spray Transfer (Steel Thickness (mm))

AU : IPRM 2007 : SECTiON 8 : CONsumaBLEs

Fundamentals of Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding

Correct Application Techniques

Torch position for butt welds

AU : IPRM 2007 : SECTiON 8 : CONsumaBLEs

Fundamentals of Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding

Electrodes and Typical Applications Name

AU : IPRM 2007 : SECTiON 8 : CONsumaBLEs

Fundamentals of Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding

Recommended Electrode Sizes Average Thickness of Plate or Section

Electrode Length (mm)

Current Range (Amp)

AU : IPRM 2007 : SECTiON 8 : CONsumaBLEs

Fundamentals of Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding

Bead Sequence for Subsequent Layers

W SLAG WE SLAG WELD METAL WELD METAL

Welding Progression Angle

LAYERS WELD BEADS

Horizontal Butt Weld

ERS WELD BEADS LAYERS

ERS WELD BEADS

Fundamentals of Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding

AU : IPRM 2007 : SECTiON 8 : CONsumaBLEs

Fundamentals of Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding

Min.Throat Thickness (mm)

Plate Thickness (mm)

Electrode Size (mm)

AU : IPRM 2007 : SECTiON 8 : CONsumaBLEs

Fundamentals of Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding