few students will become involved in the task at hand.

members and were not strictly controlled by their teachers. The teacher/s personal 1ualities have a great dea0 to do with the, kind of climate he creates2/3orris . 4ogan !"#56% surveyed 0unior high school students in thirty&three different classrooms and found a significant and positive relationship between the warmth and friendliness of the teacher and the amount of work, both self&initiated and re1uired, done by students. 4ogan considered the amount of self&initiated work performed by a student as an inde7 to the degree of similarity between his values and those of the teacher. When students undertake self&initiated work, they are in effect adopting the teacher/s values as their own. The importance of getting students to do this is demonstrated by a study by (aron ). 8attle !"#582who compared the personal values of si7 high&school teachers and their forty&eight students. (e found that students with the highest achievement had attitudes and valv/ ues more like those of their teachers, whereas students with low achievement had attitudes and values that differed.9

The Teacher as a Psychological Weathermaker Teachers also play important roles in determining the kind of social climate that will prevail in their classrooms. In hapter 8, we cited the classic study by ewin. ippitt. and White !"#$#%, who demon& strated how the behavior of children can be modified in very consistent ways by the kind of leadership displayed by the adult in charge. ' study that confirms their findings is one by (erbert ). Wahl&berg and *ary ). 'nderson two !"#+8%, who administered students achievement tests in physics to more than thousand high&school throughout the ,nited -tates and asked them to describe the climate and the interpersonal relations in their classes. Tests given early and late in the term showed that those students who grew the most in science undsrstanding were more likely to report that their physics classes were organi.ed and operated democratically, with little friction among fellow students. The climate prevailing in the classrooms appeared to have a

The Teacher as a :uestion&poser j The 1uestions that teachers pose may also have a significant effect on student learning. In one study, researchers recorded on tape five consecutive classroom sessions of twelve high&I: classes. 'nalyses of the recorded

considerable effect on students/ en0oyment of laboratory work in physics and their willingness to recogni.e its value. -tudents who engaged in the greatest amount of physics activities reported also that they had close, friendly relations with class

interaction showed that teachers were able to stimulate creative thinking in. students by asking 1uestions that encouraged speculation, guessing, e7ploration of ideas, and&other heuristic behaviors, that is, 1uestions that9 could not be answered by specific information or ;what the book says; !*allagher and 'schner, "#+$%. ,nfortunately, most of the 1uestions that teachers ask tend to focus on ;what the bock says.; <ed '. =landers !"#>?% notes that more than thirds narrow possible observed over teachers showed a decided preference for ;narrow factual 1uestions, emphasi.ing recallA what, where, of all teacher and 1uestions have only concerned specifics two& are with one an& two a

whenB; over ;broad, open 1uestions which clearly permit choice in ways of answering.; In spite of the their one teacher posed one hundred three narrow, specific 1uestions, in contrast to only thirteen broad, seventy&nine to thirteen. only9 serve but what as is 2 stimuli.f:r important learning to -pecific The kinds of 1uestions teachers ask not responses, students theyB alsp.indicate open ones, and the score for the other was fact ac& that the students were above average in ceptance of both teachers and schoolwork,

swer. When a team of si7 researchers fourth&grade teachers ninety minutes a day two&wee@ period, they found that the

1uestions suggest that only isolated facts are significant, whereas broad 1uestions suggest that knowledge is both broad ;and comple7, and that facts are interrelated. It can be argued, of course, that teach&

237
TEACHERS AS MANAGERS