Introductionandbackground

CE304
2011 Prof. Sven Nordholm 1
Communications Engineering
304
2004 Prof. Sven Nordholm 2
Important points
Fourier transforms
Correlations and spectrum
Linear modulation and angle modulation
modeling
Digital Communication
Communications Engineering
304
2004 Prof. Sven Nordholm 3
Communication Process
Communication is an information transfer process
in space and time from a source to a destination.
Communications Engineering
304
2004 Prof. Sven Nordholm 4
Modulation Process
Modulation is a process which involves systematically varying
some parameter of a carrier wave in accordance with the
modulating signal and it is required to be reversible.
Communications Engineering
304
2004 Prof. Sven Nordholm 5
Continuous-wave Modulation
Carrier wave
cos(2 )
c c
A f t t
A modulating signal
Amplitude-modulated signal
( ) m t
( )
1 ( ) cos(2 )
c m c
A k m t f t t +
Frequency-modulated signal
0
cos 2 2 ( )
t
c c f
A f t k m d t t t t
(
+
(

}
Communications Engineering
304
2004 Prof. Sven Nordholm 6
The Fourier Transform
Let g(t) denote a non-periodic deterministic signal, expressed as
some function of t. The Fourier transform G(f) of the signal g(t) is
defined by the integral
where j is equal to the square root of 1, and the variable f denotes
frequency. The original signal g(t) is recovered from its transform
G(f) by the inverse Fourier transform:
( ) ( )
2 j ft
G f g t e dt
t

=
}
( ) ( )
2 j ft
g t G f e df
t

=
}
Communications Engineering
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2004 Prof. Sven Nordholm 7
Notation
A shorthand notation for a Fourier transform pair is
In general, the Fourier transform G(f) is a complex function of f
( ) ( )
g t G f
( )
( )
( )
j f
G f G f e
u
=
Continuous amplitude spectrum of g(t)
Continuous phase spectrum of g(t)
( ) G f
( ) f u
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2004 Prof. Sven Nordholm 8
A Real-valued Signal g(t)
For a real-valued signal g(t), we have
where asterisk denotes complex conjugation. Then the amplitude
spectrum of the signal is an even whereas the phase spectrum of the
signal is an odd function of the frequency, i.e.
( ) ( )
*
G f G f =
( ) ( ) G f G f =
( ) ( ) f f u u =
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2004 Prof. Sven Nordholm 9
Frequency Shifting
Let
( ) ( )
g t G f
( ) ( )
2
c
j f t
c
g t e G f f
t
Then
Dual of time shifting;
The idea behind the AM suppressed carrier modulation as
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 2
1
cos 2
2
1 1
2 2
c c
j f t j f t
c
c c
g t f t g t e e
G f f G f f
t t
t

(
= +

+ +
Communications Engineering
304
2004 Prof. Sven Nordholm 10
Multiplication in the time domain
Let
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 2 2
, g t G f g t G f
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
g t g t G G f d

The multiplication of two signals in the time domain is transformed

into the convolution of their individual Fourier transforms.
Then
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Multiplication in the frequency domain
Let
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 2 2
, g t G f g t G f
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
g g t d G f G f t t t

}

This fundamental relationship defines the operation of a filter, or any
other linear system.
Then
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Rayleighs Energy Theorem
The total energy of a signal g(t) is defined by
( )
2
E g t dt

=
}
The integrand is the energy intensity that varies with time.
known as the Rayleighs Energy Theorem;
only need to know the amplitude spectrum.
( ) ( )
2 2
E g t dt G f df


= =
} }
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2004 Prof. Sven Nordholm 13
Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a signal provides a measure of the extent of
significant spectral content of the signal for positive frequencies.
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null-to-null bandwidth
When the spectrum is symmetric with a main lobe bounded by
well-defined nulls, i.e. frequencies at which the spectrum is zero.
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3-dB bandwidth
If the signal is low-pass, it is defined as the separation between
zero frequency, where the amplitude spectrum attains its peak
value, and the positive frequency at which the amplitude spectrum
drops to of its peak value.
1 2
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root mean square bandwidth
The root mean square (rms) bandwidth of a signal is defined as the
square root of the second moment of a properly normalized form of
the squared amplitude spectrum of the signal about a suitably
chosen point.
The rms bandwidth of a low-pass signal g(t) with Fourier
transform G(f) is given by
( )
( )
12
2
2
rms
2
f G f df
W
G f df

| |
|
=
|
\ .
}
}
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Time-Bandwidth Product
For any family of signals that differ by a time-scaling factor,
the product of the signals duration and its bandwidth
is always constant, as shown by
The rms duration of a low-pass signal g(t) with Fourier transform
G(f) is given by
( )
( )
12
2
2
rms
2
t g t df
T
g t df

| |
|
=
|
\ .
}
}
( ) ( )
duration bandwidth constant =
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where and
Fourier Series
Let be a periodic function with period T
0
. Then can
be expressed as an infinite sum of complex exponentials as
0 0
1 f T =
( )
0
T
g t
( ) ( )
0
0
exp 2
T n
n
g t c j nf t t

=
=

( ) ( )
0
0
0
2
0
2
0
1
exp 2
T
n T
T
c g t j nf t dt
T
t

=
}
( )
0
T
g t
f
0
is the fundamental frequency and has components only at
the harmonics of the fundamental frequency.
( )
0
T
g t
0 0 0
0, , 2 , 3 , f f f
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Fourier Transform of Periodic Signals
( )
( )
0
0 0
,
2 2
0, elsewhere
T
T T
g t t
g t

s s

( ) ( )
0
0 T
m
g t g t mT

=
=

( ) ( ) ( )
0 0 0 0
exp 2
n
c f g t j nf t dt f G nf t

= =
}
( ) ( ) ( )
0
0 0 0
exp 2
T
m
g t f G nf j nf t t

=
=

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Ideal Sampling Function
( ) ( )
0 0 0
m m
t mT f f nf o o

= =

( ) ( )
0
0 T
m
t t mT o o

=
=

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Transmission through Linear Systems
A system refers to any physical device that produces an output
signal in response to an input signal, i.e. a response to an excitation.
A system refers to any physical device that produces an output
signal in response to an input signal, i.e. a response to an excitation.
In a linear system, the principle of superposition holds.
A filter refers to a frequency selective device.
A communication channel, operating at its linear region, refers to a
transmission medium that connects the transmitter and the receiver.
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Time Response
In the time domain,
a linear system is described in terms of its impulse response.
The output is obtained through the convolution or FT.
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) y t x h t d Y f X f H f t t t

= =
}
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System Bandwidth
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Sinusoidal Functions
( ) ( )
cos 2
c
g t f t t =
( ) ( ) ( )
1
2
c c
G f f f f f o o = + + (

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
G sgn
sgn
2
1
2
c c
c c
f j f G f
j
f f f f f
f f f f
j
o o
o o
=
= + + (

= + (

( ) ( )
sin 2
c
g t f t t =