Geological Society, London, Engineering Geology Special Publications Rapid permeability testing by the pressurisation method

J.M.A. Pontin and M.A. French Geological Society, London, Engineering Geology Special Publications 1986; v. 3; p. 263-272 doi:10.1144/GSL.ENG.1986.003.01.31

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1986 Geological Society of London

Groundwater in Engineering Geology, London, 1986, pp. 263-272

Printed in England

Rapid permeability testing by the pressurisation method

J.M.A. Pontin & M.A. French
ABSTRACT: Design and use of equipment developed to determine permeability and compressibility of saturated ground is described. The basis of the method is to produce compressible flow of groundwater by pressurising special boreholes with sealed screened zones. The development of the principles and theory of the method from existing techniques is described. Analysis of data is illustrated and the advantages of the method discussed.

Introduction
As part of a major site investigation the hydraulic and geotechnical characteristics of a series of laminated clays and silts were to be examined. The site was in an inter-tidal area, and the restrictions on access, c o m b i n e d with a fluctuating response of pore pressures to the tide, d e m a n d e d a rapid means of testing the permeability of those soils. Conventional falling head tests were found to be inaccurate for the reasons described below and so a new test and method of analysis was required in order to achieve reliable results. This test procedure was used at the site in July 1982, November 1984 and March 1985.

FIG. 1. Test site with equipment set up.

From CRWPS, J.C., BELL, F.G. & CULSHAW, M.G., (eds), 1986, Groundwater in Engineering Geology, Geological Society Engineering Geology Special Publication No. 3, pp. 263-272

264

J.M.A.

P O N T I N & M. A. F R E N C H

Theory of permeability tests in pressurised boreholes

Incompressible soil theory
The conventional variable head test uses the theory, due to Hvorslev (1951) for an incompressible rigid soil. By conservation, the volume of water entering the soil in time A t is equal to the change in volume of the water column in the borehole. This rate of flow at any time is assumed to be proportional to the product of the head differential and the soil permeability. These two equations allow q (see Appendix for notation) to be eliminated:
qAt = AVw q= FK(hw-h~) = (FK/y~,)(Pw-P~).

The form factor is related in a complex manner to the dimensions of the borehole and boundaries of the soil into which it is inserted. (see British Standard Code 5930: 1981, for example). From Equation (3) the head ratio is reduced to about 37% of the initial value after a time equal to T from the start of the fall in head, t,,. The value of T is proportional to the square of the radius of the falling column and therefore the duration of the test is reduced considerably by smaller radii. For example a borehole with uniform soil flush with the bottom of the casing, diameter D, has a basic time lag approximately equal to
T = nDZl4 x 2.75DK = z t D / l l K .

(8)

(1)

If the change in volume is expressed in terms of h~ then the differential equation can be integrated directly. In a borehole open to the atmosphere this volume is that change in the water column produced during
At: zl Vw = 7trr

= (rr~JT,)Ap,~.

(2)

The change in head, or pressure, toward the equilibrium state at 'infinite' time can then be expressed by
H # H , , = (h~ - h ~ ) ( h , , - h~) = exp - ( t - t o ) i T
or

(3)

For soil permeability 10-6m s-~ and D equal to 200 mm, typical of the laminated clay situation, T is equal to about 16 hour, if the normal casing test is made. In 1 hour the head ratio would fall only to 94% of the initial value. This is obviously impractical in general and is the reason why the constant head test is normally used for soils of lower permeability. From Equation (4) the diameter of a standpipe extension to the borehole that would produce a specified head ratio of 0.37 after 15 minutes (a 'rapid test') after the initial (Maximum) value is in fact about 25 mm with a permeability of 10-6m s -l in an isotropic soil. For the laminated clay series the permeability was undoubtedly anisotropic with the horizontal value expected to be more than 10 times the vertical. When this factor is introduced the time lag equation is modified to:
T = ztD/11Kin

Pw/P,, = (Pw - p=)/(P,, - p=) = exp - (t - t,,)/T

where
Km= X/K~Kh

where T is the 'basic time lag' defined by

T = nr%/FK T= y~V/FK

(9)

(4)

for head and pressure respectively. We have introduced two factors, defined physically by
F = q/KH,~ = y,at/KP,~. V = qAt/Ap~ = qAt/ywAh~

(5) (6)

and the standpipe diameter needed for a 'rapid' test reduced to less than 15 mm. A new approach was therefore developed by recognising that the same effect can be produced by making A Vw Very small in the basic Equation (2). This can be achieved if the volume entering the soil is derived by water expanding from a fixed volume, V,,, which is pressurised above the ambient groundwater pressure in the borehole. The definition of volume compressibility for water,
cw = ( a

which are the form or shape factor F, the rate of flow per unit head difference into soil of unit permeability and the volume factor V, the volume of flow per unit change in pressure in the borehole. The latter is independent of permeability and is expressed by
V = Jtr~e/y~. Groundwater in Engineering Geology, London, 1986

v~/vOap~

(lO)

is substituted into the basic Equations (1) with the result that the basic time lag is now expressed by
T = CwVwyw/FK

(7)

(11)

RAPID PERMEABILITY

TESTING

265

if the expansion and contraction of the volume containing the pressurised water are assumed to be negligible. With the numerical values above and a borehole depth, d, of 20 m the 0.37 head ratio would be achieved after a time
T = zt d D Cwyw/llKr,.

(12)

with C~ = 4.65 x 10-1~ m 2 N -~ and y., = 9920 N m -3 (for sea water), this is evaluated to be 16.6 seconds. The advantage of using a pressurised system is apparent on the basis of this principle applied to an incompressible soil.

(b) the stratum is extensive (infinite) and uniform; (c) the inertia of the water column is negligible. In the groundwater and oil industries tests of this kind are called 'slug tests'. It is well known that the method is reliable for finding an estimate of the mean horizontal permeability in the vicinity of the borehole; actually this is the 'borehole transmissivity' equal to K,I. The reliability of the estimate of storativity and vertical compressibility, m~, is not so certain according to Papadopulos et al. (1973). An extension of this test for the pressurised borehole condition was suggested very recently by Bredehoeft & Papadopulos (1980), to be used in testing strata of very low permeability at great depth. The motive was to reduce the duration of the test period. With the assumptions above the formal solution for instantaneous pressurisation is now expressed by
H ~ H o = F2 (a, fl)

(14)

Compressible soil theory

In site investigation work the accepted method of in situ permeability testing of compressible strata is by the constant head method applied through hydraulic piezometers. The theory is due to Gibson (1963, 1966) but is limited to short filter sections in reasonably isotropic soils. For cylindrical piezometers, or boreholes with high length to diameter ratio, in well-stratified soils, whose horizontal permeability exceeds the vertical by more than 5, another theory can be used. This is the finite-well theory developed quite recently in groundwater hydraulics, hitherto neglected in soil mechanics practice. The theory was developed in a series of papers by Papadopulos et al. (1967, 1967, 1973) in the US Geological Survey. On the basis of this theory the head ratio varies after an instantaneous change in the water level of a finite well, radius r,., according to
H,,~q-lo = FI (a, fl)

where now
a = few m d / V + C w , fl = nKdt/V+C+7+

and the function F2 is identical to F1 with these parameters. We can note that the pressurised solution is obtained from the open borehole form by making the substitution
nrs = vwcw~w

(15)

(13)

where
a = r J y w m d / r c 2, fl = Khlt/r 2

and F1 is an infinite integral which is tabulated by Papadopulos & Cooper (1967). The other symbols are defined in the Notation. The 'effective' or virtual radius of the well is not necessarily equal to the physical bored radius, rw, or the radius of casing wherein the fall of water level occurs. The solution was developed with the following assumptions: (a) the flow from the borehole is radial and sensibly uniform from the filter length, I;

which was developed above for the incompressible soil theory. The permeability and compressibility are found from a 'type curve' comparison with measured data which is described in detail by Bredenhoeft & Papadopulos (1980). However, in the testing of the laminated clays, the application of Equation (14) to test data produced unrealistic results for these coefficients. The reason was that the mathematical assumptions used to derive this equation were not satisfied physically in the test operation. The most important departure appeared to be the failure to achieve a satisfactory approximation to instantaneous pressurisation, i.e. the period of rising pressure to the maximum value was too long. During this period water was being injected into the soil in relatively large quantity compared to the zero value assumed by the mathematical description of the process. To compensate for this effect we have developed a new approach for a well of finite diameter. This will now be described, and called the 'HR method'.
Groundwater in Engineering Geology, London, 1986

266

J.M.A. PONTIN & M. A. FRENCH where

uw'=re/4cJ ', t' = t - t o

Theory of the HR method

During the injection period, to, the rate of discharge into the borehole and adjacent soil is kept constant. The head inside the borehole is then described by
H~ = (O/4:tKhl) F(u.,, a)

(16)

This equation can be simplified in two stages to provide a very convenient form for data analysis. It has been established from tabulation that if t > 250 'r2'/Khl = tc

where
u~ = r~Z/4cvt, ot = r~ZmJ/ VwC.~y~

then

and cv is the coefficient of consolidation for horizontal radial flow from the well. Equation (16) is a 'pressurised' form of the solution presented in (14), with the substitution, Equation (15). In addition, account has been taken of the non-rigidity of the borehole system, so that C,, has been replaced by C~, the 'system compressibility'. C~ can be calculated by considering the borehole design and material properties. The residual head difference after injection has ended is expressed by superimposing an image well in the normal manner
H~' = H w ( t ) - Hw (t')

r(u~, . ) = W(u~)
where W(u~) is the well (Theis) 'non-leaky' groundwater flow. In the inequality we have used function for

' r / ' = V~C~,./Jt

for the pressurised version. Also, if u,, < 0.05 then

= (0/4 ~tKhl) [F(uw, et) - F(uw', a)]

(17)

W(uw) ~ - ) ' - In uw.

Borehote filled with water, shut-in and Start pumping-in Stop pumping. pressure left to shut-in borehole equaUse -ith 1 1 ambient - - - , For f > it. pressure rise follows Theis function _ ~ _ Theis function ~1"~"

Excess head decays - - - -,~

.... Hv (tl

extrapolated

Hwltl Variation in head [/ without test // i)actuat el)extrapolated l~

[
I

~
~

]
I

HI m

",J'

L[

"l'"'

For t a~l t' t='ge. .,, is ~',portionat

1 t:O
L

= _~imet

I
tc to

~*im,

r'
*'"

FIG. 2. Head variation in borehole.

Groundwater in Engineering Geology, London, 1986

RAPID PERMEABILITY

TESTING

267

When these approximations, valid if t and t' are sufficiently large, are substituted into Equation (17) a very simple equation is obtained, viz:
Hw' = (O/4ztKhl) In (t/t')

10-well casing /.05 ram.

(18)

12-I&-~ tS--

cement bentonite

Thus when the residual pressurised head is plotted against log (t/t') the data should ultimately fall on a straight line through the origin. The slope of this line provides the estimate of Kh. The compressibility can also be found, not directly from this line, but in the following way from the pressurising period. During pressurisation, for t > t~,
~22

cernenl bentonite PFA bentordte

IB--

'Hydrotec' screen 250 Fm mesh plezometer sond litter 350 mm. nominal

--

t50 mm.

Hw = (Q/4ztKhl) W(uw)

(19)
I 2~;-t-

At the end of the injection period t = to the value of W can therefore be calculated and the value of the argument, uw, found from tables of the function. The compressibility is then computed from
cv = r J ~ 4u
w.o

bentonite
~26 "O --

28-r 30--

'Hydrolec' screen 250 Fm. mesh

piezometer s~nd filter

to

32 m m v = Kh/)'w Cv 34----m~l-~-~-

end of borshoie

where the nominal well radius is used. If the soil permeability is altered by constructing the filter section the effective radius will be either more or less than rw. A first approximation is to assume that the degree of alteration is small. The permeability value is not dependent on which radius is used.

FIG. 3. Construction of test borehole. TABLE 1. Construction details of pressurisation boreholes. Borehole 1982 200 25.0 150 14.0 7.25 Nov i 984 350 33.2 150 16.7 7.2 26.7 5.1

Borehole design and construction

The possibility of performing pressurisation tests in normal borehole casing, examining the soil over a short, uncased length at the bottom of the hole, was considered but rejected for the following reasons: (a) cleaning the bottom of a borehole is a notoriously difficult operation in clay strata. (b) ordinary casing joints are liable to leak (c) it could not be guaranteed that the laminated clay would not squeeze into the uncased section (d) the permeability determined for the tested volume would be influenced by vertical flow from the hole and not horizontal flow alone. For these reasons, special boreholes were designed incorporating well-screen and filter sand, and using careful drilling techniques. Details of dimensions are given in Table 1 and the design of the pressurisation borehole used in the November 1984 tests is illustrated in Fig. 3. To drill the hole, casing was advanced to the top of the strata to be tested. Boring was then continued to the bottom of the hole by the reverse circulation method using a 350 mm drill bit.

Diameter of boring (mm) Depth of boring (mm) Diameter of screen (mm) Upper filter Lower filter Depth to top (m) length (m) Depth to top (m) length (m)

Well screen, 150 mm Hydrotec screen with a 250 ~tm fabric filter, was installed in the hole. As Fig. 3 illustrates, the 1984 well was designed for testing 2 different strata. The two screened sections were surrounded by piezometer sand filters which were placed by tremmie pipe and with sodium tripolyphosphate added to the flush water to disperse clay caked to the face of the exposed deposits. After completing tests on the whole length of the well, it was grouted up to cover the lower screened section and more tests were carried out on the upper screened length alone. In this way, it was possible to
Groundwater in Engineering Geology, London, 1986

268

J, M. A. PONTIN & M. A. FRENCH

determine the permeability of both of the tested strata. During the 1982 tests, only one screened section was used. The top of the well string, with a screw thread, was left standing about a metre above bed level so as to permit work to be carried out at low tide.

Equipment
The equipment used is illustrated schematically in Figs 1,4,5,6 & 7. The most important condition assumed in the analysis, which the equipment was designed to satisfy is that the flow rate into the well during the pressurisation stage should be constant. In addition it is clearly important to perform several tests on each section and so a means is required of achieving various flow rates each of which is, nevertheless, constant during a test. As a check on the pressurisation method, provision was made for carrying out a conventional falling head test and a short-duration pumping test at the same time. Electricity was provided at 110 Volts by a 2.5kVA Model 25P Knylor generator driven by a Petter AB1 4.5HP diesel engine. This was used to power the pump, a Mono G H Pump coupled to a Var Spe variable speed unit, the flowmeters and lighting for night work. For the pressurisation stage, water was pumped from a supply (two 250 I capacity barrels) through a strainer and in-line filter, then via a 'circuit board' to the well, which was capped by a 'top-hat' and was therefore sealed. The circuit-board was found to be a convenient way of mounting various pieces of equipment which are required for accurate control and measurement. These are:

F]o. 4. Borehole sealed by 'top hat'.

Pressure gauge
(:.art " "T F

[~
":"

.....
_____ 3-way valve

-"?

~_.
'T' '

I I~

On-off valves

k.._._~

..Q)
0 FLow regulator

~'~

..__J:i~i._.._ ""Ax"r'~i] ' ' x ' "

to waste . . . ~ ) , , . Z

Y)

Borehote

_- "J

.....
Press?re ~
9 _ -

In-line filter

[ fT f~ Honopump

~[
f~:
.

/[,

Flowmeter

L
~--'it
Water

Pressurising circuit

--

$creene~ sechon

~ ~

~,l ~

IE~.~ ~

IE~_--:-::_---~! I : ~ ~

_..

Pumping-out

drcuif

.....

. reservoir

srramer

]
FIG. 5. Schematic diagram of equipment.

Groundwater in Engineering Geology, London, 1986

RAPID PERMEABILITY TESTING

269

The borehole pressure was measured accurately by a rapid response strain-gauge pressure transducer supported by a cable at a fixed depth in the borehole. The pressure was recorded by a multi-speed pen recorder and displayed also in digital form.

Test method
Access to the site was achieved by loading equipment into a boat and foating out on the ebbing tide. The boat settled out at low tide and provided a clean working area. The well was first flushed out by pumping water down to the bottom and allowing it to overflow for some 20 minutes. In the most recent tests (March 1985) some development was carried out by alternate pumping and recharging of the well. This was done a day before testing commenced, in order to allow full recovery. A falling head test was performed and then the series of pressurisation tests as follows: (a) Pump watcr in to borehole and allow overflow until air is removed. Adjust flow by varying pump speed and flow regulator setting until desired flow rate is achieved. (b) Shut-in borehole and leave until pressure equalises with ambient. (c) Pump in water at a constant rate. (d) Stop pumping and shut-in borehole. Observe head decay. (e) Repeat (c) and (d) 2 or 3 times once head has decayed to near ambient, varying the injection rate. This was followed by a short-duration (about 1 hour) pumping-out test where the well was pumped to the list of the pump suction and the quasi-steady state flow thus produced was measured. During the pressurisation tests, it was important to observe certain conditions, namely the time limits described in the theory and also the avoidance of hydraulic fracture. This latter phenomenon was reported by Bjerrum et al. (1972) to occur in clay soils during constant head permeability tests using small drive-in piezometers. Experiment and analysis suggest that this will occur if the applied excess pressure, Au exceeds the effective horizontal or vertical stress of the soil. In that case, cracking of the soil may occur leading to a marked increase in local permeability. Hydraulic fracture was avoided by calculating an upper limit on the applied excess pressure and not exceeding this value. A test suite such as that described above, comprising a falling head test, 3 or 4 pressurisation tests and an approximately hour long pumping out test was completed over one low tide period of about 5 hours. The work required two operators, partly due to the heavy equipment and party to the need for haste because of the tide.
Groundwater in Engineering Geology, London, 1986

FIG. 6. Flow regulator and flow meter.

FIG. 7. Chart recorder. A Flostat Type V automatic flow regulator, which performed well in maintaining a steady rate of water injection into the borehole against the varying well pressure. (b) Two Litre Metre MM flowmeters, one for the pressurising circuit and one for pumping-out. These incorporate an orifice plate which causes a small flow to be diverted from the mainstream. This flow is measured by a Pelton Wheel and so indicates the total discharge, which is shown on a digital display. The flow range chosen was 1-65 l/min, displayed to the nearest 0.1 l/min. (c) A pressure gauge, for approximate measurement of borehole pressure. These were connected by Hi-flex high pressure hose. Three-way control valves, quick release couplings and on-off valves were also used. Since the pumped water was brackish, all metal parts were of stainless-steel to avoid corrosion. (a)

270

J.M.A.

PONTIN

& M. A. FRENCH

TABLE 2. Summary of pressurisation tests.

Borehole

1982

1984 both sections 2 1.3 17.0 9.9 1 4.0 12.0 6.30 2 4.1 10.0 7.75
1

1984 upper section

2 3

Test Pressurising period (minutes) Declining period (minutes) Max. excess head above ambient (m) Excess head at end of test (m) Injection rate (1/min)

1 1.5 21.0 9.7

8.5 12.0 4.29

8.5 10.9 5.76

9.5 11.5 7.15

0.17 20

0.17 20

0.35 3.75

0.09 5.35

0.20 1.9

0.70 2.75

0.98 3.85

Analysis and results

Theory predicts that values of H,, plotted against log (t/t') should ultimately fall on a straight line and Fig. 8 is an example of how this was indeed so in all of the tests. It is clear however that the values of Hw needed
m

6
i:

I I m

I I 0

S
t

I I

8 m

mO

:o
m m

*0

__.
I

i0 0

o I 1
II

I 9

~ , ,,,,~1 10 t/t"

I I IIlI

IO0

FIG. 8. Graph of Hw against log (t/t').

for plotting are not simply the same as the reading, h, produced by the transducer. This is because the reference head in the well is not constant due partly to the fluctuating response of the ambient pore water pressure to the tide, and primarily to the effect of head decay from any previous tests. Referring to Fig. 2, it can be seen that the reference head measured before the test must therefore be extrapolated in order to provide a value of Hw. Results were calculated as described in the theory and are quoted here for the 1982 tests and for the upper section of the 1984 tests. These are of interest because the same soil stratum, the laminated clays, was tested in both cases and because a later major pumping-test provides a comparison for the values obtained. Results for the more recent tests have not been published. Table 3 summarises the results. The value obtained for the coefficient of permeability, Kh is remarkably consistent both between successive tests at different flow rates on the same borehole, and between the 1982 and 1984 boreholes. These values, however, are approximately 1/8.5 of that derived from the later full-scale pumping test. It should be noted that the well used for that test was of more sophisticated design than the pressurisation wells, and that it had been extensively developed. The value calculated for compressibility, my, is, as mentioned, sensitive to the effective well radius used in calculations. Thus Table 3 gives a range of values for m,,, based on the two extremes of using the bored radius of the hole and the radius of the well screen. For this reason it is felt that the test will predict compressibility to within a factor of 10, and this is indeed the evidence of the results in Table 3.

Groundwater in Engineering Geology, London, 1986

RAPID PERMEABILITY TESTING TABLE 3. Comparison of results from various test methods. Borehole Test Kh (107m/s) pressurisation test falling head test* major pumping test mv (m2/MN) pressurisation test falling head test* major pumping test *by Gibson (compressible) method. 0.20-0.36 0.0012 0.034 0.170.31 0.020.11 1 3.0 2.5 26 0.0220.12 0.0250.14 1982 2 3.0 l 2.7 1984 upper section 2 3.1 3 3.5

271

Conclusion
The H R pressurisation test has been used to predict permeability to within an order of magnitude of that determined by a large scale pumping test. This has been achieved using a well which was far cheaper than the pumping well and which, significantly, was not developed. Had the pressurisation well been developed (as in the more recent tests) it would clearly have yielded a value for permeability closer to that of the main well. Compressibility was also predicted to within a factor of 10 and it is felt that this margin of error may be typical for values of compressibility measured by this test. The H R method has the advantage over a full-scale pumping test of speed and low cost. Its superiority over conventional falling head tests lies partly in the construction of a special borehole, allowing clear definition of the section being tested and reducing problems of smearing etc, but above all in the consistency between test method and analysis. Results obtained from tests to date have produced reasonable estimates of permeability and compressibility (and hence diffusivity). More trials would lead to still more understanding of the reliability of the method.

References
BISHOP, A.W. & AL-DHAHIR, Z.A., 1970. Some comparisons between laboratory tests, in situ tests and full-scale performance with special reference to soil permeability and coefficient of consolidation. Proceedings of the Conference on In Situ Investigations in Soils and Rocks, London, 251.

BJERRUM, L. NASH, J.K.T.L., KENNARD, R.M. & GIBSON, R.E., 1972. Hydraulic fracturing in field permeability testing. Geotechnique, 22,319. BRAND, E.W. & PREMCHITI', J. 1980. Shape factors of cylindrical piezometers. Geotechnique, 32, 203. BRAND, E. W. & PREMCHITT,J. 1982. Response characteristics of cylindrical piezometers. Geotechnique, 32,203. BREDEHOEFT, J.D. & PAPADOPULOS, S.S. 1980. A method for determining the hydraulic properties of tight formations. Water Resources Research 16(1), 223. BRITISH STANDARDSINSTITUTION 1981. Code of practice for site investigations BS5930. COOPER, H.H., BREDEHOEFT, J.D. & PAPADOPULOS, S.S., 1967. Response of a finite diameter well to an instantaneous charge of water. Water Resource Research, 3, 263. DOMENICO, P.A. & MIFFLIN, M.D., 1965. Water from low permeability sediments and land subsidence. Water Resource Research, l, 563. GIBSON, R.E., 1963. An analysis of system flexibility and its effect on time-lag in pore water pressure measurements. Geotechnique, 13, 1. GIBSON, R.E., 1966. A note on the constant head test to measure soil permeability in situ. Geotechnique 16, 256. HVORSLEV, M.J., 1951. Time lag and soil permeability in groundwater observations. Waterways Experimental Station US Corps of Engineers Vicksburg, Miss. Bull No 36. NEUZIL, C.E. 1982. On conducting the modified 'slug' test in tight formations. Water Resource Research 18(2), 439. PAPADOPULOS, S.S., BREDEHOEFT, J.D. & COOPER, H.H., 1973. On the analysis of 'slug test' data. Water Resource Research 9, 1987. PAPADOPULOS, S.S. & COOPER, H.H. 1967. Drawdown in a well of large diameter, Water Resource Research 3, 241.

J.M.A. PONTIN & M.A. FRENCH Groundwater Section, Hydraulics Research Limited, Wallingford, Oxfordshire OX10 8BA. Groundwater in Engineering Geology, London, 1986

272

J.M.A.

P O N T I N & M. A. F R E N C H

Appendix: Notation
Cv

= KJy,,.,rnv, coefficient of consolidation for horizontal flow

system compressibility

c~
d D F

compressibility of groundwater depth of borehole casing depth of borehole filter, diameter of borehole form or shape factor for piezometers finite well functions defined in references
= z + pd7,,,, hydraulic head in well or piezometer at some or infinite time after start of test

F, F,,F2
hw, h~ Ho, H ~

excess head in well or piezometer above ambient at infinite time, at the start or during equalisation coefficient of permeability, horizontal or vertical length of borehole filter = A e / ( l + e ) A p ' , coefficient of volume compressibility pressure in well or piezometer at some or infinite time excess pressure in well or piezometer above ambient at infinite time, at the start or during equalisation rate of flow from well or piezometer injection or discharge rate from well radius of borehole casing or standpipe radius of borehole time from start of injection, time from end of injection injection

K, K,,,K,,
!
my

P~,P~

Po, P~
q Q rc
rw

t, t'

T
Uw

basic time lag (Hvorslev) a parameter defined in text volume factor of piezometer volume of water in well or piezometer

w(u)
a, fl Y~

well function for non-leaky aquifers (Theis) parameters of the finite well functions, defined in test unit weight of groundwater

Groundwater in Engineering Geology, London, 1986